GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY
School of Human Services
and Social Work
Student Writing and
Referencing Guide
M ARGARET M ACLEOD
PROJECT OFFICER FOR THE GRIFFITH FIRST YEAR EXPERIENCE
FEBRUARY 2011
SPONSORED AND FUNDED BY AN AUSTRALIAN LEARNING AND TEACHING COUNCIL
NATIONAL FELLOWSHIP FOR PROFESSOR KEITHIA WILSON AND G RIFFITH HEALTH
IDEAS
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Table of Contents
Introduction……………………………………………………….2
Critical thinking……………………………………………………3
Essay writing………………………………………………………5
The pre writing process………………………………………………....6
Writing your essay………………………………………………………18
Using the ideas and words of others…………………………..25
Referencing………………………………………………………27
Formatting guidelines……………………………………………31
Editing…………………………………………………………….32
Specific writing tasks…………………………………………....37
Critical evaluation tasks.............................................................37
Case studies...............................................................................41
Reports.......................................................................................42
Academic skills resources and other assistance....................43
Sample essay.........................................................................46
1
Introduction
Welcome to the School of Human Services and Social Work. This booklet is
designed to help you acquire some essential university skills relevant to many of
your assessment tasks. These skills include critical or analytical thinking, synthesis,
essay planning, essay writing and referencing. Your tutors will support you in this
process by providing feedback on your work, and assistance will also be provided in
lectures, tutorials and workshops. There are also other support services at Griffith
University specifically designed to help students, and apart from this booklet, a range
of other resources and online tutorials. Page 43 of this booklet explains where you
may find this support.
It is not uncommon for students to feel overwhelmed by how much they are expected
to learn at university, especially in their first semester. Please remember though that
all skills needed for life, the workplace and university take time, patience,
perseverance and practice to acquire. Similarly, the acquisition of these particular
thinking, writing and referencing skills will be a gradual and ongoing process. If at
any stage you do feel overwhelmed, it can be useful to remind yourself of how much
you have already learnt in a very short space of time. Asking yourself at the end of
every week “what do I know now that I didn’t a week ago?” can be a very useful
reminder of how far you have journeyed already. For example, by reading this
introduction, you already know several things that you possibly didn’t know several
minutes ago!
IMPORTANT: It may be that particular tasks have different requirements from
the information set out in this guide. You will be informed by your markers if
their expectations are different from these guidelines.
A sample essay is provided at the end of this booklet (page 46) to model the general
advice given in this booklet. Please read this essay now to gain a general
understanding of what an academic essay looks like. Throughout the guide you will
also be directed to look at the essay at relevant points.
2
Critical Thinking
At university, you will hear the term “critical thinking” used widely, and you will be
expected to “think critically” when undertaking your assignments. Critical thinking is
important for most academic tasks though, including reading, note taking, tutorial
discussions and examinations. So what is critical thinking?
Critical thinking does not mean being negative or engaging in criticism. Instead,
critical thinking involves a range of attitudes and skills that together assist in
developing your “higher order” thinking. As you read this booklet, you will see how
critical thinking is an essential part of the entire essay writing process.
Attitudes
Critical thinkers develop the following attitudes to what they read, hear and write

Being open minded to different ideas or viewpoints

Having interpersonal and intercultural sensitivity

Being flexible – i.e. able to change
We all have beliefs and ideas, but those beliefs and ideas are based on a range of
factors, including our age, our gender, our family background and our social and
cultural backgrounds and experiences. So it is important to be aware of this, and to
remember that our beliefs and ideas are not the only ones in existence. We need to
test all our ideas against evidence, and question their validity and appropriateness.
So we all need to be flexible, to assume that our way of approaching a situation may
not always be the best way, or even the right way.
Skills
Critical thinkers develop the following skills

Thinking creatively

Making connections, seeing relationships between ideas, approaches, arguments
etc

Problem solving

Reasoning- i.e. logical thinking, supporting claims or ideas

Asking questions
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We can learn to be creative in how we approach a task, to see relationships and
connections between ideas, to seek out all possible answers to a problem, but also
to accept an answer that is different from what was originally thought. Critical
thinkers don’t just accept what they hear or read, but look for evidence for claims
being made. Importantly, they also base any claims they make on valid evidence.
The term ‘critical thinking’ is often used interchangeably with the word ‘analysis’,
although analysis is really just one form of critical thinking. Students are often given
feedback in assignments that they need to be ‘more analytical’. There are many
definitions of analysis or analytical thinking (look them up on the web) but for your
purposes, it may be useful to see analysis as asking and responding to specific
types of questions. The following table outlines the kinds of questions that involve
analysis. Descriptive questions (level 1) will need to be asked and answered, but
these questions are less important than the analytical questions (levels 2-4) outlined
below. Importantly, you will also receive fewer marks for description than you will
receive for analysis. So, unless you are specifically asked to write a descriptive
essay, always minimise description. Instead, make sure that your essay contains
information that answers ‘how’ or why’ or other types of analytical questions.
Level 1:(Descriptive)
Summarising/defining/facts
• What is…?
• Who…?
• When…?
• How many/how much...?
• What is an example of…?
Level 2:(Analytical)
Analysis/interpretation
• How…? Why?
• What are the reasons for…?
• What causes…?
• To what extent ……?
• How similar/different is.....?
Level 3:(Analytical)
hypothesis/prediction
• If ... occurs, then what would
happen…? Why?
• If … had happened, then what
would be different…? Why?
• What does theory … suggest
might happen if …? Why?
Level 4: (Analytical)
critical evaluation/opinion/
making judgements
• Is … correct/incorrect? Why?
• Is …effective/ineffective? Why?
• Is …clear/unclear? Why?
• Is …logical/illogical? Why?
• Is …valid/invalid? Why?
4
Essay writing
“The essence of communication is to understand and be understood”
The information in this booklet is designed to help you overcome some of the main
problems that may prevent you from getting good marks for your essays. These
include

Not addressing the task clearly or completely

Being descriptive instead of analytical

Lack of clear, supported argument

Structural problems

Not having a good introduction/conclusion

Poor paragraphing

Insufficient or incorrect referencing

Poor format i.e. spacing, capitalisation, title page missing

Poor grammar, spelling

Referencing problems
Note though that although this information is about writing essays, you will find that
much of the information, particularly the pre-writing stage information, is relevant to
other assessment tasks such as report writing and oral presentations.
Writing an essay involves much more than showing your understanding of a
particular topic. Although your content understanding is important, how you
communicate your ideas is equally important. While there are many skills that are
necessary for success, communication skills are among the most important. This is
especially true for the professions that you have chosen by taking a program in the
School of Human Services and Social Work. So given that effective communication
is an essential professional attribute, see your essay writing as learning to master
the skills that are essential to effective communication – clarity of ideas and
argument, a well organised structure etc.
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Successful essay writing involves much more than just writing. It involves a process
of thinking carefully about the task, collecting and organising relevant information,
deciding what your position is (your argument), planning the essay, writing it and
editing it. In this booklet the process of essay writing is modelled on an essay task of
general interest to students – what makes students successful at university. The
completed essay is on page 46 of this booklet.
The pre-writing process
The pre-writing process involves five stages. Each stage will involve critical thinking.
•
Unpacking the task
•
Researching
•
Synthesising information
•
Developing an argument
•
Planning your essay
Stage 1: Unpacking the task:
It’s common for students to get poor marks for otherwise well written essays
because they have not addressed, or have incompletely addressed the essay task.
So your first task is to make sure that you understand what you are required to do
so that you know exactly what to write about and you can stay on track. After all, it’s
no use making a brilliant advertisement about toothpaste if your task was to make an
advertisement about shampoo!
There are four steps to staying on track:
Step 1: Carefully read the course outline

