Thoughts on what students need to learn at school
Summary for discussion purposes
Paper prepared by Melissa Brewerton for the Ministry of Education
October 2004
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those
held by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
Accessed from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/nzcurriculum/references_e.php
© Ministry of Education – copying restricted to use by New Zealand education sector
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PURPOSE
This paper sets out some thinking about the types of learning all students
need, ideally by the time they finish their schooling. This paper is drawn from
a research-based think-piece on the characteristics of a ‘successful’ school
leaver1, and is intended to stimulate debate in relation to the Curriculum
Project, the Secondary Futures Project, Schooling Strategy and other policy
work related to the outcomes of schooling.
INTRODUCTION
In the era of the ‘knowledge society’ and ‘life-long learning’, schooling can be
seen as one part of a life-long journey. However, the expectation that people
will continue learning throughout life in further education and employment
contexts can avoid the question of whether there are particular competencies 2
that all people should develop at school to enable them to continue
successfully on their life journeys after leaving school.
Curriculum review includes an analysis of what a nation wants its citizens to
gain from school and the nature, characteristics and needs of society (Ministry
of Education, 2003:10). There is general consensus internationally and
among New Zealand (NZ) stakeholder groups that students need to leave
school with the learning necessary for making decisions about, and
participating in, further education, work and wider society. Students need this
learning for participation in their current lives as well. However, there is a
range of views about what this learning actually entails.
When looking at what people need to learn for participation in life, we are not
just looking at the nature of society (present or future) into which those
individuals must fit, but also what those individuals can contribute towards
shaping the nature of that society (O’Neill, 1997: 132). Rather than seeing
schooling as a means of shaping young people to fit a particular desirable
‘mould’, schooling can be seen as providing a basis for people to make wellfounded decisions and to be informed and critical participants in a range of life
contexts (Snook, 1996; and Himona, 2000). While some see this as
highlighting the primary importance of key competencies, specific
competencies are just as essential for effective participation in life.
WHAT DO YOUNG PEOPLE NEED TO PARTICIPATE IN LIFE?
What do stakeholders think?
The New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) defines what young people should learn
at school. The Curriculum Project is revising the national curriculum to refine
and clarify the key learning needed by NZ students through essence
1
2
Paper prepared by Melissa Brewerton for the Ministry of Education in October 2004.
See Definitions in Appendix 1
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
Accessed from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/nzcurriculum/references_e.php
© Ministry of Education – copying restricted to use by New Zealand education sector
Page 2 of 20
statements for each Essential Learning Area (ELA) integrated with a
framework of key competencies and overarching principles.
In general, all stakeholders (students, teachers, employers, parents,
government) want students to leave school able to pursue a constructive lifepath, which, they generally suggest, requires a combination of:
o Skills, primarily literacy, communication, teamwork, and numeracy
o Attitudes/values, primarily self belief/esteem, confidence, motivation,
reliability, and positive attitude to learning
o Knowledge.
The order of priority of these components varies according to stakeholder
groups, but in general, attitudes, values and key competencies are seen as
the most important. Work on the Schooling Strategy has suggested that this
may be because knowledge is taken for granted and respondents want to
emphasise the learning which they think does not have sufficient emphasis in
the curriculum (i.e. skills and attitudes/values).
To the extent that the purpose of education is to prepare people for
participation in society, it needs to be remembered that preparation for
participation in Māori society is also required (Durie, 2003).
Māori have
specific goals regarding te reo and tikanga Māori.
What learning do young people need at school, then?
The oft-cited ‘changing world’ argument suggests that since knowledge and
specific skills can become outdated, schools should focus on developing more
adaptable skills and knowledge as ‘process’ rather than content.
Such views tend to undervalue knowledge by:
o Ignoring the importance of knowledge in providing a shared ‘cultural
literacy’ which enables members of a society to communicate and
contribute to society
o Assuming knowledge = ‘facts’ or ‘information’ rather than
‘understanding’ (which does not become outdated)
o Ignoring the importance of knowledge as a basis for further learning
(scaffolding)
o Ignoring the importance of knowledge as content and context for skill
development.
In addition, subject disciplines and ELA cannot be dismissed as arbitrary
bodies of knowledge, as they each provide a particular way of knowing,
thinking, or doing, with their own concepts and methods (Hargreaves, 2004).
