Matt Fredrickson
Reading Guide to The Next Christendom by Philip Jenkins
(2007, Revised Edition)
Prepared by Dyron Daughrity
PREFACE AND CHAPTER 1: THE CHRISTIAN REVOLUTION
1. Historically, scholars have focused on Christianity in the West (Roman Catholic and Protestant) or
in the East (Orthodox Churches). What is Jenkins up to when he refers to Christianity as mainly a
“Southern” faith?
Now in post-Christendom, Christianity in the West is now on the decline. Because the focus has been on
the West for so long, Christianity in the global south is (to some) a surprising phenomenon. While
Churches in the West are declining, the church in the South seems to be rapidly expanding
2. Jenkins writes on p. 3, “By 2050, only about one-fifth of the world’s three billion Christians will be
non-Hispanic whites.” This is a major claim. What are some of the key points and predictions used
by Jenkins to support this thesis?
Jenkins says “in 1900 Europe was hot to two-thirds of the world’s Christian population; today, the figure is
less than a quarter, and by 2025 it will fall below 20 percent.” Europe, once considered the center of
Christianity is becoming more and more un-Christianized. In 2005, the largest single bloc of Christians was
in Europe (531 million), but others were close behind Latin America, 511 million; Africa, 389 million, 344
million Asians, and 226 million North Americans. Extrapolating these trends into 2025 suggest that Africa
and Latin America would be in competition for the title of most Christian continent.
3. Some scholars have predicted that Christianity will shrink on a global level due to low birth rates.
However, these studies take their predictions mainly from Western nations and fail to recognize high
birth rates in the Christian lands of the global South. Name a few of the global South nations that
Jenkins predicts will contribute, through fertility rates, to Christian growth.
Africa, South America, Asia…
4. What does Jenkins have in mind when he discusses the global South? Who is he talking about?
He has in mind the societies that do not include, Europe, North America, and Japan.
5. Beginning on p. 8, Jenkins tells us that global South Christianities will be strikingly different from
Western forms of Christianity. Of course he cautions against stereotypes, but he does point out the
trends that are recognizably different. Discuss these differences—between Southern Christianity
and Western Christianity.
Southern Christianity is more characterized by Pentecostalism. Southern Christianity tends to be more
conservative in terms of both beliefs and moral teaching that are the mainstream churches of the global
North. This is especially true of Africa, which I have experienced with my wife who is from Uganda. Other
popular traditions in the South include more traditionalist and fideisitc forms of Catholicism and some
radical protestant sects.
It is often more difficult for Western churches to accept these forms of Christianity. In the South, prophecy
is common and faith-healing, exorcism, and dream-visions are fundamental to the faith of many.
6. On p. 9, Jenkins notes that Pentecostal Christians are much easier to find than anti-religious
movements such as fascism, Marxism, or Communism. Why does Jenkins consider this to be ironic?
It is Ironic because the major historical trends that the West recognizes are movements such as fascism and
communism. Far less attention has been paid to Pentecostalism, which might be the most successful social
movement of the past century.
Matt Fredrickson
7. Christianity in the Western world, particularly in Western Europe, seems to be dying. Many
scholars have mistakenly made the assumption that this was the global trend for Christianity. What
response does Jenkins offer to these misconceptions?
Jenkins responds by saying that the decline of Christianity in the West is not representative of its global
decline; rather, it is representative of a shift in the global center of Christianity. The center of Christianity
has moved to the South, where it is in fact expanding, perhaps as rapidly as ever before. For Jenkins, while
the future of Western Christianity is in question, the global movement is far from being in decline.
8. Geographically, what was the heartland of Christianity for the first eight centuries (pp. 16-17)?
The heartland of Christianity in the first eight centuries, numerically and culturally, was in Syria or
Mesopotamia. Jenkins imagines people from this rejoin spreading the gospel in Europe and questioning
whether or not the movements taking hold could be considered “real” Christianity.
CHAPTER 2: DISCIPLES OF ALL NATIONS
1. What does Jenkins mean when he opens this chapter with the words, “As Christianity moves
South, it is in some ways returning to its roots.”?
Asia and North Africa were the “heartland” of Christianity for the first thousand years and probably until
the 1400s. After this time Christianity became known as a Western religion, when it’s roots were actually
in the Near East.
2. What is the common yet erroneous “Myth of Western Christianity?”
According to this myth the origins of Christianity are in Europe and the Mediterranean world, with
Jerusalem as an Eastern extreme. Also part of this myth is that the authentic religions of Africa and Asia
are Hinduism, Buddhism, Animism, and Islam. The reality is that Christianity has never been synonymous
either with Europe or the West.
3. Why were the Nestorians, Monophysites, and Orthodox/Catholic views of Christ’s nature so
important to earlier Christians? What did they believe was at stake? What historical consequences
resulted because of the Orthodox/Catholic Christians damning the Nestorians and Monophysites?
(pp. 22-28)
The views of Christ’s nature became increasingly important as the conflict with Muslims escalated. They
believed that the divinity/humanity of Jesus was at stake. The Orthodox (Chatholic) position believed in
two natures that were absolutely united. Most Easterners accepted the Monophysite teaching that Grist had
only one nature and was purely divine. Nestorians accepted the two natures but held that these were not
absolutely united, so that it was blasphemous nonsense to speak of the Virgin Mary as Mother of God. The
Eastern churches were deemed heretical; they were largely written off and forgotten as the center of
Christianity solidified in the West. As this happened the traditional centers of Christianity began to view
themselves as oppressed by the West.
4. Why is it that Western historians rarely talk about Armenia officially adopting Christianity
around the year 300, when they always refer to Christianity being adopted by Constantine much
later on in the 4th century (Edict of Milan in 313, and Nicea in 325)? (p. 23)
Because the Eastern churches were deemed heretical they were largely forgotten as the center of
Christianity solidified in the West. As this happened the traditional centers of Christianity began to view
themselves as oppressed by the West. This hostility helps explain why historian chose to overlook the
earlier states to establish Christianity, Ethiopia and Armenia.