Link your assignment task to one or several course aims or learning
outcomes

Link your assignment task to the relevant lecture and tutorial topics and
weekly readings

Ask yourself: if I were the academic, WHY would I have set THIS task?
Step 2: Carefully read any marking criteria (found in the Course Outline or on the
Learning@Griffith website for your course)
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The marking criteria may

Provide additional clues to what is expected from you

Show you where you may get the most marks (how important something
is)
HINT: Turn each criterion into a question, and when editing, check how
well you have answered that question – use a highlighter to check.
For example, below are the marking criteria relevant to the sample essay. You can
see that they make it clear that more is expected than just a simple summary of
factors that explain academic success at university. You can also see that more
marks are allocated to analysis (evaluation, argument) than they are to description
(summary/identification of key factors). If this was your essay task, you could turn
the second criterion into the question ‘Have I evaluated the factors – that is, have I
discussed how valid they are?’ and check that you have made judgements about the
factors in your essay.
MARKING CRITERIA
Criterion
Identification of key factors
Evaluation of key factors
Argument
Structure of essay
Spelling, grammar, punctuation
Referencing, reference list
TOTAL
Mark
15
20
25
15
15
10
/100
Read the essay again at this point, and decide for yourself how well the writer
has made judgements, supported with evidence, about the validity of the
importance of these factors.
Note though that not all tasks are accompanied by detailed or specific marking
criteria. Therefore, the following steps can be very important to ensure that you stay
on track.
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Step 3: Look for the directive, key, and limiting words
• Directive words: give directions
• Key words: the major concepts
• Limiting words: provide boundaries
In the simple example below, we can see that a discussion of more than one
reason will be required, because a key word is “factors” (plural), and that the
discussion should be focused on university students, not any student,
because a limiting word is “university”. The discussion should also do more
than just describe the various factors – it should look at the strengths and
weaknesses of the ideas about what makes university students successful.
This is because the directive word “discuss” means to give a complete or
detailed examination of a topic. Usually this will mean that you will be
expected to make some judgement about the strengths/weaknesses of the
different ideas about the topic. A list of directive words and their meanings can
be found at
http://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/213606/directivewords.pdf
Topic: Discuss the factors that contribute to successful student
academic performance at university (1500 word limit)
Directive words: Discuss
Key words: Factors; academic performance
Limiting words: Successful; university
Step 4: Try turning your task into questions. Many essay tasks are not written as
questions, but if you turn your task into questions, it makes easier for you to focus
your research and writing. Sometimes it helps to think about the main question in
your task, and then the other questions you will need in order to answer this main
question. See below for how this sample essay task has been turned into
questions.
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HINT: Working with other students on this important pre-writing task
can be rewarding and productive.
Topic: Discuss the factors that contribute to successful student
academic performance at university (1500 word limit)
Main Question: What factors contribute to successful student
academic performance at university?
Secondary questions:





What does successful mean?
What factors have been identified as important?
Why do they contribute to success?
Do all writers agree on these factors?
Are some factors more valid than others?
In this example above, you can see that knowing that judgments will need to
be made about the different ideas on this topic shapes the questions needed
to be asked. The writer of this essay needs to do much more than simply list
all the factors – hence the last three secondary questions, which are analytical
rather than just descriptive. So when you turn your essay tasks into questions,
remember to include analytical as well as descriptive questions. This is where
the table of questions on page 4 of this booklet can be useful.
You can also see from these questions that it is necessary to define what
“successful” means. This is because while some terms have concrete
meanings, most do not. “Successful” can mean many things, so when reading
information about this topic, it would be necessary to make sure that all
authors meant the same thing by successful. In this case, the writer of this
essay has made a decision about what “successful” means based on how it
has been defined by authors on this topic. The definition is “both completion of
a tertiary program, and achieving a grade point average (GPA) commensurate
with academic ability”.
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Stage 2: Researching
The next step is to do the appropriate research so you can assemble the
information to be used in your essay. Having a list of questions like the ones above
helps with this, because sometimes students waste valuable time by just reading
material without really knowing what they are looking for. Seeing research as the
task of finding answers to questions can help you focus your research and
reading. As you read, though, you may well find information that helps you to
develop (and answer) more relevant questions.
Usually, you will be expected to read widely in order to review critically the field of
literature on a topic. You also need to make sure that you find quality information.
This means using academic books, peer reviewed journals and other scholarly
(academic) sources. Google and Wikipedia are unacceptable sources of
information because the information supplied has not necessarily been written by a
scholar in the field and usually the sources of information (in the form of footnotes or
a bibliography) are unknown. Therefore, the validity of the information is uncertain.
Critical thinking is important, too, as you read the information you have found. As
well as making sure that it is scholarly information, you will need to assess the
information you’ve found for the evidence used to support claims made in it. Make
sure that you check the date of information written, as it is very common for scholarly
claims to be further developed, modified or even challenged over time.
Library staff can assist you in finding suitable material for your essays. There is also
an online tutorial Library Research Tutorial that guides you through the process and
a range of printable resources on the library website under Workshops and
Training http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-help-resources
Stage 3: Synthesis
As you collect and take notes about information, think critically about how it relates to
other information. This process is called synthesising information – it involves
sorting and organising information. Think of this as sorting a pile of clean clothes into
related piles; for example, t-shirts, underclothes, shorts, jeans etc. Seeing
relationships between ideas is an important critical thinking skill. For example, if
10
several authors have a similar focus, such as the importance of good teaching to
student success, you would need to take notes that show this relationship of
similarity. Make sure that you collect all the details that you will need for your in-text
referencing and reference list (see referencing section, page 27). A simple
example of a way to take notes is shown below. Notes such as this can easily be
built upon as you find more information.
Main point of
article
Importance of
teaching to
students’
success
Authors
Burton, L. & Dowling, D. (2005).
In search of the key factors that
influence student success at
university. HERDSA conference,
Sydney, July, 68-78.
http://conference.herdsa.org.au/2
005/pdf/refereed/paper_422.pdf
Retrieved 14/06/2006.
Zepke, N., Leach, L., & Prebble,
T. (2003). Student support and its
impact on learning outcomes.
HERDSA conference,
Christchurch , July,
http://surveys.canterbury.ac.nz/he
rdsa03/pdfsnon/N1148pdf
Retrieved 24/07/2006.
Kuh, G., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J., &
Whitt, E. (2005). Assessing
Conditions to Enhance
Educational Effectiveness. San
Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Main argument of
article
Need to allow for
individual learning
styles because of
student diversity
My notes (evaluation
of this information)
Not all agree that
teaching is important.
(See Pascarella and
Terenzini in Kuh et al.
2005, p.4 )
Need to allow for
individual learning
styles because of
student diversity
Need for engagement
and deep learning
Once you’ve done this with your information, you can then go a step further in your
synthesis, and put related points together. For example, the mind map below shows
all the relevant main points that have been found from reading books and journals
in researching this topic of the sample essay. However, they are still in a random
order.
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Factors contributing to successful
academic performance
Lecturers –
e.g. teaching
practices
Cognitive
ability
Self-regulation
(Regulating one’s
own academic performance –
planning,
seeking help)
Uni Support
Services
(Learning advisers,
Student counsellors etc)
manage emotions)
Physical campus
Environment
(Trees, cafes etc)
Personality:
Self-efficacy
Psychological campus
Environment(clubs, cultural groups etc)
Personality:
Emotional
Intelligence
(ability to
(belief in oneself)
Peer
support
Information Services, Learning and Teaching
The next step, then, is to synthesise or group these points together, so that they
are not in random order. In the example below ( a mind map), the points have
been placed in two major groups: those points that focus on what the institution of
the University can do to help students succeed, and those that focus on what
students themselves can do to succeed. They could be organised in other ways of
course – there is no single way to organise them. Using the clothes analogy again,
socks and underclothes could be put away in one drawer, or two drawers,
depending on the number of drawers available. Similarly, long sleeved t-shirts and
short sleeved t-shirts could be kept together, or separated. The important point
though is that they, like ideas, are organised in a logical way.
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Synthesis
Self
support
teaching
practices
efficacy.
physical
campus
cognitive
Emotional
intelligence
personality
psychological
student
institutional
Factors
contributing
to success
strategies
Information Services, Learning and Teaching
Self
regulation
Peer
support
There are many ways of organising information such as this – you don’t have to use
mind maps. Flow charts or other graphic organisers can work just as well.
Stage 4: Developing an argument.
Once you have grouped the key points you intend to make in the essay, you will
need to make a decision about the order you will put them in the essay, so that when
you move onto the writing stage, you can write your essay quickly and easily. This
process of ordering also involves critical thinking
For example, in the sample essay, a decision had to be made about whether the
institutional factors should be discussed first, or whether the factors that students
contribute to their success should be discussed first. Similarly, a decision had to be
made about the order of points in which the student factors were placed. Should
strategies be discussed first, or personality traits, for example?
The decision always depends on what your overall argument is. The overall
argument (sometimes called position or point of view or thesis) is what underpins
the entire essay, and shapes the organisation of the points you are making. It is
13
important to be clear about your argument, because you need to convince the reader
of your essay of the strength or validity of it. So just summarising information you
have found is never enough. Instead, use information to develop and support your
argument in the essay.
It can be useful to see your argument as your response or answer to the main
question you have identified in your task. In the sample essay, the main question
was “What factors contribute to successful student academic performance at
university?” The writer of the essay has decided that the overall argument is that no
single factor can be identified as solely responsible for successful performance at
university. However, the writer has also decided, on the basis of what scholarly
articles claim, that students play a major role in determining their success. It is very
important that your argument can be supported with evidence. If you cannot find the
evidence to support your argument, you may need to change it.
Your argument will determine the essay structure, and can therefore be used to plan
the essay. Try to sum up your argument in a sentence or two. This helps you to
clarify your argument and provides a thesis statement for your introduction (see
writing your essay, page 18).
HINT: Write your argument on a piece of paper and stick this at the top of the
computer. Keep referring back to this as you write to make sure that all of your
writing leads towards and supports this argument.
Stage 5: Planning your essay
Because the writer has decided to emphasise the role that students play in
determining their success, the role that institutions play has been discussed first.
This is because an argument often works best if the less important factors are dealt
with first so that the focus is on the main claims you wish to make. Similarly, some
factors such as cognitive ability have been contested, so again the less important or
more contested factors are dealt with first in the section on what students bring to
their success.
14
In the sample essay, the main points have therefore been organised in the following
way.
Institutional factors
Teaching practices
Physical and psychological environment
Student support
Student factors
Cognitive ability
Personality/behavioural – emotional intelligence
Personality/behavioural – self-efficacy
Strategies – self-regulation
Strategies – self-regulation – sense of capability and academic culture
Strategies – peer support
Word length: Planning also needs to take into account the number of points you
will make, because most essay topics have a word limit. You will need to make sure
that you stick closely to the word limit, because you are being tested on your ability
to communicate your message in a restricted space. You are allowed a 10% margin
on the word limit (see page 31 for what is included and excluded in the word limit).
A simple technique to help you stick to the word limit is to focus on the key points
you want to make. This is because each paragraph will contain one main point. Then
follow the steps below. Organising your essay in this way avoids the panic of having
too many or insufficient words. Often essays contain few points but far too much
detail. So don't focus on words - focus on points.

