Behaviour and information technology, 1999, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 141-147.
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED
COMMUNICATION IN RUSSIA
Olga Arestova, PHD, Associate Professor of Psychology Department, Moscow State University.
Mailing Address: Molodogvardeyskaya 8-102, Moscow 121467 Russia. Telephon: +7 (095)
264-0548 Fax: +7 (095) 939-2319.
E-mail: olga@motiv.cogsci.msu.su
Leonid Babanin, Senior Lecturer of Psychology Department, Moscow State University. Mailing
Address : Proizvodstvennaya 1-1-48 Moscow 119619 Russia
Telephon: +7 (095) 439-5652 Fax: +7 (095) 939-2319
E-mail: leo@motiv.cogsci.msu.su
Alexander Voiskounsky, PHD, Senior Reseacher of Psychology Department of Moscow State
University.Mailing Address: N.Kislovsky 8/2 - 22
103009 Moscow Russia
Telephon: +7 (095) 291-9751 Fax: +7 (095) 939-2319
E-mail: vae@motiv.cogsci.msu.su
1
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION IN
RUSSIA
Arestova, O., Babanin, L., Voiskounsky, A.
Abstract
The article is devoted to the earliest Russian research carried out in the computermediated communication field. The most important modern directions of psychological
research in computer mediated-communication field in Russia also are described.
The first research direction deals with the educational effects of children and adults
participation in the computer-mediated communication.
The newest direction of psychological and sociological research is concentrated on
analysing the dynamics of the networks’ users population growth and change.
This project is also devoted to the psychological results of computer-mediated
communication. The structure of human activity, its orientation basis, emotional and
motivational regulation were investigated.
A special series of investigations is devoted to the gender differences in computer
networking in Russia.
The trends of future research the computer-mediated communication field is also
described.
2
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED
COMMUNICATION IN RUSSIA
1. DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER NETWORKS IN THE FORMER
USSR AND IN RUSSIA
Global and local computer networks appeared in 1960s and since then have transformed human
interaction and communication. The first systematic investigations in the computer-mediated
communication field were done in the 1970s (Hiltz and Turoff 1978). It was impossible to
conduct such investigations in the former Soviet Union. The official reason given it was
technically impossible to establish access to international global computer networks. In fact there
were some limited technical possibilities for this process, as confirmed by the National Centre
for International Data Exchange.
This Centre was set up by the Institute of Automated Systems, USSR Academy of Sciences and
provided access to remote information sources for a limited population of users. The users
comprised the main libraries, scientific institutes, political and international organizations. The
majority of users had no previous access to international networks primarily due to political
rather then technical causes. The then political establishment was concerned to limit rather than
extend communication links between the Soviet people and the external world. The politics of
the “iron curtain” predetermined the impossibility of communication by computer network and
thus, psychological or sociological investigations of computer-mediated communications were
not considered relevant. Research conducted in the field during the 1980s was restricted to the
analysis of local area networks and episodic access to the international newsgroups (Tikhomirov
et al. 1986, Voiskounsky 1987).
Global computer networks came to life in the former USSR only in the 1990s. The networks
were the results of the efforts of various independent groups of computer scientists and
enthusiastic programmers (Relcom and FIDONet), state organizations (ROSPAC, RELARN,
RUNNET) and the direct intervention of international computer networks (Sprint). Some
computer networks are the result of international co-operation between Russian organizations
and state (Radio-MSU) or commercial foreign organizations (Glasnet, SOVAM TELEPORT).
Foreign national (American, German) and international foundations (NATO, ISF, INTAS, IREX,
Carnegie Corporation) have also assisted in the development of computer networks in Eastern
Europe. The current status of and development prospects for post-Soviet computer networks
3
have been debated at conferences held in Moscow (Research Networking in Russia and Other
NATO Partners 1994, Distance Learning and New Technologies in Education 1994).
Global computer networks have emerged and developed in Russia over a relatively short period.
At the beginning of 1990 an American researcher noted the fact of Relcom’s connection to the
Internet (Press 1991). In the mid-1990s another American author counted the number of users of
the main global Russian networks (McHenry 1994). According to his results, at the beginning of
1994 there were some 300 000 computer network users in Russia. In fact, there are even more
users than these since the author did not take into account some networks and BBSs (FIDONet,
for example). By 1997, the estimated amount of global networks’ users in Russia was more than
one million.