5. Why are Europeanized Christians often horrified by Ethiopian Christianity? (p. 23)
They are often horrified because the Ethiopian church tries to revive Hebrew customs such as circumcision,
Matt Fredrickson
Saturday Sabbath (although some Western Christians do this as well), and polygamy. They also claim to
possess the Ark of the Covenant.
6. What is a Coptic Christian (pp. 25-26)?
The modern Coptic Church claims 10 million members. Coptic Christians stem from native Egyptians, and
their language descends from the language of the pyramid-builders. The history of the Coptic Church
perhaps offers a window into the earliest centuries of the faith.
7. Why is medieval Christianity often critiqued for “crusading,” while the era of Islamic conquest
and expansion often goes ignored? (p. 29)
Because the West has largely forgotten that Christianity is native to the Near East, Westerners often forget
that the stronghold of Islam in that region was also taken by force, contrary to the “Myth of Western
Christianity.”
8. When did Christianity in the Middle East begin its serious decline? (pp. 29-31)
Middle Eastern Christian communities flourished until they were devastated by a series of wars, expulsions
and population exchanges between 1915 and 1925, during and immediately following World War I.
9. What lands did Catholic Spain and Portugal evangelize in the 15th - 17th centuries? Who were
some of the prominent missionaries involved? Have these mission endeavors proved to be successful
in the long term? (pp. 34ff)
They evangelized lands in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, but especially Central and South America. One
significant conquistador was Pizararro (although he denied being a missionary). The conversions were
great in the cities of Mexico City and Lima. They also had significant success in Kongo.
In India, the Jesuit Robert De Nobili posed as a Hindu guru and used his disguise to teach Christianity.
Even though the Christian faith was carried by armed forces of European empires, the newly planted
Christianity did eventually acquire local roots. As an institution, the impact made by the church was partial
and often inadequate, but Christianity itself flourished.
10. What was the “Chinese Rites fiasco?” (pp. 39-41)
Early Catholic missionaries in China had great success as they allowed the Christian faith to naturalize
within the Chinese culture. They advanced Chinese liturgy and Bible translations and affirmed Chinese
culture. However, eventually these Jesuits cam under attack for allowing the Chinese to worship ancestors
and for canonizing Saint Confucius. In 1704, the Vatican ruled decisively against the Society of Jesus,
prohibiting the Chinese enculturation of the Bible. Services were held in Latin and the Catholic church
became a foreign entity in China. Eventually this caused a rift between China and Christianity. This
crippled the progress of Catholic missions worldwide for over a century.
11. What is the “great missionary century?” (p. 42)
It began when Protestants began to enter the mission field in the late 1700s to compete with their Catholic
rivals. These conquests were similar to the political and imperial adventures of those who had gone before
them. The success of Catholic and Protestant missions followed the success of different empires. During
this time, most of the African continent came within European reach, and a military defeat of China reopened the country to missionaries once more. Americans claimed that their nation has a special role in the
divine plan.
Matt Fredrickson
12. What does Jenkins mean on p. 45, “For any missionary venture, the ordination of native clergy
must be the acid test of commitment to moving beyond an imperial context, to leaving the veranda.”?
In order for the success of the church to move beyond its imperial and government context, it has to
become native to the culture in which it exists. In the missionary venture, the gospel is carried by a people
in a particular context. If missionaries do not attempt to ordain native clergy then the church will only last
as long as the missionaries are there. The church will always be connected to their presence.
CHAPTER 3: MISSIONARIES AND PROPHETS
1) What is the “modern missionary stereotype?” (pp. 47-48)
For many, the entire missionary enterprise epitomizes so much of what is wrong with Western culture. At
their worst, missions are presented as a cynical arm of ruthless, racist, colonial exploitation. The stereotype
of the modern missionary is that their attempts to share the gospel are part of a larger package of colonial
intrusion. In the modern view, the missionary impulse manifested ignorant paternalism.
2) We encounter the following sentence on p. 51: “If the modern missionary stereotype had any force,
we can scarcely understand why the Christian expansion proceeded as fast as it did, or how it could
have survived the end of European political power.” Thus, we must ask, why did Christian
expansion proceed so fast? How did Christianity survive the age of European colonialism?
In some cases, Christianity was adapted in an attempt to modernize and compete with the west, but this is
not the whole answer. In many parts of Africa, it was a grassroots movement, with lots of initial success
among the marginalized. In Africa, Christianity took hold among young people – those most likely to travel
to cities, ports, or trading posts. These migrants, laborers, traders, and soldiers brought the Christian faith
home to their villages. What made the Christianity succeed was this kind of networking effect, as the word
was passed from individual to individual, family to family, village to village.
3) Discuss the life and message of Kimpa Vita, described by Jenkins as a potential patron saint for
independent forms of Christianity. (pp. 56-57)
She was a spirit medium who was baptized by Italian missionaries and began following the European
fathers, until she noticed the priests attacking traditional ritual societies and initiations. In a dream, she
received a vision from St. Anthony, one of the most beloved saints in the Kongo, who warned her that the
colonial churches were deeply in error. As a result she began to translate Christianity into terms intelligible
for her culture, which included a Kongolese Jesus and apostles. In this she encouraged Africans to find
their own way to God. She was burned as a heretic in 1706, but many would follow in her thinking.
4) Discuss the life, message, and significance of William Wade Harris of Liberia (p. 58) and Simon
Kimbangu of Congo (p. 59).
Both of these figures are considered contemporary prophets in the same sense as Kimpa Vita. Both stressed
spiritual healing.
Harris was a potent figure in modern African religion. He was Liberian who claimed to have instructed by
the angel Gabriel in a vision. In this, he received a triune anointing by God. He began to see himself as
Elijah. According to his vision, the angel told him to abandon his European clothing. Because of this he
was cast out of the community. Then he began a journey across West Africa carrying a bamboo cross, a
bible, and gourd rattle. He taught a message that was largely Orthodox Christianity, teaching obedience to
the Ten Commandments, and demanding strict observance of the Sabbath. He focused on dealing with
ancient cult-figures and went around burning pagan shrines and spiritual objects. He acknowledged the
spiritual power that these objects possessed, which the whites ignored. Harrist churches still exist in West
Africa among transient immigrant communities.