As a ROUGH guide, imagine each paragraph is about 150 words (paragraphs
can be any length, of course- some will be fewer than 150 words, and some
might be more).

Divide the word length of essay by 150. For example, if the word length is
1500 words, this means that you will be writing approximately 10 paragraphs,
including introduction and conclusion (it might be 7 or 15, but it won't be 4 or
40!)
15

This means that you will need to be making around 8 main points, putting
aside the introduction and conclusion. Decide the order should they should go
in, as discussed previously.

Each main point becomes the topic sentence in each paragraph. What you
now have to do is ensure that you provide sufficient detail to develop and
support those points. (Don't forget that the points should link logically to each
other)

Using boxes as depicted below may help this process:

Write one main point in each box

Check that you have approximately the correct number of points

Organise your points according to your argument
point
point
point
point
point
point
point
point
In the sample essay, written to fit into a 1500 word limit, there are 9 paragraphs,
excluding the introduction and conclusion, and approximately 1650 words, excluding
the reference list.
However, if a longer word length was required, some of the subsidiary points in the
paragraphs could be developed into main points, each requiring their own
paragraph. For example, in this paragraph taken from the sample essay, you’ll see
that the main point (the relevance of teaching practices to student academic
success) is developed by briefly mentioning some of these practices (close faculty
engagement with students, accessibility and availability of teaching staff, meaningful
16
and timely feedback on student performance, etc). Each of these different practices
could be discussed in more detail, with each forming individual paragraphs.
In the last decade, universities have become increasingly corporatised, positioning
themselves in a competitive market as high performing institutions with excellent
research, teaching and retention profiles in order to attract funding and students
(Coaldrake, Stedman & Little, 2003). This has resulted in institutions focusing greater
attention on teaching and learning practices, and the ways in which these practices
contribute to the academic success and retention of students. One approach has
been to examine the correlation between teaching practices and academic success.
For example, a study by Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh and Whitt (2005) analysed 20 American
colleges and universities with high student engagement and retention rates, and
concluded that there are many methods and techniques to achieve these goals.
However, teaching practices that facilitate engagement and deep learning are
highlighted as important. These include such practices as close faculty engagement
with students, accessibility and availability of teaching staff, meaningful and timely
feedback on student performance, collaborative learning strategies, problem solving
and other higher-order thinking tasks (Kuh et al., 2005). Teaching practices that allow
for individual learning styles and preferences are also highlighted as important,
because of increasing student diversity (Burton & Dowling, 2005; Zepke, Leach &
Prebble, 2003).
However, if a shorter word length was required (e.g. 1200 words), paragraphs 6 and
7 could have been reduced to just one paragraph, and paragraphs 8 and 9 could
have been reduced to just one paragraph. The whole essay could have even been
reduced to around 500 words, by writing one paragraph on institutional factors, and
one on student factors. Of course, most of the detail provided in the longer essay
would then be omitted.
Note also that in the final plan below, headings have been used to help organise
ideas. You are not usually required to use headings in your essay, but headings in a
plan and essay draft can help you stay on track. The headings then become
replaced with topic sentences in the final version of the essay. This is the case in the
sample essay.
17
FINAL PLAN
Introduction
Institutional factors
Para 1: Teaching practices
Para 2: Physical and psychological environment
Para 3: Student support
Para 4: Transition to next section
Student factors
Para 5: Cognitive ability
Para 6: Personality/behavioural – emotional intelligence
Para 7: Personality/behavioural – self-efficacy
Para 8: Strategies – self-regulation
Para 9: Strategies – peer support
Conclusion
Reference List
A plan such as this will make your essay writing task easier. This is because you
know what key points you are making and the order you are making them, and you
have a key word which will appear in the topic sentence in you paragraph (See
Topic Sentences, page 20)
Writing your essay
You are now ready to write! First, though, you need to know the basic structure of an
essay. As shown above in the essay plan, your essay is made up of an introduction,
the body of the essay (paragraphs), a concluding paragraph, and a reference list. An
easy way to remember the function of each section is:

Introduction: tell them what you will tell them!

Body: tell them - point by point!

Conclusion: tell them what you told them!

Referencing: tell them who said what and where you found the information !
Each section will now be discussed in detail.
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The Introduction:
The introductory paragraph has several functions.
1) It introduces the topic (essential).