Computer networks in Russia have developed hand in hand with the market economy and have
reflected the political and economic situation in the country. The largest Russian network
Relcom is a typical example (Voiskounsky 1998a). Relcom was created as a means of
communication for professional computer programmers. Lacking financial support, Relcom also
developed as a business enterprise. Commercial activity soon became a necessary condition of its
functioning. Special administrative and advertising activities were undertaken to attract the
business users. As a result, Relcom users vary greatly in their professions, interests and activities
(thus differing from the users of specialized foreign and Russian networks - commercial,
educational, scientific, political) (Arestova et al. 1993). Relcom today is a truly universal
network that provides access to the Internet for users in Russia and in other independent states
formerly belonging to the USSR.
2. THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS IN RUSSIAN PSYCHOLOGY AS A
BASIS OF INVESTIGATION IN THE FIELD OF COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONS
Research in the field follows a traditional concern in Russian psychology problem: investigation
of mediated forms of behaviour and this particular line of research has been associated with the
major findings in Soviet and Russian developmental and cognitive studies.
The investigation of mediated forms of behaviour belongs to a Russian tradition in psychological
research (Wertsch 1991, Cole 1996). Physical objects and sign systems that mediate activity of
4
any kind form the basis of human specific behaviour. Both physical and mental sign systems
having been internalized form the higher levels of mental functions (thinking, memory, etc.).
This theory was created and proven by L.Vygotsky (Vygotsky 1962, 1978), author of a culturalhistorical theory of mental development. Vygotsky emphasized that the higher mental functions
have a social origin and that their development is based on joint actions and interpersonal
communications.
Thus, in its origin individual activity is actually transformed joint (child-adult) activity. As a
result, external and internal (mental) activities have the same structure (Leontiev 1981). External
actions can also be transformed into internal mental actions (Galperin 1976). But in practice
psychologists are mostly interested in internalization mechanisms. This is especially typical for
developmental psychology. However, the importance of studying the externalization mechanism
(e.g. the transformation of internal mental actions to external actions) is frequently
underestimated.
The development of modern information technologies reinforces the importance of
externalization analysis. Information technology development generates a great variety of
external tools mediating human activity. In origin these computer-based tools are highly
developed sign systems. In fact every kind of modern human activity includes external parts and
this is particularly evident in cognitive and management activities. It can be concluded that
modern information technologies modified the leading paradigms of psychological research;
externalization problems are now much closer to the core of psychological investigations than it
was true even a decade ago.
Vygotsky’s follower A.N.Leontiev, author of the original activity theory considered
communication to be a specific kind of activity (Leontiev 1983). The externalization process has
some specific features in communication acts. The socio-historical analysis gives some evidence
to the fact that the development of external tools (channels, sign systems, networks, etc.)
mediating human communication is a rapidly accelerating process.
Throughout the world psychologists recognise the priority given by Vygotsky to analysis of
mediated forms of activity (Vygotsky 1962, 1978). The psychologists studying the computermediated communication also confirm this priority. This point of view is expressed in numerous
publications (Griffin et al. 1989, Bacalarski 1994, Cole 1996). The research in the field of
computer-mediated communications has become a sphere of active collaboration between
Russian and foreign psychologists (Belyaeva et al. 1991, Cole 1996). The joint activity is
5
devoted to the problems of mediation and remediation; the latter term refers to the changes in the
mediation process – e.g., the transfer from syllabic to alphabetical writing sign systems (Cole and
Griffin 1988, Kharitonov 1988, Griffin et al. 1989). Cooperation between psychologists from
Moscow and California has taken place within the framework of a joint project “Cognition and
Communication” which was conducted over the course of ten years from 1985 to 1994. It can be
cited as a good example of how international cooperation can solve important psychological
issues not limited by national borders.
3. GENERAL DIRECTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH IN THE
FIELD OF COMPUTER- MEDIATED COMMUNICATION IN RUSSIA
Being quite a new experience in Russia, psychological research into computer networking has a
very short history. Moreover, there are no standards to evaluate the human performance in group
support systems (GSS) or in computer-supported collaborative work systems (CSCW). The most
commonly used term in Russia is computer-mediated communication (CMC).