Kimbangu lived in the Belgian Congo and received visions calling him to be a prophet and healer at the
time of the worldwide influenza epidemic. He attracted such a following that he was imprisoned until his
Matt Fredrickson
death in 1951. He was an orthodox puritanical Christianity, although he was distinctly African in his
invocation of the help of ancestors, and his focus on himself as a charismatic leader and mediator between
him God and the people. He considered himself an African messiah. The church that followed him does not
follow his more extreme teachings, but still exists today in great numbers.
5) What are some of the unique characteristics of the AICs (African Independent/Indigenous
Churches) when compared to European denominations?
These churches are very diverse in ideas, but use common theses. The adaptation of Christianity to local
cultures and traditions is central. Many of these churches are deemed prophetic because they follow a
modern day charismatic leader like the two described above. Ethiopian churches claim a pan-African
Christian identity. The Zionist churches often practice faith healing and speaking in tongues. They also
adopt practices of polygamy and other ritual taboos. Many are tribally based.
CHAPTER 4: STANDING ALONE
1) Jenkins writes on p. 64, “It was precisely as Western colonialism ended that Christianity began a
period of explosive growth that still continues unchecked ...” Give some of Jenkins’ reasons for this.
What does Jenkins describe as the “common pattern?”
Initially, Westerners try to impose their own ides of Christianity as it should be, often backed by force or
colonial power. Some believers are happy to exist with this framework; however, gradually other people
move beyond the colonial matrix, as they demand ever more accommodation with local ways. Because of
this, many churches successfully adapt and incorporate native ways into local liturgies and worship styles. .
2) What does Jenkins mean when he refers to “the continuing power of the mainstream churches” (p.
65). Which churches does he have in mind? What are some of the statistics that justify his claims
here? Why do the mainstream churches continue with such power?
The leading churches in Africa are Roman Catholic, Anglican, Methodist, ect. And will likely be so for the
foreseeable future. Even though African Independents claim an impressive 40 million members that
represents only one tenth of all African Christians. Africans account for one eight of the world’s Catholics.
The European colonial empires that flourished in the 19 th century have left a global religious heritage. In
addition, the church had an appeal that was separate from the imperial power that carried it. In the chaos
that ensued after the end of colonialism, Africans began embracing Christianity in the face of massive
political, social, and economic upheaval. This made the transition to political independence easier.
3) Describe the changing face of Anglicanism worldwide. Who are some of the noteworthy African
leaders of the Anglican communion of Churches? What does Jenkins predict the Anglican Church
will look like in the future? (pp. 68-69)
Anglicans in the British Isles are massively outnumbered by those overseas, and so called Anglican
Communion looks ever more African. The world’s best-known Anglican cleric is likely Desmond Tutu
(who teamed up with Nelson Mandella). Another African Anglican Church leader is Nigerian Primate
Daniel Akinola, who is over 20 million churches. John Sentamu of Uganda is the Archbishop of York.
Anglicanism is healthier in Uganda than in what was once its mother country. By 2050 there could be up to
150 Anglicans, with a small minority of them actually being white Europeans.
4) Who are the “Independent” Christians referred to on the chart on page 70?
They are new independent denominations that might be labeled “none of the above.” Often these churches
fall under the label of Pentecostal. Others are indigenous to Africa, Asia, and Latin America, and
sometimes in regions where Christianity was planted within the last century or so.
Matt Fredrickson
5) Give some of the reasons why accurate statistics are difficult to ascertain regarding Latin
American religion? (p. 72)
Some statistics are developed with theological agendas. In Latin America there was apparently an
apocalyptic movement committed to achieving evangelical majorities in previously non-protestant
countries. This had an anti-Catholic slant. It is also difficult to collect information from remote rural areas.
Placing numbers on conversions is not a good method.
6) What are some of the differences between Catholics, Protestants, and Pentecostals in Latin
America? Why is it sometimes difficult to define them? (pp. 73ff)
Protestants differ from Catholics in that they rely on the Bible primarily as the source of religious authority,
rather than tradition or the institutional church. Pentecostals rely on direct spiritual revelations that
supplement or replace biblical authority. Protestants serve a largely middle-class audience, and Pentecostals
churches attract mainly from the poor, sometimes from the very poorest sections of society.
It is difficult because cross Latin America, the term evangelico refers indiscriminately to both Protestants
and Pentecostals. It also becomes difficult because you can find more charismatic – Pentecostal looking –
manifestations of both Protestants and Chatholics.
7) Discuss Brazil’s famously controversial IURD church and why its legitimacy has been called into
question in the past. (pp. 74-75)
It was founded in 1977 by Edier Macedo de Bezerra. At its height in the 1990s it claimed between 3 and 6
million members. It now controls one of the largest television stations in Brazil, has its own political party,
and owns a Rio de Janeiro football team. It is criticized for superstitious practices that exploit its largely
uneducated members. It sells healing oil and claims to bless water through its TV broadcasts. They are also
accused of unethical money making schemes.
8) Describe how the Phillippino “El Shaddai” group is combating the Catholic emigration into
Pentecostalism. (pp. 77-78)
The El Shaddai group is combating the Catholic emigration into Pentecostalism by taking on some of the
major characteristics of Pentecostalism. They hold firm beliefs that God is directly involved in everyday
life and have high expectations for material blessings. By resembling what defectors might be looking for,
they keep people in the Catholic church.
9) What is so significant about the Zion Christian Church’s Easter gathering each year? (p. 79)
Ever Easter, more than 1 million ZCC pilgrims gather for several days of celebrations at the church’s chief
shrine in South Africa. This gathering is larger that the one that greets the pope in St. Peter’s Square on
Easter morning.
10) What is happening with Christianity in Asia? (pp. 80ff) How has Christianity fared since Mao
Tse Tung’s suppression of the faith? How is Christianity influencing other Chinese-influenced
cultures such as South Korea and Vietnam?
