Summary of: Durante, K.M., Li, N. P., & Haselton, M. G. (2008). Changes in women’s choice of dress across the ovulatory cycle: naturalistic and laboratory task-based evidence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(11), 1451-1460. doi:10.1177/1046167208323103 Summary by: Teresa Branconier, Lauren Cullen, and Natalia Gonzalez For Dr. Mills’ Psychology 310 class, Fall, 2011 The authors conducted this study to test the claims that women prefer clothing that is more sexy and revealing when their fertility is the highest during their ovulatory cycle. Research suggests that this does indeed occur, but why? It can be said that women simply feel more attractive during their ovulation period. However, on a more evolutionary standpoint, women may feel the need to dress a certain way to attract men on their most fertile days. This can be as a result of intra-sexual competition, in which women have to increase their chances of mating, above any other women. It was once believed that women’s ovulation period was concealed, as compared to other mammals, even to women themselves. Studies are now finding women tend to shift their social motives and behaviors in adaptive ways that might enhance their chances to mate. Some cues of ovulation that have been found suggest that people can detect these shifts in fertility by the way women behave towards others. It has also been suggested that men have evolved to detect these periods of fertility through the different by-products created by certain hormones, such as changes in body scent. Also, it seems that women are changing their appearances during their fertile windows so that they are more attractive to possible mates. Previous research has proved shown this change in social motives and behaviors on the part of fertile women. Studies show that women experience greater sexual desire, as well as more frequent sexual fantasies, and they experience feelings of sexiness. Studies have also found that women are more inclined to look attractive by having greater distances traveled by foot or consuming fewer calories, during the ovulation period. Women have been shown to also have greater motivations to attend social gatherings and have an increase in desire for immediate rewards. Most importantly, women have been seen to derogate other women, or competition, during their fertile periods, to increase their chances of mating. Participants of the study included 88 undergraduate females from the University of Texas, Austin. They were between the ages of 17 and 30 years and the mean age was 19.10 years. All participants were normally ovulating, not taking any form of hormonal contraceptive, and were tested and considered to be fertile at the time of testing. Participants were compensated with either course credit or $30. All participants were chosen based on their answers to a telephone prescreening. Participants could not have current or recent use of hormonal contraceptives, irregular cycle length, recent birth of a child and/or currently breastfeeding, dramatic weight change, use of antidepressants, or regular cigarette smoking. They were placed into two experimental sessions, one of high-fertility and the other of low-fertility. To begin the procedure, all participants underwent luteinizing hormone (LH) testing to determine which of the fertility groups they would first be placed into. A full body photo was taken of each participant to observe clothing choices at the time of each lab session. Biographical measures were taken as well as a series of three other questionnaires. These questionnaires included a romantic relationship survey, with questions regarding sexual histories, current romantic relationships, and relationship histories, the Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI), which measures an individual’s willingness to have sex without commitment, and a desirability scale, which assesses participant self-perceived attractiveness. In addition, participants were asked to complete an outfit illustration task, which instructed them to design an outfit for a friend’s party by using colored pencils to draw the outfit onto a paper doll indicating where the shirt, pants, shorts, skirt, etc. will begin and end. All of these procedures were carried out for participants in both the low-fertility and high-fertility groups. The results of this procedure indicated that women closest to ovulation in their highfertility session showed a greater increase in the amount of skin revealed at high fertility compared to low fertility. Women who completed high-fertility testing on other days showed little difference in total skin revealed from high-fertility to low-fertitlity testing. Revealingness rating of the clothing illustration differed significantly between high and low fertility, and it was strongly moderated by proximity to ovulation. Also, women sketched outfits that were rated higher in revealingness at high fertility compared to low fertility and there was a stronger difference for women closer to ovulation. Illustrations were rated sexier at high fertility than at low fertility. As for the relationship between sexual experience and clothing choice the following results were found. The effect of more skin being revealed during high fertility for women closest to ovulation in their high-fertility session was true only for sexually experienced women. Sexually inexperienced women closest to ovulation showed no change in the amount of skin revealed across sessions. Sexual experience did not moderate the effect of fertility on the revealing or the sexy ratings of the outfit illustration. As for the ratings of clothing worn to the lab, women who had not experienced sexual intercourse received higher ratings at low fertility than at high fertility. The opposite was true for women who had experienced sexual intercourse. As for the relationship between relationship status and clothing choice, the following results were found. Women closest to ovulation in their high-fertility session who were not in committed relationships revealed a great amount of skin on the illustration during high fertility than during low fertility. Women closest to ovulation in their high-fertility session who were currently involved in romantic relationships showed no change in skin revealed across sessions. As for the clothing worn to the lab, women who