This is usually a sentence or two that sets what you are discussing in
some kind of context. In the introduction to the sample essay, this context
is increasing concern over student retention.
2) It clearly explains the aim/purpose of the essay (essential)

The aim of your essay must relate to the task that you have been given. In
the sample essay, the aim clearly responds to the topic task. Use phrases
that make the aim clear to your reader, for example, ‘this paper will.. .’ ‘It is
the aim of this essay to ...’ `In this paper, the author examines…’
3) It clearly explains the structure of the essay (if necessary)
4) If your essay has several major sections, it can be useful to explain this in the
introduction to guide your reader.

In the sample essay, the writer has used the words ‘first’ and ‘second’ as
signposts for the reader to the two major sections e.g. ‘... focusing in
particular on first, institutional policies and practices, and second, students’
own contributions to their academic success’. However, you do not have to
use this explicit numerical signposting in the introduction (or the body of
the essay), and some markers may discourage it. Either approach is
usually fine, as long as it is clear from the introduction what will be
discussed, and the order it will be discussed in.
5) It may specify limits or scope (if relevant)

If your discussion only focuses on issues in Australia, or events from a
certain date, make this clear. In the sample essay, the limits to the
discussion are the countries being discussed (Australia and other western
nations).
6) It has a thesis statement (essential)

Your thesis statement is your brief summary of your overall argument/
point of view/position (see Developing an argument, page 13). In the
sample essay, the thesis statement has been condensed to one simple
sentence.

19
It is important that you tell your reader right from the start what your overall
argument is, because then your reader can see how well you develop and
support your argument. Remember, your essay should not read like a
mystery story, with its main ideas revealed only at the very end! This is
why a brief summary of your argument is set out in the introduction.

Use phrases that make your argument clear to your reader. Some
examples are `In this essay it will be argued that/contended that..’, ‘it is
the contention of this essay that...’, ‘overall, this paper suggests that...’.
Some other points about introductions:

Usually, the introduction to a first year essay is just one paragraph.

Unless directed otherwise, use third person (It will..., This paper/essay
discusses...) rather than first person (I will..).

A very clear and well written introduction is very important, so it is worth taking
time over. Some students leave their introduction to the end, some need to
write an introduction before they can get going. What matters is that you
always check that your introduction does accurately reflect what you are doing
in the body of the essay (see Editing, page 32). For example, if you tell your
reader that you are discussing four main issues and you then only discuss
three, you will confuse your reader. Remember, writing an essay is really
about communicating well. From a marker’s perspective too, a well written
introduction signals the possibility of a well written essay – it makes a good
first impression!
The Body of the Essay
The body of the essay is made up of paragraphs which link together logically to
support and develop your argument. As discussed in the Essay Planning section
(page 14), you should only have one main point in each paragraph.
Format of paragraphs
Use a topic sentence in your own words to introduce your main point.
o
The topic sentence sums up the main point of the paragraph
o
Make sure that your main point is explicitly connected to the topic. Your
reader shouldn’t be wondering why you are discussing that particular
20
issue.
o
The topic sentence is usually the first or second sentence
The rest of the paragraph is there to develop/support/illustrate that point with
relevant material.
o
This is where the information you have found from research will be used.
Check that the information you use does develop that point .
Make sure that you reference this information, so that your reader can see who you
are using to support your ideas (see Referencing page 27).
Linking paragraphs
To make an essay flow, it is important that your paragraphs connect logically to each
other, and that the connection is clear to the reader. Of course, they won’t link well if
you have not spent time in the Essay Planning stage (see page 14) making sure
that you have thought about the best order to make your points.
The best way to link paragraphs is to use transition words (sometimes called linking
or connecting words). These help create a smooth flow of ideas, and help guide the
reader through your essay. Without them, your essay can seem like a series of
unrelated ideas. Transition words are important in speech too, for the same reason.
They are an essential communication device.
To make your essay flow, then, you need to analyse the relationship between points
and then use the appropriate transition word to connect them. This can be done in
the topic sentence. For example, if one point you are making is similar to a previous
point, you can use the word ‘similarly’ to signal this. If you want to discuss additional
information, you could use ‘in addition’. If you are moving from describing an issue in
one paragraph to explaining the reason for it in the next, you could start with ‘The
reason for this is ....’
You can also use transition words to signal the point or reason for the transition
between sections. For example, if one section of your essay discusses the historical
21
background to a current policy, and the second section discusses the current effects
of that policy, you could start the second section this way:
Having discussed the historical background to this policy, this essay will now
analyse its effects on Indigenous Australians.
The sample essay contains many transition words. Read it to see whether the
writer has achieved a smooth flow of ideas in the essay. Note also that
transition words are used to signpost when sections finish or start.
A quick Google search will uncover many lists of transition words. Here are a few
useful sites – there are many more.
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/trans1.html
http://www.ssdd.uce.ac.uk/learner/writingguides/1.33.htm
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/Resources/la/QuickClicks%20Repository/LC_work
sheet_linking%20words.pdf
Using paragraphs to develop arguments
Paragraphs are used to develop and support your argument. This means that you
must know from the start what your argument is, as discussed on page 13. This
also means that you must do much more than just “cut and paste” information.
Rather, you must USE information to develop and support your overall argument. A
paragraph full of information is not particularly useful to the reader if the reader
doesn’t know why you are providing them with this information. So tell your reader,
clearly.
One way of doing this is to end paragraphs or sections with a concluding sentence
which links the main idea of the paragraph back to the question and your overall
argument. The final sentence in this paragraph from the example essay does this. It
reminds the reader that the topic is academic success, and that the writer’s overall
argument is, in part, that more than one factor alone contributes to successful
academic performance.
22
As well as emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, or a belief in one’s ability to
manage situations and achieve goals (Bandura, 1993) has also been suggested to be an
important predictor of academic success. According to Bandura, this is because
students with high self-efficacy
approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to
be avoided … set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment
to them …heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure … [and] quickly
recover their sense of efficacy after failures and setbacks (p.144).
Self-efficacy has been linked to motivation, effort and perseverance (Cassidy & Eachus,
2000), all factors identified as important in achieving academic success. However, not all
studies concur with Bandura’s findings. For example, Cassidy and Eachus (2000), in a
study of first and second year undergraduates, found that academic self-efficacy alone
was not a direct predictor of academic achievement. Burton and Dowling (2005) claim
that several studies confirm this finding. They suggest that more than just a belief in
one’s abilities contributes to academic success.
You don’t need to do this with every paragraph – but the relevance of every
paragraph to the topic and your argument should be apparent to the reader. A
useful technique to help you use paragraphs successfully is to ask yourself at the
end of every paragraph, ‘Why am I telling my reader this? How is this information
relevant to my overall argument?’ Make sure that your answers to these questions
can be found in the paragraph.
More on paragraphs
It is best not to start a paragraph with a quote
o A quote should develop or support a point made in your own words

Avoid one or two sentence paragraphs
o
This suggests that you only have a point with minimal or no support or support without a point!

If you have a very short paragraph
o It may be that you are just developing or supporting a main point made
in a previous or subsequent paragraph. If this is the case, the short
paragraph needs to be integrated into the previous or subsequent
paragraph.
o It may be that the paragraph contains a subsidiary point that is related
to the main point in the previous or subsequent paragraph. If this is the
case you will either need to integrate it as above, or develop and
support this point further with supporting evidence.