Estimates of Chinese Christians vary widely. According to the Chinese government, there may be 20
million Christians, but this does not account for unapproved underground or house churches. If the higher
numbers are accurate (about 8 percent) then Christians probably outnumber the communist party.
China today has ten times as many Christians as it did when Mao Zedong’s forces seized control of the
country in 1949. Patchy evidence suggests that Christianity is growing due to defection in the communist
party.
The network of Chinese communities in nations such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore
Matt Fredrickson
are also experiencing some Christian growth. Churches are flourishing elsewhere in Asian and the Pacific
Rim. One of the Greatest Christian success stories in Asia is South Korea. It first arrived in the 1950s. In
1920 there were 300,000 but now the number has risen closer to 12 mission – over one quarter of the
population. Communist Vietnam has experienced similar growth as China. Nine percent of the country’s 80
million people are Christian, most of them are Catholic, and Catholicism is surviving well. There is even a
diocese in Vietnam. However, they are in a similar situation as China. Numbers outside of the government
are unclear.
11) In what ways do urbanization, economics, and social changes affect Christian growth (pp. 85-88
and 90-92)? Discuss some of the “tangible benefits” experienced by Christian converts.
Some success of the church in the South is a by-product of modernization and urbanization. Large
affordable housing developments attract large numbers of illegal squatters and other transients. And in
these settings, many Christian groups provide functional alternatives to health care, welfare, and education.
This has played a large role in gaining support of religious groups. Churches have provided Latin
Americans with familiar desirable dwelling communities. Revivals promising miracles attract large crowds
in overpopulated cities in Africa.
Churches provide refuge during a time if immense and barely comprehensible social change. These kinds
of situations are much more common in the Global South. Some of the greatest victories have been won
against the poor.
The church in the South actually does help people with disease exploitation, pollution, drink, drugs, and
violence. Many of these people blame demonic forces for these ills. It is natural that they would trust the
church in fighting against them. In the end, people are benefiting from the care offered above.
12) What impact has evangelical religion had on gender issues (p. 89)?
New churches are playing a vital role in reshaping women’s lives, in allowing them to find their voices.
Most Pentecostal churches converts are actually women, who are very important for the maintenance and
expansion of these churches. An emphasis on domestic values has had a positive effect on gender
relationships. Poor women are often more responsible and make good leaders.
13) Jenkins cautions that when studying the growth of world Christianity from a social-scientific
perspective, we not miss “the heart of the matter.” What is that “heart”? What are some other
reasons people convert to Christianity? (p. 91)
People might join churches because they see these institutions as a way of expressing heir social
aspirations, but other elements also enter into the equation. Members join or convert because they acquire
beliefs about the supernatural real, and its relationship to the world. Central is the idea that God intervenes
in everyday life.
14) What are some overarching, conspicuous differences between Southern and Northern
Christianity according to Jenkins (pp. 90-92)? What adjectives does Jenkins use to describe the
future of Southern Christianity (p. 92)?
One of the main differences is that Southern church believes that God intervenes in every life. Evil is not
located in social structures in the South as much as it is in types of spiritual evil, which can be combated
effectively by believers. In the Northern church God is too big to solve everyday problems.
Matt Fredrickson
CHAPTER 5: THE RISE OF THE NEW CHRISTIANITY
1) Give an overview of projected Northern and Southern global growth trends in the foreseeable
future. Why does Jenkins state “In the long run, feminism may be the most effective means of
regulating population.”? (pp. 93-95)
The South is growing rapidly and the North is more stagnant.
In 1900, the North accounted for 32 percent of the population. In 1950: 29%, in 1970:25%, in 2000:18%,
by 2050, it is projected to be at 10 or 12 percent.
In 1900, the South Africa and Latin America accounted for 13 percent of the world’s people, but that figure
has grown to 21 percent, and the rate of change is accelerating. By 2050, people are projecting that the two
countries will make up 29 percent.
Feminism has encourages women to enter the workforce, and it is more difficult for employed women to
devote as much of their lives to bearing and rearing children women in more traditional societies do.
2) What is the significance of fertility rates on Christian demographics? What is happening to
fertility rates in Europe? (pp. 95-96)
By 2025, Jenkins projects that the population in Europe (among the 8 th most populated countries) will drop
by 3 percent. Most birth rates in Europe are below 2 children per woman. This means that the Christian
population is not expanding through childbirth, and the decline in population is not a good omen for
Christian demographics. However, Jenkins suggests that mass immigration might be the only means for
some of these countries to survive. In this case, that may bring in an influx of Christians that jump starts the
demographics.
3) What are some of the main problems with religious statistics? (pp. 100ff)
One of the problems with religious statistics is deciding which religious groups to include. Sometimes the
restrictions can be overly narrow and bigoted. Most social statistics can be challenged or modified
depending on the definitions used, and the means by which information was collected. Generally, Christian
populations are actually more likely to be accurate in counties that lack an official or established church.
This is because baptism and counts and church memberships don’t always reflect the actual number of
Christians. China is an obvious case in which the government only reports the churches it approves.
4) Discuss religious demographic trends in Uganda (African example), the Philippines (Asian
example), and Brazil (Latin American example). (pp. 105-107)
Uganda is representative of the fast-growing tropical countries. The country has an annual growth rate of
2.7 percent. The birth rate is four times that of most European nations. Today, about 40 percent of the
population is Protestant, 35 percent Catholic, and 10 percent Muslim. The remainder follows African
religions. Just in terms of growth rate, the Christian population should grow from around 20 million today
to 24 million in 2025, and to 43 (possibly 50) million by 2050.
By 2050, the Philippines should have the 3rd or 4th largest Christian population on the planet. It is like
Uganda, a very young country growing at a very fast rate. Right now the Philippines reports 1.7 million
Catholic baptisms each year.
Brazil has a similar expanding growth rate connected to religious demographics. About 74 percent of the
population is Catholic, and 15 percent are Protestant or Pentecostal. Jenkins claims that Brazil will be a key
center of world Christianity is beyond doubt, but the precise contours of its religious life are unknowable.