were in a relationship showed more skin and wore sexier outfits at low fertility than at high fertility, whereas the opposite was seen for single women. As for the relationship between attractiveness and clothing choice, it was found that women with lower self-perceived attractiveness wore outfits that were more revealing and sexy near ovulation compared to during low fertility. As for the relationships between the SOI and clothing choice, it was found that sexually unrestricted women displayed more skin and wore outfits that were rated as sexier and more revealing at high fertility than at low fertility in comparison to sexually restricted women. Finally, for the relationship between relationship satisfaction and clothing choice, it was found that women reporting high levels of satisfaction with their romantic partners revealed more skin in their illustrations and received higher revealing ratings at high fertility. The hypothesis of this study was supported. This indicates that women prefer more revealing clothing during the onset of ovulation, particularly in mating-relevant settings. Testosterone is correlated with greater sexual motivation in women. Participants that were on low doses of this hormone showed greater interest in revealing clothing. Single women in high fertility showed more interest in revealing clothing than women who had steady partners. This may be due to the fact that single women have a greater reason to compete on the mating market that partnered women. This reflects an increase in intrasexual competition. The more satisfied women were with their relationships, the more likely they were to prefer revealing clothing during high fertility. This seems counterintuitive, but it may be that these women still feel that they are competing with other women, even though they are in a committed relationship. This decision to continue impressing their mate can result in potentially high consequences at high fertility. For women of lower perception of self-attractiveness, there was a more significant shift from unrevealing to revealing clothing during ovulation. This is because women who have a higher perception of self-attractiveness may just attract unwanted attention by increasing the skin they show. The marginal benefit may be too small for women who are naturally attractive, regardless of ovulation. A possible explanation for this shift in clothing preference may be that women feel a greater sexual desire around the time of ovulation. This may motivate them to dress more attractively. Another possibility is that they seek to attract extra pair mates in order to secure genetic benefits for offspring through an extra pair copulation with a mate displaying indicators of good genes. There were a couple of limitations to this study. On is that women may simply “dress down” during low-fertility rather than “dress up” during high-fertility. Also, there were small effect sizes, just enough to have significant evidence. Future studies on this topic should include a larger sample size and some form of measurement for competition between females. Outline 1) Women’s Choice of Dress Across the Ovulatory Cycle a) Women prefer clothing that is more revealing and sexy when fertility is highest within the ovulatory cycle 2) Why do women’s preferences for clothing change across the cycle? a) Women simply feel more attractive near ovulation b) Women dress up more near ovulation as a result of an increase in intrasexual competitiveness, to enhance their ability to compete with other women. 3) Previous research showing shifts in social motives & behaviors a) Experience greater sexual desire & more frequent sexual fantasies during the fertile window of the cycle b) Increased perception of attractiveness & feelings of sexiness c) Greater motivations to attend social gatherings d) Greater distances traveled by foot e) Fewer calories consumed f) Increase in desire for immediate rewards g) Derogate the competition when reproductive stakes are higher 4) Cues of Ovulation a) People can detect ovulatory shifts in women’s social behaviors directed towards others. b) Men have evolved to detect by-products of cycling hormones, including changes in body scent. c) Women may be altering their appearance across the cycle so that they appear more physically attractive when fertility is highest. 5) Method a) Participants i) 88 undergraduate females at the University of Texas, Austin ii) Between 17 & 30 years of age with a mean age of 19.10 years iii) All normally ovulating iv) Compensated with course credit or $30 v) Tested for fertility and all were considered to be fertile at the time of high-fertility testing b) Procedure i) Telephone prescreening was done to determine if participants fit within the following criteria: (1) No current or recent use of hormonal contraceptives (2) No irregular cycle length (3) No recent birth of a child and/or currently breastfeeding (4) No dramatic weight change (5) No use of antidepressants (6) No regular cigarette smoking ii) 2 experimental sessions: High-Fertility & Low-Fertility iii) Luteinizing hormone (LH) testing done to determine High & Low fertility groups iv) Full-body photo taken v) Biographical Measures taken vi) Questionnaires completed (1) Romantic Relationship Survey (a) Questions regarding sexual histories, current romantic relationships, & relationship histories vii) Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (Simpson &Gangestad, 1991) (1) Measures an individual's willingness to have sex without commitment viii) Desirability Scale (1) Assesses participant self-perceived attractiveness ix) Outfit Illustration Task (1) Design an outfit for your friend’s party tonight, at which a lot of single and attractive people will be (2) Use colored pencils to draw the outfit onto a paper doll indicating where the shirt, pants, shorts, skirt, etc. will begin and end 6) Results: a) Fertility & Clothing Choice i) Women closest to ovulation in their high-fertility session showed a greater increase in the amount of skin revealed at high fertility compared to low fertility ii) Women who completed high-fertility testing on other days showed little difference in total skin revealed from high-fertility to low-fertility testing iii) Revealingness rating of the clothing illustration differed significantly between high and low fertility, and it was