23
If you have a very long paragraph
o Ask yourself if you have more than one main point in it. If you do,
separate the main points into separate paragraphs. If you don’t, you
may have too much detail, or too many subsidiary points that need
reducing.
The Conclusion
The function of the concluding paragraph is to tie all the information you’ve
presented together in such a way that your reader clearly understands your
reasoning and is convinced by your overall point of view. Just as a good introduction
makes the reader aware of what you are discussing, and interests them in your
essay, an effective conclusion will help your reader see why all your analysis and
information is important and has been worthy of reading.
An effective conclusion

Is one paragraph only in an undergraduate essay

Synthesises the main points/ideas of your essay
o Include a brief summary of the essay’s main points, but don't simply
repeat things that you have stated. Instead, show your reader how the
points you made and the support and examples you used fit together.

Restates your thesis to emphasise your overall point of view or argument

Never introduces new material or ideas (although you can suggest the need
for further research etc).
Note that the conclusion in the sample essay includes an appropriate quotation from
the research to make an important point relevant to the overall argument. However,
only include quotations in the conclusion if they serve this purpose.
Put together, the introduction and conclusion should capture your main ideas you are
presenting to your reader. So it’s useful to read both together to see if they do this.
Read the introduction and conclusion of the sample essay provided. See how
they complement each other, rather than just repeat the same things.
24
Using the ideas and words of others
Most of your essay should be made up of your words. The words you use should be
sufficiently formal. You will see that the sample essay uses words such as ‘disparate’
and ‘facilitate’. At first, you may be unfamiliar with such words, but as you read more
at university, these words will become recognisable, and you will find that using them
becomes customary. Use a dictionary if you don’t understand a word, either a hard
copy version, or an on-line version, such http://dictionary.reference.com.
To ensure a sufficiently formal tone, don’t use clichés, which are overused phrases,
such as ‘all in a day’s work’ or ‘busy as a bee’. Don’t use colloquialisms or slang
language either. Replace ‘kids’ with ‘children’, for example. You will also need to be
gender neutral. This means omitting pronouns such as ‘she’ or ‘him’, unless of
course you are referring to a specific male or female. Useful information about this
can be found on
http://www.kentlaw.edu/academics/lrw/grinker/LwtaGender_Neutral_Language.htm.
To support the points that you wish to make, though, you will need to use what
scholars or credible authors have said. Sometimes this will involve paraphrasing
what they have said. This means capturing the main point in a short section of text in
your own words, so that the original meaning is kept even though your words are
used. Or you can summarise what someone else has said. A summary is a short
version of a longer piece of writing, written in your own words.
Don’t just change words around, or consult a thesaurus for similar words. This
doesn’t tell your marker how much you really understand. Instead, read what you
want to paraphrase or summarise, close the book or article, and tell an imaginary (or
real) person your understanding of what you have read. Although you will need to
keep any discipline-specific terminology, by using your own words you are showing
your understanding of what someone else has written by making it your own
explanation. Remember, though, that even though this information is written in
your own words, you will still need to reference it (see Referencing, page 27).
See http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-help-
25
resources/academic-integrity-tutorial for more information on this, including
examples of paraphrased and summarised work.
However, it can also be useful to occasionally use direct quotations. Quoting
involves using the exact words that others have written. Used carefully, quotations
can act as an authoritative voice in your writing. However, you should only use
quotations to develop or support a point that you have made. Quotations should not
replace your own ideas and words. Some points on quoting:

Generally, it is best to use quotations very sparingly, and to keep the
actual number of words quoted to a minimum. Too many direct quotations
tell your reader that you are good at cutting and pasting, but very little
about what you understand!

Quotations of fewer than 40 words should be placed within double
quotation marks and integrated into the sentence (see example essay).

Longer quotations should be started on a new line and indented.
Quotation marks are not necessary in this case. Line spacing for an
indented quote should be double spaced (see example essay).

To indicate errors in the original source, use sic, italicized and bracketed:
e.g. ‘. . . biolgical [sic]’
26
Referencing
For many students, referencing can seem very daunting. However, once you know
WHY you need to reference, and learn HOW to reference, it will become a
manageable part of essay writing.
Referencing is the practice of acknowledging the sources of the information that you
have used in academic essays or other tasks. Referencing is important because any
claims you make in an essay need to be supported with valid research. Therefore,
you need to show your reader the source of your information, so that the reader may
locate and examine your sources, and check on their validity.
Referencing also demonstrates your skills as a researcher. It tells your marker how
much reading and research you have undertaken. So see referencing as a positive
for you, not a meaningless chore.
Referencing the information you are using also ensures that the intellectual work of
others is acknowledged. By doing this you also avoid plagiarism (intellectual theft)
which means to take and use another person's ideas or work and pass these off as
one's own by failing to give proper acknowledgement. All writers of academic work
need to recognise and honour the contribution of others. We strongly recommend
that you use the Academic Integrity Tutorial to be well informed about this. Go
to http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-help-resources/academicintegrity-tutorial
There are many ways to reference. In the School of Human Services and Social
Work, you are expected to use the American Psychological Association (APA)
Style. With APA, you reference in the essay itself (called in-text referencing) and
provide a list of all the sources that you have used in the essay on a separate page
at the end of the essay (called a Reference List). APA provides a set of rules which
govern how you set out these in-text references and reference list. Detailed
information on in-text referencing and reference lists can be found in the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association 6th edition, located in the Library.
The call number is BF76.7 .P83 2010.
27
However, the Griffith online Referencing Tool will provide you with some simple
examples of how to reference a range of resources you may have used when
researching a topic, including books, print and electronic journals and information
from the web. Remember to select the APA referencing style. Go to:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-helpresources/referencing
The sample essay also models how to integrate references into the essay,
and construct a reference list.
In-text referencing
When you write your essay, you will need to make sure that whenever you use
information someone else has written (either as a direct quote or your paraphrase or
summary of that information), you supply details of the family name of the author and
date of publication of the text. You also include page numbers if you are directly
quoting.
You will need to make these three things clear at all times
1. Who said it (the author of the material)
2. What was said (the quote or summary)
3. Where you found it (the in-text reference – family name, year and page
number/s).
Examples
If a paraphrase or summary is used, then the in-text referencing would look like this
According to Smith, frogs are green (Smith, 1992). However, Jones
notes that not all frogs are green (Jones, 2001).
Or this
According to Smith (1992) frogs are green. However, Jones (2001) notes
that not all frogs are green.
If a direct quote is used, the in-text referencing would look like this
28
According to Smith, ‘frogs are green’ (Smith, 1992, p.26). However,
Jones notes that not all frogs are green (Jones, 2001).
Or this
According to Smith (1992) ‘frogs are green’ (p.26). However, Jones
(2001) notes that not all frogs are green.
Some common mistakes with in-text referencing include:

Referencing only after a direct quotation
o
A reference after the quotation only tells the reader who the author of
the quotation is. If you continue with more information from that or
another author, you must reference that too.

Referencing only at the end of the paragraph
o
If all the information in that paragraph comes from just one source,
then one reference at the end will be acceptable. However, usually you
will be developing and supporting a point you’ve made with more than
one source.
References
The reference list is your list of all the sources you have referred to (cited) in your
essay. You will need to provide all the information needed to allow a reader to
find a source.
Some points about the reference list:

Start your reference list on a new page.

Head the first page only References (centered at the top of the page).

All text should be double spaced just like the rest of your essay.

Your reference list should be arranged alphabetically by author (family name
first).
o
All co-authors should be listed, in the same order they appear in the
source you have used.
o
If there isn’t an author, alphabetise by the first significant word in the
title
29

Page numbers should be included for all articles in journals.

Use italics for titles of books, periodicals, newspapers etc.

Indent second and third lines. This is called a “hanging indent” – see
paragraph – special- hanging on your computer.