5) Why is the statistically large Christian population of Europe very deceiving? (pp. 108ff)
These statistics are deceiving in Europe because even though the church is in decline, infant baptism has
been a social norm for centuries. These baptisms are registered as members of the church, regardless of
whether or not the baptized actually become Christians.
Matt Fredrickson
6) Give some of the complex reasons why predicting religious trends in Europe over the next few
generations is very difficult. (pp. 111ff)
Because of the declining population, some European countries might have to work to admit up to 75
immigrants by 2050. These migrations would cause considerable religious cross-fertilization. In Western
Europe, Muslim centers are on the rise. It is possible that Islam could be the future religion of Europe.
7) How will Islam affect the religious demographics of Europe in the future? (pp. 112-113)
Europe as a whole, had 18 million Muslims in 1970, rising to some 32 million by 2000, and the growth in
Western European nations has been significant. This rise is very visible in western Europe. It is possible
that Islam could be the future religion of Europe.
8) What does Jenkins predict for the religious situation of the USA in the foreseeable future? (pp.
116ff) On what evidence does he base this prediction?
Population in the USA is growing faster than Europe, but slower than countries like Uganda. The main
driving for population growth is immigration. As a result, the country stands to become less white and less
European, which will also have an effect on religious demographics. Many of these immigrants are
Christian. He notices the trends after the Immigration Reform Act of 1965 to mark these changes. The USA
is become more multicultural. At least 66 percent of new immigrants are Christian, compared to just 8
percent Muslim.
Today, America remains a Christian country. The number of non-Christian religions in the United States is
strikingly small – 4 to 5 percent of the population. In numerical terms, the United States will likely
continue to be a predominantly Christian country. Jenkins claims that out of fall the leading Christian
nations of the last 200 years, the United States will be the last to occupy this role in the twenty-first
century.
CHAPTER 6: COMING TO TERMS
1) What is “inculturation?” Provide some examples that illustrate the distinctions
Christians have tried to make between “substance and accidents.” (pp. 126ff)
Enculturation takes place when something from outside a culture is contextualized within it.
Whenever Christianity is transplanted into a new culture, missionaries attempt to make it relevant
without changing the core of the faith. The substance of the faith is that which is not supposed to
change. The accidents are what get added to the faith during the enculturation process. Jenkins
feels that the accidents of Christianity in the South are exaggerated. One of the cultural accidents
might be the issue of dancing. In some North American Churches it is prohibited, but in African
churches it is a major part of their culture and society. Substance issues are based in the core of
the Gospel – something like the divine authority of Jesus.
2) Why is language such an important component in any attempt to “Christianize” a
people? (pp. 131ff)
People need to be able to understand the gospel in their own language in order to internalize it. In
order for Christianity to be enculturized, the Bible must be translated. Lamin Sanneh felt this was
key. If scripture is not translated the faith will always be associated with a foreign interpreter,
when Christianity is designed to be a world religion.
Matt Fredrickson
3) What special place does the Virgin Mary, La Morena, hold in Latin American
Christianity? (pp. 136-139)
The significance of the Virgin Mary was translated into the Virgin of Guadalupe in Latin
America. For Mexicans, the Virgin of Guadalupe is an absolutely central symbol. In Latin
Catholicism, Mary is often portrayed as something like a feminine face of God.
4) Give some examples from world Christianity which highlight synchretistic tendencies
between Christianity and local contexts. (pp. 140-142)
A Dorean theologian Hyun Kyung Chung freely integrated practices from Confucian and Asian
shamanistic religions. For him, God spoke through Buddha, shamans, and Christ. In Africa, there
are a wide range of tradition practices being synchretized such as polygamy, divination, animal
sacrifices, initiation rites, circumcision, and the veneration of ancestors. Zulu Zionist churches are
led by charismatic prophets, who pray for the sick, determine the cause of disease and specify
remedies.
5) Describe what happened at the Anglican Lambeth Conference in 1998. What tensions
within world Anglicanism were illustrated there? (pp. 141-142)
The Anglican Communion has suffered intense controversies over attitudes to sexual morality
and particularly homosexuality. The African churches are strongly apposed to liberalization of
this sort. In this case, the Northern world liberals responded by impugning the Christian
credentials of the newer churches. This is what happened at the Lambeth Conference.
6) Jenkins argues that Africa and parts of Asia seemed to have been suited for Christian
missionary work. What evidence does he use to support this idea? (pp. 142-145)
These regions were already operating with a clear sense of a divine realm similar to that of
Christianity before missionaries arrived. Many were monalatrous – believing in one god that is
above all the others. The healing and miracle stories particularly appealed to these populations as
they were already engaged with the ideas of sprititual warfare. According to Jenkins, healing is
the strongest theme unifying the newer Southern churches.
7) What are some of the key issues surrounding the ancient Christian practice of healing?
What role does healing have in the non-Western, Christian world today? (pp. 145-147)
Healing is the key element that has allowed Christianity to compete so successfully with its rivals
outside the Christian Tradition. They both get to work in the same thought world. In Brazil
Pentecostal churches are in competition with African-derived spiritist movements that promise
cures and exorcism. In African countries AIDS has challenged the power of Christian healing in
the South, making it appear weak.
Matt Fredrickson
8) Describe how Third World Christians tend to read the Bible differently than do
Northern Christians. What frustrations do Southern Christians have with the way
Northerners read the Bible? (pp. 148-153)
In the West, biblical narratives are often understood as allegory or myth (worldview shaping
stories). In African countries, churches have a very literal reading of the Bible. Many Africans
believe in the stories as literally correct narratives of events that really occurred. Questioning
miracle stories can dissolve a person’s faith in the South. Because of this, the Southern churches,
Jenkins suggests, have a more robust understanding of prophecy – as people who speak and
interpret the word of God.
9) Why do some feel that 2nd and 3rd century Christianity can still be observed? Give some
examples that illustrate the view that early Christianity is paralleled in the global South.