strongly moderated by proximity to ovulation iv) Women sketched outfits that were rated higher in revealingness at high fertility compared to low fertility (1) Stronger difference for women closer to ovulation v) Illustrations were rated sexier at high fertility than at low fertility b) Sexual Experience & Clothing Choice i) The effect of more skin being revealed during high fertility for women closest to ovulation in their high-fertility session was true only for sexually experienced women ii) Sexually inexperienced women closest to ovulation showed no change in the amount of skin revealed across sessions iii) Sexual experience did not moderate the effect of fertility on the revealing or the sexy ratings of the outfit illustration iv) As for the ratings of clothing worn to the lab, women who had not experience sexual intercourse received higher ratings at low fertility than at high fertility. The opposite was true for women who had experience sexual intercourse c) Relationship Status & Clothing Choice i) Women closest to ovulation in their high-fertility session who were not in committed relationships revealed a great amount of skin on the illustration during high fertility than during low fertility ii) Women closest to ovulation in their high-fertility session who were currently involved in romantic relationships showed no change in skin revealed across sessions iii) As for the clothing worn to the lab, women who were in a relationship showed more skin and wore sexier outfits at low fertility than at high fertility, whereas the opposite was seen for single women d) Attractiveness & Clothing Choice i) Women with lower self-perceived attractiveness wore outfits that were more revealing and sexy near ovulation compared to during low fertility e) SOI & Clothing Choice i) Sexually unrestricted women displayed more skin and wore outfits that were rated as sexier and more revealing at high fertility than at low fertility in comparison to sexually restricted women f) Relationship Satisfaction & Clothing Choice i) Women reporting high levels of satisfaction with their romantic partners revealed more skin in their illustrations and received higher revealing ratings at high fertility 7) Discussion a) Hypothesis was supported – Women prefer more revealing clothing during the onset of ovulation, particularly in mating-relevant settings. b) Sexually experienced women showed the desire to wear more revealing clothes during high fertility and less of this desire during low fertility. However, sexually inexperienced women showed no significant difference here. c) Women who were taking low doses of testosterone wore more attractive clothing than the control group women. d) Single women in high fertility were more likely to prefer revealing clothing than women who had steady partners. e) The more satisfied partnered women were with their relationships, the more likely they were to prefer revealing clothing during high fertility. f) For women of lower perception of self-attractiveness, there was a more significant shift from unrevealing to revealing clothing during ovulation. 8) Possible explanations for shift in clothing preference a) Hormone-mediated changes in motivation b) Women may pay more attention to their attire to attract extra pair mates 9) Limitations & future directions a) Possible that premenstrual symptoms cause women to “dress down” rather than ovulation causing women to “dress up” b) Small effect size c) Further research is needed to examine the evolved function of motivations underlying cycle shifts in clothing choice. Critical Review Items 3 interesting/informative points Sexually experienced women revealed more skin when they were at their peak fertility than when they were at their lowest fertility, but sexually inexperienced women showed no difference. o Women who are more open to causal sex desired more revealing and sexier outfits during their high fertility. Mated women who are more satisfied with their relationships are more inclined to dress sexy during ovulation, as compared to those who are less satisfied. o This also supports the intra-sexual perspective by demonstrating that women who are satisfied want to remain competitive when they are most fertile because the cost of losing their desired mate are highest at that moment. Near ovulation, women who have a lower self-perceived attractiveness prefer more revealing clothing than do the other women. o The cost of attracting the wrong men may be higher for those who already feel themselves attractive since they risk being seen as promiscuous. Those who feel they are less attractive do not have much to lose. 3 points which were disagreed It may be that women dress down after ovulation rather than dress up during ovulation. Is dressing more revealing clearly an indication of how interested any woman is to attract a mate? It may be in the best interest of the study to look into how much time each woman spent getting ready or how well they took care of themselves, health-wise. The sample size was too small to generalize these findings to women overall. Are these shifts in clothing also seen in different cultures? Test Questions 1. Which of the following is NOT a shift that takes place in females during ovulation? a. Greater motivations to attend social gatherings b. More calories consumed c. Increase in desire for immediate rewards d. Increased perceptions of attractiveness 2. Which of the following may be reasons for the shift in female clothing preference during or near ovulation? a. Women simply feel more attractive during ovulation b. Women dress up more as a result of an increase in intrasexual competitiveness c. Both A and B 3. 4. 5. 6. d. None of the above It was once believed that human ovulation is completely concealed, even from women themselves. a. True b. False Which of the following may have an effect on the shift in female clothing preference? a. Level of sexual experience b. Proximity of ovulation c. Satisfaction with current relationship d. All of the above Men have evolved to detect by-products of cycling hormones, including changes in body scent. a. True b. False Females with lower self-perceived attractiveness tend to wear outfits that are less revealing near ovulation compared to during low-fertility. a. True b. False Answer Key 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. B C A D A B