Use (n.d.) if no date is given.
Bibliography
A bibliography is a listing of ALL sources used to obtain background information to
write the paper, whether you have referenced them in your essay or not. For
example, you might have consulted some books or websites when you researched
for your essay, but did not include the information you found in your essay.
In general, you will not be expected to include a bibliography at undergraduate level.
If you do wish to, though, it comes after the reference list, and is formatted in the
same way as the reference list. It will consist of all the sources you placed in your
reference list and those you used but did not cite in the essay.
30
Formatting guidelines
Below are some general guidelines for formatting your essay. If there are different
requirements for any task, the teaching staff will let you know.
General format: Your essay should be word processed or typed, on A4 size paper,
single side only. Include a cover page, with your name, student number and the
essay topic.
Page numbers: Page numbers must be included, preferably at the bottom of each
page
Font: Font size 12, Times New Roman or Arial (the sample essay uses Arial font )
Spacing: Use double line spacing. Indent the first word of every paragraph (by
pressing Tab, or Paragraph -special – first line).
Margins: Page margins should be 2.54 cm (computer default).
Word Length: A margin of 10% over or under the stipulated word length is
permitted. The word length includes in-text references and direct quotes. However,
the reference list is not included in the word length.
Headings: Headings are usually not used in essays unless otherwise stipulated.
However, headings are essential in reports.
31
Editing
Once you’ve finished writing your essay, it can be tempting to just hand it in.
However, many valuable marks can be lost by failing to edit your essay, so it’s
important to factor this crucial step into the time you’ve planned for the task.
Remember, as a student and a professional, you will be judged on the quality of your
written communication.
If you can, it’s best to allow yourself a little time to step back from your essay before
editing, because you will be evaluating it with fresh eyes. Print out a copy, and use
this to make notes. Asking someone else to read your essay is also useful, because
they will be able to spot mistakes you might have overlooked. They can also offer a
fresh perspective on your work. For example, you might think you’ve explained
something clearly when you haven’t.
The following steps will help you with this crucial task.
First, check that your essay does address the task you’ve been set. Imagine that
you’ve been asked a question: does your essay clearly answer it? Turn the marking
criteria into questions too. Use a highlighter to see where you have answered these
questions. If you can’t find the answers, neither will your marker!
Second, check your essay for spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors.
o
Don’t just rely on the spelling and grammar function on your computer,
although that’s a good place to start.
o
Read your essay out loud to yourself. Often you can hear a mistake that
you can’t see. For example, if you find that you’ve run out of breath
before finishing a sentence, this suggests that your sentence is far too
long!
o
Some useful resources can be found at The Online Writing Lab (OWL). Go
to http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/
32
Third, check the word length of your essay. The word count function on your
computer will tell you your overall word count. Do not include the reference list in
your word count.
Increasing word length
If you end up with too few words, check that you have included all the main points
that you need to make. It could be that some of the main points you’ve made could
be subdivided into several subsidiary points, each forming their own paragraph. For
example, in the following paragraph taken from the sample essay, the factor of
willpower could have been discussed in a separate paragraph, with more detail
provided about its importance to student success.
Subsequently, there is an interest in non-cognitive factors that may contribute
to academic success. Some studies focus on various personality or behavioural traits
or capacities. One of these has been described as ‘emotional intelligence’. This term
encompasses a number of abilities, including a capacity to perceive, use and
manage the emotions of one’s self and others (Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey,
1990). Emotional intelligence, it is claimed, is an important predictor of academic
achievement. For example, Parker et al (2004) suggest that the ability to recognise
and understand one’s feelings (intrapersonal ability), the ability to adjust one’s
emotions and behaviours to changing situations (adaptability), and the ability to
manage one’s emotions and behaviours in times of stress (stress management or
resilience) all contribute to successful transition from high school to university and
successful completion of the first year at university. Willpower, or self-discipline,
identified in some research as an important predictor of success (Duckworth &
Seligman, 2006) may be seen as a component of emotional intelligence, since it
rests on an ability to delay gratification.
Reducing word length
If you end up with too many words, it’s important to not discard important points. As
we discussed on page 17, sometimes words can be reduced by putting two related
points into the same paragraph. To do this, remove unnecessary detail. For
example, the following two paragraphs of 277 words (excluding quotations and
references) have been reduced to one paragraph of 180 words (excluding quotations
and references) by omitting detail - a saving of 97 words. Since both paragraphs
dealt with the same key factor (personality/behavioural traits) this is not of concern.
The detail omitted from the original paragraphs has been highlighted in red.
33
Original Paragraphs
Subsequently, there is an interest in non-cognitive factors that may contribute to academic
success. Some studies focus on various personality or behavioural traits or capacities. One of these has
been described as ‘emotional intelligence’. This term encompasses a number of abilities, including a
capacity to perceive, use and manage the emotions of one’s self and others (Goleman, 1995; Mayer &
Salovey, 1990). Emotional intelligence, it is claimed, is an important predictor of academic achievement.
For example, Parker et al. (2004) suggest that the ability to recognise and understand one’s feelings
(intrapersonal ability), the ability to adjust one’s emotions and behaviours to changing situations
(adaptability), and the ability to manage one’s emotions and behaviours in times of stress (stress
management or resilience) all contribute to successful transition from high school to university and
successful completion of the first year at university. Willpower, or self-discipline, identified in some
research as an important predictor of success (Duckworth & Seligman, 2006) may be seen as a
component of emotional intelligence, since it rests on an ability to delay gratification.
As well as emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, or a belief in one’s ability to manage situations
and achieve goals (Bandura, 1993) has also been suggested to be an important predictor of academic
success. According to Bandura, this is because students with high self-efficacy
approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided … set
themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them …heighten and sustain
their efforts in the face of failure … [and] quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures and
setbacks (p.144).
Self-efficacy has been linked to motivation, effort and perseverance (Cassidy & Eachus, 2000), all factors
identified as important in achieving academic success. However, not all studies concur with Bandura’s
findings. For example, Cassidy and Eachus (2000), in a study of first and second year undergraduates,
found that academic self-efficacy alone was not a direct predicator of academic achievement. Burton and
Dowling (2005) claim that several studies confirm this finding. They suggest that more than just a belief in
one’s abilities contributes to academic success.
Reduced Paragraph
Subsequently, there is an interest in non-cognitive factors that may contribute to academic
success. Some studies focus on various personality or behavioural traits or capacities. One of these has
been described as ‘emotional intelligence’; a term encompassing a number of abilities, including a
capacity to perceive, use and manage the emotions of one’s self and others (Goleman, 1995; Mayer &
Salovey, 1990). Emotional intelligence, it is claimed, is an important predictor of academic achievement
(Parker et al.,2004). Willpower, or self-discipline, identified in some research as an important predicator
of success (Duckworth & Seligman, 2006) may be seen as a component of emotional intelligence, since
it rests on an ability to delay gratification. As well as emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, or a belief in
one’s ability to manage situations and achieve goals (Bandura, 1993) has also been suggested to be an
important predicator of academic success. According to Bandura, this is because students with high
self-efficacy
approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided … set
themselves challenging goals and maintain strong commitment to them …heighten and sustain
their efforts in the face of failure … [and] quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures and
setbacks (p.144).
Self-efficacy has been linked to motivation, effort and perseverance (Cassidy & Eachus, 2000), all factors
identified as important in achieving academic success. However, not all studies concur with Bandura’s
findings (Cassidy & Eachus, 2000; Burton and Dowling, 2005). This suggests that than just a belief in
one’s abilities contributes to academic success.
Another way of reducing words is to check that you have made your point simply and
clearly. Sometimes a lot of unnecessary words are used in sentences. For example,
rather than writing "There is a big trend in which we are seeing towards social work
34
positions being filled by human services workers who may be qualified in their areas
of practice however are not social workers and do not have those but do not have
social work qualifications (Healy & Meagher, 2004)", this could be written: "There is a
trend towards social work positions being filled by human service workers (Healy &
Meagher, 2004).The original sentence of 50 words is reduced to 18 words, a saving
of 32 words in just one sentence!
Finally, use the following checklist to edit your work. Go through each step yourself,
or give your essay and the checklist to someone else and ask them to check this for
you. Print out several copies of this checklist to make sure you remember to
use it with every essay.
35
CHECKLIST
Does the introduction ...