(pp. 151-156)
While Western Christians may struggle to understand the afterlife or the resurrection, these
themes have powerful resonance in African or Asian independent churches. One thing that
churches in the South have adapted from the 2nd and 3rd century is the catechumenate. In the
ancient church, this was far more important than it is in today’s western churches. The early
creeds also make more sense to churches in the South. In the African church, the notion of
continuity with the world of the ancestors (cloud of witnesses) is not only credible, but it is a
fundamental component of the belief system.
10) What is the difference between a Church and a sect? (pp. 156-159)
Churches, are formal bodies that intellectualize religious teachings and restrain emotionalism in
their services. They offer believers a formal liturgy and set prayers, in ways that portray the
divine as remote from daily life. Sects are overtly emotional and spontaneous, and encourage
individual mystical experience; they tend toward fundamentalism, while shunning the intellect as
a possible source of danger.
CHAPTER 7: GOD AND THE WORLD
1) Why does Jenkins believe that new Southern Christian states might look more like
medieval European than modern European states? Give various examples to illustrate.
Liberation theology in Latin America is one example of how the new Southern Christian states
might look more like medieval European than modern European. In medieval Europe, the
separation between church and state would have been incomprehensible. Liberation theology is a
prime example of priests and lay people becoming deeply involved in the political system. These
kinds of leaders (not necessarily liberation theologians) include William Wade harris, John
Chilembwe (African prophets), and Brazil’s legendary Father Cicero.
Matt Fredrickson
2) Discuss the Liberation Theology movement in Latin America in the 1960s through the
1980s. What major political shifts have occurred in Latin America in the last few decades?
Who caused some of these changes? (pp. 163-167)
In 1968, during the conference of the Latin American bishops meeting, Catholic activism got its
start. Borrowing extensively from Marxist terminology, the assembled bishops condemned
neocolonialism, exploitation, and the institutionalized violence of capitalist society, and
demanded fundamental and social reforms. In 1971, Gutierrez published the Teologia de la
liberacion. Over the next 20 years, many church leaders adopted the “preferential option for the
poor.
The past 30 years have witnessed a shift in the substance of politics, from matters of economics,
class, and labor to questions of personal rights and morality, often involving debates over
sexuality.
3) What does Jenkins have in mind when he writes of the “second African revolution?” (pp.
169-173))
Africa has a history of violent government overthrows accompanied by a number of other violent
political groups, such as the successive governments in Uganda the 1970s and 80s that included
Idi Amin. Jenkins envisions a Christian movement called the “second African revolution” in
which religious leaders might take a stand against this kind of rogue violence. Apparently there
are many more like and better than Desmond Tutu who have or would be able to capture the
hopes and loyalties, in a way in which fragile nation states cannot.
4) What are some examples Jenkins provides to demonstrate his thesis of “... the deeply
religious and ecclesiastical nature of contemporary politics in Christian Africa.”? (pp. 169173, quotation from p. 172)
Kenyan president Moi came under attack from mainstream church, and instead of denouncing
religious intervention in politics, he decided to prove himself a fervently pious supporter of
independent and Pentecostal churches. This alliance made him an important shaper of public
opinion. Moi’s behavior illustrates the deeply religious and ecclesiastical nature of contemporary
politics in Christina Africa.
5) Discuss Cardinal Sin’s noteworthy protests in the Philippines. (pp. 173-174)
He lead Ecclesiastical protests to impeach a Philippine leader, who was accused of receiving
massive bribes. He helped put on “protest Eucharists that were joined by members of Catholic
social and labor groups and Catholic universities.
6) How has “Protestantism ... destabilized long-familiar social arrangements” in Latin
America? (pp.179-183, quotation from p. 181) Also, what did Pope John Paul II have to say
about Protestant advances there? (p. 179)
There has been a strong move by some Protestant groups to steal members from the Catholic
Church. Some of these anti-Catholic Protestants are even referred to as Demons. From the
Catholic standpoint however, the worst sin of evangelicals is that they preach political quietism
and damp down the flames of revolution. Protestant and Pentecostal voting blocs have emerged in
several nations, with the churches serving as efficient electoral machines and propaganda outlets.
These protestants are getting in the way of Catholics and trying to draw people away from the
Matt Fredrickson
Catholic church. This is partly what John Paul II was reacting to when he warned the Latin
American Bishops Conference about these “ravenous wolves.” He also said that evangelicals
were spreading “like an oil stain” in the region, where they “threaten to pull down the structures
of faith In numerous countries.”
7) Jenkins predicts that eventually the North may end up defining itself against Christianity
(p. 187). On what does Jenkins base this claim? (pp. 185-187)
The North is beginning to recognize the South as something the North has traditionally labeled
the popular evangelical and fundamentalist of North America. In the west, these groups are
dismissed and devalued. If the North puts, the south in this stereotype then they run the risk of
defining itself against the majority of Christianity.
In the 1970s, the US dismissed Islamic fundamentalism and made serious errors in policy-making
– failing to take into account religious motivations. The North is in danger of repeating this
mistake. The North has to be careful about what kind of stereotypes it places on Southern
Christianity. They need to make conscious efforts to understand these powerful movements.
CHAPTER 8: THE NEXT CRUSADE
1) Give some examples of statistical chicanery (deception regarding religious statistics) in
various countries today. (pp. 190-192)
In Indonesia, at a time of homicidal official anti-communism, failure to acknowledge any religion
on official identity papers immediately raised suspicions about a person’s possible seditions
attitudes, and as a result, millions were not inspired to declare themselves Muslims.
In addition, the expectation is that governments massage figures to make their own side look
more powerful, especially in regions with deep political and cultural divisions. Sometimes
mistakes can be made honestly, when minorities are concentrated n inaccessible or out-of-theway regions that represent difficult territory for census takers.
2) Islam’s view towards Christianity has been extremely ambivalent throughout history.