The earliest research carried out in Russia in computer-mediated communication field was
carried out when access to the global networking was still limited. Therefore it was possible to
evaluate local area networks usage only. This research pursued two different goals.
First, it sought to find out and describe the psychological changes caused by the new way of
mediated
communication.
Second,
it
sought
to
investigate
the
computer-mediated
communication speech peculiarities and specifics, as compared to the other forms of speech.
One of the goals was addressed in the mid-1980s (Tikhomirov et al. 1986, Voiskounsky 1987)
when it was shown that the easily noticeable differences between the computer-mediated
communication and other ways of mediated communication (i.e. geographical dispersion of
partners, non-simultaneousness of communication, possibilities for group discussions,
multiplicity of formatting rules, etc.) sometimes mask the new mental formations. Psychological
problems of human-computer interaction were recognized as the technical questions. The
motivations for the choice of the computer-mediated communication were also described. These
motivations include the convenience of a particular communication mode for computer
programmers and end-users; the need to exchange texts or software programs among the
members of remote groups; the possibility of overcoming some anti-communicative personality
6
traits (e.g., shyness), as well as speech or appearance defects; curiosity for the new ways of
information technology usage; the desire to make jokes and play tricks (all the new
communication media are used for mediated tricks); the intention to pass negative messages
(refusals, declinations, etc.) in a mediated rather than face-to-face form. This set of motivations
was valid for innumerous Russian participants of global computer conferences.
As has already been mentioned, one of the leading concepts in Russian psychology is Leontiev’s
activity theory (Leontiev 1981), according to which special activities consist of actions and
operations. As P.Galperin showed, the activity process consisted from different stages. These
stages could be observed both in fylo- and ontogenesis. To say, orientation and motivation was
mentioned as the original stages. To fulfil an action, one needs to start with an orientation in the
situation (Galperin 1976). This is also true for communicative actions. Possible ways of choosing
actual communicative partners mediated by computers and computer networks were investigated
(Tikhomirov et al. 1986, Voiskounsky 1995). It has been stated that the basis for awareness and
orientation has been widened by comparison with orientation in the framework of more
traditional communication media usage. Direct and indirect ways of orientation have a different
nature. The former means to obtain information that this available via access to remote sources
while the latter means suppositions on the competence of a certain would-be partner, his or her
‘talkativeness’ in the newsgroups, etc. In this way, new mediated ways of orientation in a number
of possible and actual communicative partners are emerging in the computer-mediated
communications field.
The investigation of the attitudes of computer-mediated communication users, professional
researchers in science (Voiskounsky 1987) and humanities (Belyaeva et al. 1993) fields was
done. Preferences and barriers in the choice of computer-mediated contacts were determined.
Besides the usual barriers, for example computer anxiety, etc. - some personality traits such as
introversion and the lack of self-confidence make the subjects reject the CMC. Subjects tend to
apply their competence in using various communicative media in the situation of computer
mediation and should be taken into account when initiating the computer-mediated
communication for a new group or sample.
Another goal is concerned with the speech characteristics of the computer-mediated
communication. It has been shown that computer-mediated speech combines the characteristics
of dialogues, monologues and polylogues, of written and oral speech (Voiskounsky 1991, 1992,
1993, 1998b). American researchers (Griffin et al. 1989) first confirmed this mixture of oral and
7
written speech. The influence of the non-native English speakers on English usage in the
computer-mediated communication is been investigated; and conversely, the influence of the
English usage on the native (e.g., Russian) language usage is being traced (Voiskounsky 1993). It
is hypothesized that a kind of ‘Network English‘ will be formed combining some characteristics
of Basic English with elements of the English ‘foreigner talk’.