Introduce the general topic (set topic into broader context)?
Tell the reader what the essay is about (aim/purpose)?
Explain the structure of the essay (first, this essay will...)? (if necessary)
Explain any limitations (e.g. In Australia; since 1940)? (if necessary)
Have a thesis statement (a summary of overall point of view)?
Does each paragraph...




Have a clear topic sentence (in your own words) which explains the main point (just one) of the
paragraph?
Clearly develop/support/illustrate that point in subsequent sentences (summarised in own
words as much as possible)?
Develop the argument?
Link clearly to the next paragraph (e.g. do the points logically relate to each other)?
Does the conclusion...



Sum up the main points made in the essay?
Restate the overall point of view or argument?
Not introduce new material?
Referencing



Have all ideas in the essay been correctly referenced?
Is it clear who is saying what?
Do all these references appear (correctly) in the reference list?
Argument



Is the overall point of view clear?
Is it clearly and explicitly developed throughout the essay?
Does the argument clearly relate to and address the assessment topic
In general



36
Has the essay topic been answered explicitly and fully?
Is the essay analytical (i.e. Has it focused on `why', `how', `to what extent' and minimised
description (the response to `what', ‘when’ ‘who’)
Are quotes kept to a minimum and used only to develop or support a point already made in own
words?
Specific Writing Tasks
The above information has been designed to guide you through the general process
of writing essays. However, different tasks can sometimes require a specific
approach to how you organise information in your essay. The following information is
a brief guide to critical evaluation tasks, including case study tasks; and reports.
Critical evaluation tasks
The ability to critically evaluate (sometimes called critically analyse or review) is an
essential skill at university and the workplace, and life in general.
You may be asked to critically evaluate /analyse
an important issue or an organisation – perhaps as part of a case study (see case

study tasks)

someone’s research/ argument/ approach

your performance or the performance of another
The first step is to understand what “critical analysis” or ‘critical evaluation’ means in
relation to these tasks.
What does analysis mean?
‘To show the essence of something by breaking it down into its component parts,
examining each part in detail and explaining issues’. It also means

Making connections (between theory and practise/data)

Seeing relationships between information
What does criticise/critique mean?
 To give your opinion on something (for example, what has been done/has been
written/an approach
 To support your opinion with evidence

not criticise in the sense of simply stating that something is “bad”
What does evaluate mean?
 Weigh up strengths and weaknesses
 Appraise the worth of something - test assumptions - judge the worth of an
argument or position
37
So, to critically analyse or evaluate means to break something down into parts – i.e.:
- steps
- processes
- components
- stages
and provide your opinion on each part by asking the right type of analytical
questions.
The analytical question sheet on page 4 of this booklet provides some
examples of evaluative questions. Here are some more:
•
•
•
•











Is … correct/incorrect? Why?
Is …effective/ineffective? Why?
Is …clear/unclear? Why?
Is …logical/illogical? Why?
Is …valid/invalid? Why
What are strengths/weaknesses of..? WHY?
How useful/useless is ..? WHY?
How relevant/irrelevant is ..? WHY?
How comprehensive/incomprehensive is… WHY?
What are the benefits of…? WHY?
How appropriate/inappropriate is…? WHY?
What problems are there with…? WHY?
How adequate/inadequate was..? WHY?
What worked/didn’t work……? WHY?
How valid/invalid is…? WHY?
Supporting your judgements.
Students are often concerned about making judgements. They feel that they do not
have enough experience to be able to make claims about, for example, how well
someone or an organisation has performed. However, in your course you are
provided with ‘tools’ to do this – you use these tools to support your judgements, to
answer the why part of the question. Tools may include frameworks, models,
concepts, theories, or scholarly research. These tools also may provide knowledge
of what to look for in the item being analysed/evaluated/reviewed, and a framework
or basis for breaking up the whole into components
So knowing your tools and choosing the correct ones for the task is essential.
Most students forget this vital step
38
For example…
If you were asked to critique or critically analyse/evaluate/review an oral presentation
you’d seen, you would first need to know about oral presentations – such as what
makes a ‘good’ or ‘bad’ presentation, for example. You’d probably find that this is
discussed in lectures and tutorials, and you might need to find more information
about this in books and articles.
You then would need to break the whole presentation into component parts. These
could include:

Performance
»

Speed, tone, eye contact, timing etc
Technology used
»
Visual aids etc

Audience interaction

Room setting
Then you would start making judgements about each part by asking evaluative
questions, such as how appropriate something was, or how well it was done. The
best way to approach this is to take notes that help you make these judgements
Theory (tool)
Performance (engagement)
Speed should be……
(reference)

Tone should be……..
(reference)

Eye contact should be….
(reference)
Technology


Etc
39
Power points should …. (ref)
Practice
Performance


Speed was inappropriate
because… (examples/detail)
Tone was appropriate
(examples/detail)
Technology

Use of power points poor
because ..
When you write your essay, make sure that you don’t simply describe what you are
evaluating. You will get more marks for analysis, that is, clearly providing your
judgement, and supporting it. Take one issue (component) at a time. Describe what
you are analysing or evaluating, evaluate it and support your claims. There are two
ways of organising your information.
Example 1
Brief definition of and description of performance in workshop
Analysis of strengths or weaknesses (your evaluation or judgement)
Support for your evaluation (judgement) – references (tools)
Example 2
Explanation of what a good performance should involve – references (tools)
Brief description of performance in workshop
Analysis of strengths or weaknesses (your evaluation or judgement)
IMPORTANT:
•
Keep to a consistent structure -check with your tutor for particular preferences
•
You may need to include different points of view. For example, not all experts
may agree that random eye contact is essential.
•
Make sure that you explicitly use theories, models, research etc to support
your judgements. Don’t just summarise theories etc.
In short...take one point or issue at a time
 Explain (describe)
o what is the…/what has been claimed ..
 Comment (analyse/evaluate)
o provide opinion
 Support (evidence)
o how do I know this?
o
40
is there a different opinion?
Sample paragraph
One important skill that contributes to a successful oral presentation is the skill of
engaging one’s audience. As Bloggs (2007) points out, ‘Effective presenters recognize
that communication is both intellectual and emotional. Organizing your ideas is only part
of the task, although it is an important task. The other important task is to gain and
maintain attention (p.28). In the presentation being evaluated, the audience appeared
bored and restless. One reason for this could be that eye contact was not made with the
audience. Jones (2007) claims that making random eye contact is a primary tool for
establishing audience involvement, and that the speaker should …… In addition to this,
Smith (2007) suggests that the presenter should ………………………………………………
A further reason could be that the voice tone was flat and monotonous. As Lee (2009)
points out… ……This suggests that use of these techniques, making eye contact
and varying the tone and pitch of one’s voice, would have assisted in gaining and
maintaining audience interest, thereby contributing to an effective oral
presentation. Without these techniques, this aspect of the presentation was
unsuccessful.
Key point of paragraph evaluation analysis and support evidence
Paragraph conclusion (point in relation to topic and argument)
Argument
As we discussed on page 13 your essay needs to have a clear overall argument. In
this type of essay, your overall argument concerns your opinion (supported by
literature) about the object of analysis. It could be this, for example: ‘Overall, this
workshop had many strengths {identify with brief summary} but also contained some
weaknesses {identify with brief summary}’.
Case Studies
Case studies involve