Give both sides of the story: evidence of how Islam has historically seemed fairly gracious in
its views of Christianity (pp. 196-197), and evidence—particularly over the last century or
so—that demonstrates Islam’s extreme aggression towards Christianity. (pp. 196-199)
When a movie in the 80s came out that portrayed Jesus in a bad light, it was banned by Muslim
states. Most Muslim states tolerate Christian worship, provided they are not trying to convert
Muslims. When Pope John Paul II visited Egypt and Syria, he was greeted enthusiastically b
crowds of ordinary Muslims and Muslim clerics. Muslim Christian relations in Africa are mostly
peaceful. Indonesian Muslims celebrate Christmas.
The Armenian genocide of 1915 is well known. And equally devastating were the massacres of
tens of thousands of Lebanese and Syrian Christians in 1860. In 1915, the Turks slaughtered and
expelled hundreds of thousands of Christians of all sects. The Turkish military killed 100
thousand Lebanese Maronite Christians by an intentional famine. Between 1919 and 1925, Greek
Christians were expelled in large numbers from the new Kemalist state of Turkey.
Matt Fredrickson
3) Briefly discuss the volatile African cases of Sudan (pp. 199-201), Egypt (pp. 200-201), and
Nigeria (201-204). Explain why interreligious (Christianity and Islam) conflict is projected
to intensify in the future.
Northern Sudan is dominated by a northern Muslim population, which speaks Arabic, while the
south is black African, Christian, and animists. Despite this ethnic and cultural balance, the
Sudanese government has introduced Islam as the official religion for the whole country.
Southerners naturally resisted Muslim control and there was a bloody rebellion from 1963
through 1972.
During the 1990s, armed Islamic guerrillas attacked Coptic villages, killing perhaps a hundred
victims in all. This led to riots in villages of mixed faiths. When Copts suffer acts of mob
violence, police regularly ignore the perpetrators, while used the investigation as an excuse to
inflict further persecutions on the Christian victims.
Nigeria suffers from a similar situation as Sudan. In the 1980s Muslim forces started to press for a
full scale evangelization of Africa. In the 1990s, Muslim dominated states began imposing
Shari’a. .
In the new religious climate, existing non-Muslim minorities can be reduced or even eliminated.
Muslim regimes are oppressive and coercive. In all of these cases, Muslims enjoy places of power
and use their authority to oppress Christians. These events could continue to escalate as Nigeria
might have three hundred million people by 2050, and is a huge oil provider.
4) Briefly provide three examples of interreligious violence in Asia. Give one example from
each of the following countries: Pakistan, Indonesia, and the Philippines. (pp. 205-208)
Anyone who insults Mohammad in Pakistan runs the risk of suffering penalty of death or life
imprisonment. This is similar to question 3, in which Muslims are in authority.
Between 1998 and 2002 alone, four hundred Indonesian churches were burned or bombed.
In the Philippines, Abu Sayyaf militants bombed a Filipino ferry, killing more than a hundred
civilians. As in Indonesia, Christmas usually proves a popular time for anti-Christian bombings
5) Provide four examples of recent Christian-Islamic conflict in Europe. (pp. 210-212)
In 1980, the Iranian regime issued its death sentence against British writer Salman Rushdie. A
number of painters were persecuted for depicting Mohammad. Among the most notorious
incidents were the 2004 bombings in Madrid and the subway attacks in London the following
year.
6) Provide an overview of Hindu-Christian tension in India today. (pp. 214-216)
Christianity has some acceptance in India today. In fact there are even Christian schools in India.
The Dalit community causes Hinduism much internal strife. Dalits suffer from appalling
persecution and violence, and there are regular stories of murder, torture, and rape. Christian
missionaries have had great success working among these Dalits. The evangelization of these
Dalits threatens the Hindu society. Even Gandi apposed this! This has incited mob violence
against churches in India. Jenkins suggest the Hindu on Christian violence is more widespread
Matt Fredrickson
than reports suggest. Dalit converts can expect low-level bullying and violence as a result of
becoming Christian.
7) In the last several pages of chapter 8, Jenkins describes some “fantasy” scenarios about
inter-cultural conflict in the coming decades. Provide a very cursory overview of the hotspots, providing recent examples of why Jenkins sees these areas as cultural “fault-lines.”
(pp. 218-222)
Several areas of the globe offer possible settings for future conflicts. Jenkins tries to play out the
potential conflicts between countries with warring populations of Christians and or Muslims that
have high birth rates, access to oil or other wealth, and motivations to advance their own situation
or come to the aid of others. In this rather confusing whirlwind of hypotheticals, Jenkins
envisions “the war of the end of the world” arising out of Africa from countries like Congo and
Uganda that have booming population and up and coming resources. In Africa, religions tied to
ethic and tribal lines will cause issues that will lead to types of conflict that the North can no
longer ignore. The Christian Philippines and Muslim Indonesia could create similar turmoil. The
undergirding point here seems to be that this movement of religion in the South, combined with
high birth rates, may escalate both conflict and the ability to militarize around that conflict.
CHAPTER 9: COMING HOME
1) Why is it that some American conservatives might change their minds about “the
browning of America” in the future? (pp. 224-226)
While the “browning of America” causes conservatives the fear of cultural homogeneity, it also
promotes other issues that they are in favor of. Many of these new immigrants are traditional
Christians with conservative attitudes toward faith and family. They don’t mind public display of
religion. They don’t care for the separation of church and state.
2) Why does Jenkins think the 2005 election of Joseph Ratzinger as Pope may have been “...
a last-ditch defense in western Europe.”? (pp. 228-229, quotation from p. 229)
After the death of John Paul, there were several global south candidates: Francis Arinze of
Nigeria, Brazil’s Claudio Humme, or Honduran Oscar Rodrigues Maradiaga. Given the
movements described in this book the time for a Global South pope is coming. He thinks the
election of the German Joseph Ratzinger was another shot for Western Europe to claim some
prominence in Christianity.
3) Discuss the Roman Catholic document Dominus Jesus and why it infuriated so many
Western Christians. (pp. 230-231) What larger issues does this example illustrate?
Dominus Jesus re-asserted the exclusive role of Christ and Catholic Christianity as vehicles of
salvation. It sabotaged decades of attempts at dialogue with other faiths, and was uncomfortably
reminiscent of ancient statement that there was no salvation outside the church. This illustrates
the continual conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. It illustrates the difficulty in identifying
what actually makes someone Christian.