When access to global networks became a reality, the projects for children’s communication via
computers were initiated. The projects ‘Pilotnet’, ‘World classroom’, ‘5th Dimension’ and others
gained some popularity. Besides this, a considerable number of two-way (i.e. Russian-Western
schools connected) projects have now been initiated (Bogdanova et al. 1993, Telekommunikatzii
v obrazovanii 1993, Telecommunications and Education 1994, Belyaeva et al. 1994). Some highschool students participate in FIDONet echo-conferences and attempts are made to install a
specialized educational Bulletin Board System (BBS) (Patarakin 1993) and educational webresources (Bykhovsky and Yasrebzeva 1998). The educational effects of participation by children
and teenagers in computer-mediated communication are particularly important. The
psychological research is also being conducted. Griffin and Cole (1988) formulate the theoretical
framework for this kind of research: they compare the effects of the involvement of children in
computer-mediated communication to the zone of proximal development – a notion introduced
by Vygotsky (Vygotsky 1962, 1978). It was said that computer telecommunicating children are
being introduced to their future (Griffin and Cole 1988). Babaeva and Voiskounsky published a
detailed review on psychological consequences of the global computer networks usage by
children, and especially gifted and talented ones (Babaeva and Voiskounsky 1996). The analysis
of theoretical and practical problems in the field has been continued in a recent publications
(Babaeva and Voiskounsky 1998).
The investigations carried out by the joint Moscow-Californian research group have been
published elsewhere both in Russian (Belyaeva et al. 1991, 1994) and English (Belyaeva et al.
1992, Cole 1996). The research is based on the correspondence of children with a Wizard that
inhabits the so-called ‘5th Dimension’. Trained psychologists perform the functions of the Wizard
- one dealing with the English-speaking children, the other dealing with the Russian-speaking
children. The idea is to change the educational environment and to bring the educational process
closer to play and to communication. One of the cross-cultural differences lies in the fact that
American and Russian children estimate and assess the Wisards in a slightly different way.
8
New
directions
in
psychological
and
sociological
research
in
computer-mediated
communications field became possible only after global networks became widely available. The
research includes administering the questionnaires to the network users. The project concentrated
primarily on analysing the dynamics of growth and change in the networks’ users population
(Arestova et al. 1993, Voiskounsky et al. 1994, Voiskounsky 1998a). It is proposed that global
networks promote the development of remote communities in the former Soviet Union
(Voiskounsky and Hilton 1995). The project is aimed at installing a remote (virtual) service
bureau for the networks’ users. The most beneficial applications of this sort of service are
defined, and the users’ opinions are analyzed (Arestova et al. 1992).
This research is applied in character, although it is relevant to psychology. It is important to
investigate the ways in which the new mediators influence the structure and functional features
of human activity.
As it is proved, new communicative means essentially transform the
operational structure of human activity, its orientation basis and motivational regulation.
The survey research conducted in the 1990s is of a complex character. It combines psychological
as well as sociological, ergonomical, economical and technical aspects. It is demonstrated that
individual user characteristics influence the structure of computer-mediated communication.
Technical, administrative, social, economical and psychological aspects produce a combined
effect on computer network communication (Arestova et al. 1993). Since 1992 the research
survey has been performed on an annual basis and now has the status of a long-term project.
The data obtained characterise computer networking as a new form of communication media
essentially transforming human activity structure and functioning. Computer-mediated
communication has specific features by comparison with conventional communication. These
features are concerned with the computer network users tolerance, communicative frankness and
confidence.
The main result of the long-time research is that the population of global networks’ users in
Russia (and in some other post-Soviet states, in particular, Ukraine) is stable in its professional
and demographic characteristics, in prevalent interests and opinions expressed and discussed. For
the most part, they are enthusiastic Internet users. The majority uses the e-mail only; although the
number of those using full Internet and WWW services is increasing rapidly. A very small
proportion of the respondents administer Web-sites for their organizations, few of them support
private Web-sites.
9
Computer-mediated communication is regarded as a useful, attractive and significant form of
communication. It can be explained in economic, sociological and psychological terms among
which the problem of communicative deficiency in modern industrial society can be highlighted.
This problem originates in the psychological disintegration prevalent among people in urban
society. It is intensified in Russian society by economical separation and political polarization.
The psychological results of this process are feelings of solitude, isolation, destruction of
communicative links. Computer-mediated communication may decrease these negative
psychological effects.
Computer-mediated communication transforms motivational and emotional aspects of a subject’s
activity. According to Leontiev’s activity theory, every kind of human activity is determined by a
motive and satisfies a specific need. As is shown, communication via computer networks can be
impelled by several kinds of motivation: business, cognition, intellectual and personal selfrealisation, affiliation, communication. Usually, networkers report a polymotivational basis for
their work activities, and the above mentioned motivations form peculiar combinations.