Everyone also needs to have a basis of knowledge about the world or a
shared ‘cultural literacy’ to enable them to participate meaningfully in society
(Hirsh in Uchida, 2003). For example, everyone (ideally) needs some
understanding of science and technology to be informed participants in the
debates about genetic engineering. People also need a ‘complex and richly
structured knowledge base’ to support the development of more complex
cognitive and metacognitive competencies and expertise in some area(s) (e.g.
Gillespie, 2002).
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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The concept of ‘competencies’ overcomes, to a certain extent, the debates
about skills versus knowledge by suggesting that skills, knowledge, attitudes
and values are all integrated in performance (OECD, 2003). Competencies
can apply to a wide range of life contexts (key competencies) or a limited
number of contexts (specific competencies). People always use both key and
specific competencies together. Despite the holistic and integrated nature of
competencies, the focus on key competencies can lead to the undervaluation
of specific competencies and associated ‘subjects’ or ELA.
The proposed framework for the New Zealand Curriculum Framework (NZCF)
has interconnected groups of key competencies with the learner, identity,
well-being and belonging at the core. Identity, well-being and belonging are
foundations for learning, as learning is most effective where what students
know, who they are, where they come from, and how they know form the
foundations of interaction in the classroom. This also recognises the
importance of the environment in establishing the conditions for learning.
The key competency groups are interconnected with specific competencies
through the essential learning areas:
Key competencies in the NZCF
MEANINGFUL AND REAL-LIFE LEARNING CONTEXTS
Thinking
Managing
self
LEARNER
ESSENTIAL
LEARNING
AREAS
ESSENTIAL
LEARNING
AREAS
Identity(ies)
Well-being
Belonging
Relating and
participating
Making
meaning
(multiliteracies)
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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The proposed framework of key competencies for the NZCF promotes a lifelong learning model through consistency with Te Whāriki, the proposed NZ
tertiary education framework, and the international framework from the OECD.
Life-long learning framework of key competency groups
for NZ and internationally
Contexts
Te Whāriki
Strands
NZCF
Key
competency
groups
Tertiary
Key
competency
groups
Wellbeing
Belonging
OECD
DeSeCo
Key
competency
groups
Managing self
Acting
autonomously
Acting
autonomously
Learner
in contexts
Contribution
Communication
Exploration
Learner
Identity(ies)
Well-being
Belonging
Learner
Relating and
participating
Making
meaning
Thinking
Individual
Relating to
others
Using tools
Interacting in
groups
Using tools
Thinking (crosscutting)
Critical thinking
(cross-cutting)
Contexts
The importance of contexts for learning
Contexts for learning are important both in relation to the content and
application of learning, and engagement in the learning process (including
pedagogy).
All competencies are context dependent to a certain extent, not just specific
competencies. Key competencies take different forms in different contexts,
including different cultural contexts (e.g. Hager, 1997:13-14). For example,
‘relating to others’ will be quite different in a hierarchical context compared
with an egalitarian context, or a competitive context compared with a
cooperative context.
The degree of adaptation of key competencies to new contexts depends on
how different the context or demands are, and the level of expertise of the
individual in both the key competency and associated specific competencies
(e.g. Gillespie, 2002).
Identity may be a key to transferring competencies to new contexts, or ‘the
vehicle that carries our experiences from context to context’. For example, if
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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you see yourself as a ‘creative’ person, then you are more likely to be able to
be creative in new contexts (e.g. Carr, 2004).
Learning related to meaningful, real-life contexts is important both to ensure
the engagement of students and to provide opportunities to gain the learning
needed for life3. Young people are keen to participate in, understand, and
contribute to their world(s), and therefore engage with learning that has
meaning for them (Russell, 2004). The curriculum project work with students
has shown that they want to gain learning that is meaningful and useful to
them now, as well as in the future.
The use of meaningful, real-life (or authentic) contexts as a key means of
teaching ‘the curriculum’ will enable young people to better understand how
they learn, how life contexts offer opportunities to learn, and how to continue
learning when ‘learning’ is not directly supported by a formal learning
environment (Alton-Lee, 2003; and Hargreaves, 2004).