4) How do Southern churches tend to be different than Northern churches when it comes to
feminism and homosexuality? (pp. 231ff)
Generally, Southern churches are more conservative and even reactionary than the Northern
Matt Fredrickson
mainstream. However, women are also very important to the Southern church. Despite the
significance of women in the South, at present Southern churches are by and large more
conformable than the North in preaching a traditional role for women. The South tends to be
more patriarchal than Europe or North America. Most African nations prohibit abortion. Women
are nowhere near as involved in politics in the south as they are in the North.
African and Asian societies are nowhere near a place of accepting homosexuality. There is an
even larger chasm between North and South here.
5) Discuss the recent Anglican controversy of foreign, Southern bishops ordaining North
American bishops. What were some of the reactions to this? (pp. 240-243)
When the Anglican Church was considering changing is position on sexuality and the ministry,
North American conservatives found themselves much closer politically to the upstart church’s of
Africa and Asia than to their own church elites, as they looked to Singapore and Rwanda to
defend themselves against New York and Ottawa. The representatives from the South
outnumbered those from the south and the motion was not passed. This created some negative
tension between Northern and Southern churches, especially on the side of the Africans, who had
serious doubts about the opposing Northern church’s credibility. This becomes a fascination
situation as discerns are now being made more globally.
6) Give four examples of Southern Christians currently missionizing the North. (pp. 244250)
A Nigerian founded one of Britain’s most successful black congregations, London’s Kingsway
International Christian Centre. Its chief pastor made it his goal to recruit black members.
The Argentine Revival has sought to evangelize in North America. In 1999 revivalist Carlos
Annacondial preached to some twelve thousand Philadelphians in the city’s first Latino-driven
mass crusade.
The church of the Pentecost, a major Ghanaian denomination, has fifty-seven churches in the
United States, including five in New York City.
Uganda’s John Sentamu was named the first “African see of York” in the Anglican Church.
CHAPTER 10: SEEING CHRISTIANITY AGAIN FOR THE FIRST TIME
1) Briefly explain the issue of clergy shortages in the Catholic Church. (pp. 253-254)
The Northern world, Europe and North America, presently accounts for 35 percent of Catholic
believers and 68 percent of priests; Latin America has 42 percent of believers but only 20 percent
of priests. The numbers are simply staggering when you look at the ratios of priests to believers.
U.S.1 to 1,600; Mexico 1 to 6,400 people; Europe 1 to 450 people; Africa 1 to 4,700.
Mobilization efforts on behalf of the Catholic Church are desperately need to address this
problem.
2) What qualms does Jenkins have with Religious Studies departments in the West? (p. 255)
The religion that gets the least amount of attention is Christianity. It receives nothing like the
attention it merits in terms of its numbers and global scale. It is the largest religion in existence.
This used to make more sense than it does now. Before, students were expected to have been
exposed to information about Christianity in church and society at large, but that is no longer the
case.
When religions in the Global South are taught, they are always discussed in negative ways. The
Matt Fredrickson
fruitful growth in this book is not taught in the classroom. In addition there ought to be classes on
Catholicism and Pentecostalism.
3) How does Jenkins describe “the typical Christian” today and in the foreseeable future?
(pp. 256-257) How do Northern Christians tend to respond? (pp. 252-253)
The typical Christian is not a hit fat cat in the United States or Western Europe, but rather a poor
person, often unimaginably poor by Western standards. He doesn’t see this changing in the
foreseeable future. The great majority of Southern Christians, and increasingly of all Christians,
really are the poor, the hungry, the persecuted, even the dehumanized. Think of the Dalits in
India.
Western investment in meeting this need has been cut back dramatically at just the point it is most
desperately needed. Some Northern Christians do not want to respond to the new global
challenges. Others are unable because of rival demands and scarce resources. Jenkins says the
North is failing to respond and the situation is unlikely to change.
4) Explain what Jenkins has to say about how differently the Southern Churches are from
the North when it comes to the Bible—especially the book of Revelation. (pp. 257-261)
The images of revelation of persecution and martyrdom, the visions of a coming world in which
God will rule, persecutors will perish, and the righteous be vindicated, is much easier to
understand in the context of the Global south that it is for Northerners. These apocalyptic
passages have no immediate relevance for Western readers. Southerners have no need to dig for
arcane meanings. Millions of Christians around the world do in fact live in constant danger of
persecution or forced conversion, either from governments or local vigilantes.
Jenkins says all of this to emphasize his point that the average Christian faces challenges that
most people in the North don’t or can’t understand. Revelation speaks to these challenges in real
ways that sound mysterious to us. In the South, Revelation simply makes sense, in its description
of a world ruled by monstrous demonic powers.
5) How do you think Christianity will “transform weakness into strength” (p. 261) in the
future?
Jenkins says that Christianity regards the experience of poverty and persecution as normal and
expected elements in life. I would also say, as he suggests, that Christianity is harder amid peace
and prosperity. This has a lot to do with why Christianity in the South is flourishing. This is why
most of the world’s Christians are poor. Not only does Christianity transform weakness into
strength, it requires weakness to produce strength. Jesus had to die before he was raised. In
Christianity weakness and strength go together.
As bleak as Jenkins paints the future of Africa, the potential for strength seems huge. As
Christians swarm the continent, they can begin to rally around one another. The desperateness for
basic human needs can unite warring factions in the South. The need for food and water in the
context of Christian communities can trump tribal/political/religious arguments. The challenges
that these Christians face can unite nations and perhaps avoid some of Jenkins’ gloomy
predictions concerning political religious conflict. This proposal may become more likely if the
North finally decides to get involved – not as enablers, not as super heroes, but as fellow
Christians with a desire to be with their brothers and sisters who are in need. A large-scale
movement of this kind may even stir a revival in the North and secular Europe. As I read about
Matt Fredrickson
the weakness and humility of the center of the Christian world, I get excited about the
possibilities. It has just enough potential for God to do something big.