Another research direction in computer-mediated communication field is concerned with
communicative games, mystification and improvisation. These features of computer-mediated
communication suppress psychological defence mechanisms. Having a social origin, ego defence
mechanisms manifest themselves as a personal orientation to express approved opinions, and as a
tendency to correspond with the social norms. Computer-mediated communication participants
feel free from direct external control. Enjoying anonymity to a greater extent than in face-to-face
communication, they let their individuality be projected to a greater extent than would otherwise
be the case, thus increasing the creative components of human communication. Computermediated communication allows the partners to express freely their individual communicative
intentions and behaviour sets.
A special series of investigations is devoted to the gender differences in computer networking in
Russia (Arestova and Voiskounsky 1998). The problem of gender differences in computermediated communication seems to be of a great interest. It has been shown that 10% of Russian
users are female. There are professional differences between male and female users. Twenty-five
percent of female users are researchers and teachers (in comparison with 17% of male users),
21% are professional networkers (47% of male users), 2% - businesswomen (12% of male users).
Nineteen percent of female users are students.
10
Female users are mostly interested in newsgroup discussions on art, literature, culture, religion,
and education. The most popular topics for male users are science, business, and information
technologies.
There is also evidence of motivational differences between male and female Internet users.
Female users make more reference than male users to: motivation of intellectual self-realisation;
recreational motivation; motivation of coping with communicative deficit. On the other hand,
motivation of social self-expression and affiliation is less typical for female users than for males.
Female users usually believe that the Internet leads to the development of human personality.
Business and career aspects of the Internet usage are less typical for female users. Female users
display greater communicative tolerance on the Internet than male users. Female users are
disposed to estimate communicative partners more positively and they are ready to ignore the
mistakes and inadequate behaviour.
It might be concluded that there are significant differences between Russian female and male
Internet users. These differences have demographic, social, professional and psychological
character.
The psychological aspects of gender differences are concerned with motivation,
computer skills, knowledge, personal development and communication sets.
4. TRENDS FOR THE FUTURE RESEARCH
Ongoing work in the computer-mediated communication field includes both applied work and
pure research. The applied research is developing in several directions. First of all, instruction in
the ways of connecting to the Internet needs to be greatly improved. To reach this goal, didactic
principles worked out in the educational psychology should be adequately used to design courses
(printed handbooks, video and multimedia courses) to instruct all the interested people how to
get access to Internet facilities and how to use them productively. Different training courses
should be designed to meet the specific needs of both children and adults. The special courses for
children are necessary to introduce the idea of an open society to the younger generations. The
Internet navigation appears to be a possible way to acquire some habits of using information
sources available in the world community. Such habits are likely to be essential for overcoming
psychological barriers towards an open society.
Other directions of the applied research in the computer-mediated communication field include
the construction of psychologically relevant sources and keeping them up to date as the remote
11
access Internet facilities. These sources may contain bibliographical and reference data. The most
promising actual sources to be cited are: http://www.vygotsky.ru , http://www.nsu.ru/psych/
http://come.to/satin
and
. This applied research may also include the establishing of a psychological
service office for consulting and performing managerial duties related to the computernetworking field. Both the users and administrators of global networks should have easy access
to representatives of the psychological service office to get recommendations and the necessary
data. The service office representatives might build the research instruments (questionnaires,
etc.) and carry out the applied research. It might include monitoring of networkers, i.e. checking
the dynamics of their changes and fixations, obtaining data on any special sample of users,
controlling the demographic characteristics of changing populations of networks’ users, trying to
intervene with possible corrections when message’s exchange becomes aggressive or falls into a
non-friendly tone and style.
The research work might consist of seeking out psychologically relevant peculiarities of the
computer-mediated communication, being as it is, relatively new mediator in human-to-human
contacts. The transformed mediators (remediators) usually influence both the activity performed
and the inner mental processes. This is close to the Vygotskian paradigm, which is perhaps, of all
research in computer-mediated communication the most productive field of study. The new
external tools (both sign systems and material objects) being internalized modify the mental
functioning. The computer-mediated communication research has been already described as ‘a
dialogue with the future’ (Griffin and Cole 1988). Thus, research in the computer-mediated
communication field acquires a slightly futurological dimension.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research is supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research.
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