What children learn from their classroom experiences is significantly affected
by their prior knowledge. Learning is most effective where teachers use
children’s culturally generated models of ‘sense-making’ and interact with
children so that knowledge is ‘co-constructed’ (Bishop, 2003; and Alton-Lee
and Nutthall, 1994). Learning communities in the classroom or school provide
environments that facilitate learning if all are included in the ‘us’ and diversity
is valued (Alton-Lee, 2003).
Note that research and PISA findings indicate that ‘engagement with’ or ‘belonging in’
school is not the same as engagement in learning, and does not necessarily result in
improved learning.
3
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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TEACHING AND LEARNING AS WEAVING
Meaningful and real-life contexts
Key competencies
Thinking
Making meaning
Relating
Participating
& Contributing
Learner
Identity
Belonging
Wellbeing
Managing self
Pedagogy & class communities
Specific competencies in ELA
Knowledge base for future learning
Subject disciplines as distinct ways of
knowing, thinking and doing
Knowledge as deep understanding
Knowledge for shared ‘cultural literacy
Contexts for key competencies
WHAT IS THE SHAPE OF THE ‘PORTFOLIO’ OF LEARNING NEEDED BY
YOUNG PEOPLE AT SCHOOL?
Combining stakeholder views and research, a school leaver ideally needs to:
 Have a positive sense of identity(ies)
 Take responsibility for themselves, be motivated, reliable and confident
 Be able to understand and critique the nature of the world around them
and make informed decisions, e.g. able to make well-founded
decisions about their lives, can be an informed participant in public
debates, can identify areas for own development
 Participate effectively in, and contribute to, a range of life contexts,
including family, community, education and work
 Be able to engage in learning throughout life.
The recent shift of the knowledge society towards learning for life, with
education options centred around the individual, means that individuals need
to actively make choices about their life pathways, including the education
‘portfolio’ needed to take them where they want to go. The availability of a
wide range of learning opportunities through the NZC, National Qualifications
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
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Framework (NQF), including the National Certificate of Educational
Achievement (NCEA), assumes that individuals (and their teachers, parents,
whānau etc) have the skills and knowledge necessary to make effective and
appropriate decisions. With such a plethora of choice, it can be hard for
people to navigate their way through the options without some overall
guidance about the shape of a portfolio of learning needed for a school leaver
to be successful. The proposed Individual Career Plans, to be piloted in
2005 with year 10 as part of the Beginning Careers project, will assist with
this4.
There may be a need to articulate within the curriculum and qualifications
systems a framework of key learning that will support effective choice and
successful transitions into constructive life pathways for students. These key
learning objectives could be met through a range of learning opportunities
based on real-life and/or meaningful learning contexts.
Learning at school therefore requires an integrated combination of:

Support for, and learning about, identity(ies), belonging and wellbeing

Key competencies:
o Thinking
o Relating and participating
o Managing self
o Making meaning using multi-literacies
o Cross-cutting: attitudes and values

Specific competencies:
o Sufficient knowledge about the world to have a basis for further
inquiry and thought for effective participation in life
o Sufficient experience in subject disciplines to learn a range of
ways of knowing, thinking or doing
o Sufficient depth of knowledge in some area to enable deep
understandings, insights and high levels of expertise in key
competencies to be developed
o Specific competencies that form the basis of further learning
(including in a work context) beyond school

Meaningful life contexts: experience and understanding of real-life
contexts and an ability to relate learning to these contexts:
o Work
o Family/whānau
o Culture/ Tikanga Māori
o Leisure/sports
o Wider society and world.
4
The Individual Career Plans, to be piloted in 2005, will directly address this issue by
providing guidance for students in year 10 to develop career plans, including subject choices
during school.
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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The proposed new curriculum framework, integrating key competencies,
essence statements about core learning in each ELA, and key principles will
provide a powerful basis for a curriculum that provides opportunities to gain
the key learning needed by all. However, the integrated nature of the
framework and associated teaching and learning needs to be emphasised.
The NZC and the qualifications system need to fit together to support
common goals and understandings of the learning needed by students for
their various life pathways. The NCEA sought to make the standards of
achievement more explicit so students, teachers and others knew what was
being taught and learnt, and to shift the focus of professional practice from
assessment of learning to assessment for learning.
While the close specification of standards enables people to better
understand the detail of what has been learnt, it can also mean that students,
teachers and others lose sight of the bigger picture, i.e. to what overall
learning the standards are contributing. It can also mean ‘a little bit of
everything’ but little or no depth.
More explicit articulation of the overall key and specific competencies to which
achievement and unit standards contribute would better enable students to
understand what it is that they are learning, and how best to put together an
education portfolio that provides them with the range and depth of learning
they will need in order to be a ‘successful’ school leaver. This does not mean
greater specification of discrete learning outcomes within achievement or unit
standards, but rather a more holistic approach that links the standards to
overarching competencies.
CONCLUSION
The review of the NZ curriculum offers an opportunity to reconsider what it is
that we think young people need to learn at school. This does not just mean
the wide range of learning offered by all the ELA, but also consideration of
what elements of learning should underpin all learning for students.
A framework of overarching key learning outcomes could include:
 Key learning integrating:
o Key competencies of thinking, managing self, relating and
contributing, and making meaning (multi-literacies)
o Specific competencies (subject and/or sector related)
 covering learning needed for a shared ‘cultural literacy’
 providing opportunities for learners to develop different
ways of ‘knowing’, ‘thinking’ and ‘doing’
 providing for depth and supporting interests
 Key learning supported by teaching and environments which:
o support and build identity(ies), belonging and well-being
o provide meaningful, real-life contexts related to interests,
family, community, work etc.
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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In addition, there is a need to support young people to increasingly make their
own independent decisions through providing advice and guidance, and
actively teaching decision-making competencies.
Effective teaching is fundamental to effective learning, and without effective
teaching, any curriculum change is unlikely to improve overall outcomes for
students. Research indicates that effective learning:
o begins in a classroom community with a student’s own knowledge,
connected with their experience and sense of identity;
o moves on through co-construction of new competencies with the
teacher scaffolding the learning; and
o must be meaningful to the learner, and therefore connected to their
experiences and the ‘real world’.
While this paper suggests a basic framework of learning that students ideally
need to learn at school, this does not mean that someone has ‘failed’ if they
do not gain this learning at school. A successful life-long learner is someone
able to continue learning in other contexts. Such a person would need, above
all, a positive sense of self as learner, and the key competencies related to
‘learning to learn’ such as resilience and making effective decisions involving
judgement and other cognitive competencies. A school leaver able to
continue learning is not a ‘failure’, and is, indeed, a successful life-long
learner.
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
Accessed from http://www.tki.org.nz/r/nzcurriculum/references_e.php
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Appendix 1
Definitions
 Competencies are conceptualised as the capabilities needed to ‘do
something’:5
o Competencies include skills, knowledge, attitudes and values
needed to meet the demands of a task
o Competencies are performance based and manifested in
actions (including internal thought processes) of an individual
in a particular context
 Essential skills are those generic skills currently specified in the New
Zealand Curriculum Framework
 Generic skills are used in this document where the text relates to
existing or historic use of that term. It can generally be read as
synonymous with key competencies, although it usually implies a
narrower concept of skill without the associated knowledge, attitudes
and values
 Key competencies are defined as those competencies needed by
everyone across a variety of different life contexts to meet important
demands and challenges, for example, relating well to others or
literacies
 Knowledge is defined as what people know and understand (‘knowing
how’ , ‘knowing that’ and ‘knowing why’)
 Performance is used to describe actively or intentionally doing things,
including thinking
 School leaver is used to mean someone who leaves school not
intending to return to schooling
 Schooling is used to mean formal learning opportunities provided
while a person aged 5-18 is enrolled at a school, including learning
‘managed’ but not actively delivered by a school and home-schooling,
but not including community education
 Skills are defined more narrowly as what people can do in relation to
physical skills and cognitive strategies
 Specific competencies are defined as those competencies that are
specific to a very limited number of contexts, for example, motor
mechanics or playing the piano.
5
The OECD Defining and Selecting Key Competencies (DeSeCo) work uses the term
‘competence’ in the singular, whereas this document uses the term ‘competency’ to avoid
confusion with the concept of ‘competence’ meaning being able to do something well (i.e. a
level of achievement).
This is not a statement of government policy. The views expressed in this document are not necessarily those held
by the Ministry of Education.
Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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Thoughts on what students need to learn at school: Summary for discussion purposes
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