looking at a (real or imaginary) situation or organisation

collecting information

analysing that information

reporting your findings
Case studies are a specific type of critical analysis/critical evaluation/critical review
task. A case study is a way of testing how well you really understand information
taught to you, because
o You have to select what is relevant to the case from what you’ve learnt, and
o You have to apply this to an actual situation
41
A case study is therefore an extremely good way of learning about an issue (through
contextual analysis).
IMPORTANT: Always make sure that you focus on the case itself, and only use
relevant information to discuss the issues you are analysing in the case study.
Reports
You may be expected to write a report rather than an essay. Always check that this
task is a formal report, because sometimes the request to write a report just means
write an essay with headings. A formal report is different from an essay in the
following ways:
Report
Headings always required (usually
numbered)
Abstract/Executive summary always required
Introduction, Body, Conclusion
Discussions and Recommendation section
Short paragraphs and dot points usually
acceptable
Objective style, analytical thinking
Meant to be read quickly – highly accessible
information
Logical flow of ideas and paragraphs
Essay
Headings only if required
Abstract/Executive summary rarely required
Introduction, Body, Conclusion
No Discussions and Recommendation
section
Short paragraphs and dot points usually not
acceptable
Objective style, analytical thinking
Meant to be read slowly and methodically
Logical flow of ideas and paragraphs
The organisation of your formal report will always depend on your task. However, a
generic format for formal reports is this:
Title page
Table of contents
Abstract/Executive Summary
1.0
Introduction
2.0
Literature review
3.0
Method
4.0
Findings
5.0
Discussion
6.0
Conclusion
7.0
Recommendations
Reference List
Appendices
42
Academic Skills Resources and Other Assistance
Assistance with Group Work
An invaluable guide to working effectively in groups is available for purchase
in the bookshop, and is also located in the library, in the reserve section. The
call number is LB1032 .F68 2006 . The book is called Groups Work! A guide
for working in groups. Authors: Jane Fowler, Leanne Whicker, and Amanda
Gudmundsson.
Self Help Resources (resources for writing, referencing, reading, studying etc)
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-help-resources
Academic Integrity Tutorial
The Academic Integrity Student Tutorial can help you to understand what
academic integrity is and why it matters to you as a Griffith University student.
By following the steps in each module, you will be able to identify the
academic integrity policy and forms of academic misconduct, understand what
skills you need to maintain academic integrity, and learn about the processes
of referencing styles
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-helpresources/academic-integrity-tutorial
Referencing Tool
The Referencing Tool is designed to provide you with examples of direct
quotations, paraphrasing and full references for a range of resources you may
have used when researching a topic.
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-helpresources/referencing
APA 6th Online Tutorial
This tutorial is designed for those who have no previous knowledge of APA
Style. It shows users how to structure and format their work, recommends
ways to reduce bias in language, identifies how to avoid charges of
43
plagiarism, shows how to cite references in text, and provides selected
reference examples.
http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.aspx
Library Research Tutorial
The Library Research Tutorial introduces new students to academic research
at Griffith University. By following the steps recommended in each module,
you will be able to analyse, plan, find, evaluate and use information from a
range of sources.
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-helpresources/library-research-tutorial
Academic Writing Tutorial
The Academic Writing Tutorial provides students with an opportunity to
understand the academic writing process so that they can apply it when
completing assignment tasks. The tutorial is organised into four modules:
unpacking the question; researching and planning; structuring and writing;
and editing and proofreading
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/self-helpresources/academic-writing-tutorial
Workshops
Workshops are offered, free of charge, to assist students with academic skills,
computing skills and library research skills. Go to:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/workshops
44
Learning Advisers
Learning Advisers are professional educators who work with students to
achieve their academic goals. They are located on each campus and can
advise you on issues related to academic writing, study and reading
techniques, exam preparation, time management and other academic skills.
At Logan, the Learning Adviser is located in the library, on the second floor,
Room 3.44. Phone: 3382 1108.
Learning Advisers offer:

Individual and small group sessions
An appointment is necessary. To make an appointment, go to
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training and click on
the Book-it link
 Free workshops
No appointment is needed. Workshop information can be found on
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/workshops

Email assistance
Email: academicskills@griffith.edu.au
Phone: (Logan) 3382 1101
Information Literacy Assistance
For assistance and advice with information literacy services, contact:
Library and IT Help
ithelpdesk@griffith.edu.au4
(07) 3735 5555
Computing Assistance
ICT specialists on each campus can help you develop your ICT skills in a
range of software applications such as Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access,
EndNote and Dreamweaver. Go to:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/library/workshops-training/consultations/withcomputer-training-specialist
45
SAMPLE ESSAY
Why some students succeed at university when others ‘drop out’, or achieve
below their academic capacity, has long been of interest to educational
psychologists and those working in tertiary education. Uncovering the factors that
lead to success has recently become more pressing, as tertiary institutions in
Australia and other western nations are increasingly made accountable for student
retention and positive achievement outcomes. This essay discusses the frequently
disparate approaches to and explanations for successful academic performance at
university, focusing in particular on first, institutional policies and practices, and
second, students’ own contributions to their academic success. In this essay,
academic success is taken to mean both completion of a tertiary program, and
achieving a grade point average (GPA) commensurate with academic ability.
Overall, it is argued that a complex mix of factors contributes to successful academic
performance, not least of which are the attitudes and approaches of students
themselves
In the last decade, universities have become increasingly corporatised,
positioning themselves in a competitive market as high performing institutions with
excellent research, teaching and retention profiles in order to attract funding and
students (Coaldrake, Stedman & Little, 2003). This has resulted in institutions
focusing greater attention on teaching and learning practices, and the ways in which
these practices contribute to the academic success and retention of students. One
approach has been to examine the correlation between teaching practices and
academic success. For example, a study by Kuh, Kinzie, Schuh and Whitt (2005)
analysed 20 American colleges and universities with high student engagement and
46
retention rates, and concluded that there are many methods and techniques to
achieve these goals. However, teaching practices that facilitate engagement and
deep learning are highlighted as important. These include such practices as close
faculty engagement with students, accessibility and availability of teaching staff,
meaningful and timely feedback on student performance, collaborative learning
strategies, problem solving and other higher-order thinking tasks (Kuh et al., 2005).
Teaching practices that allow for individual learning styles and preferences are also
highlighted as important, because of increasing student diversity (Burton & Dowling,
2005; Zepke, Leach & Prebble, 2003).
As well as teaching practices, the physical and psychological environment
provided by tertiary institutions is also claimed to be a significant factor contributing
to students’ academic success. Kuh et al. (2005) stress that one important
contribution institutions can make is to encourage learning by offering appropriate
and attractive physical spaces for student discussion and studying. Another
important psychological contribution institutions can make is to encourage
participation and peer support by offering community and recreational activities, such
as clubs, cultural groups and sporting activities and facilities. It is claimed that
students who feel welcome and part of a community, who are given opportunities to
participate in tertiary culture, and who enjoy the physical space in which they
socialise and work, are more likely to stay and succeed (Hoffman, Richmond,
Morrow & Salomone, 2003; Zepke et al., 2003).
Finally, in regard to institutional factors, the availability of student support
services has also been identified as a factor contributing to academic success. In a
New Zealand study of student support and its impact on learning outcomes, Zepke et
al. (2003) found that students who received support for their emotional, social and
47
academic needs were more able to achieve their academic goals. These services
may include counselling, administrative support, academic, library and computing
support services that enhance teaching and learning, and special programs
designed to assist transitional issues (Kuh et al., 2005; Levy & Murray, 2003; Zepke
et al., 2003).
However, many scholars frequently emphasise that although institutional
factors can contribute to successful academic performance, it is students themselves
who ultimately determine their academic outcomes. As Pascarella and Terenzini
note, ‘students are not passive recipients of institutional efforts to “educate” or
“change” them, but rather bear a major responsibility for any gains derived from their
post secondary experience’ (Pascarella & Terenzini in Kuh et al. 2005, p.4). Several
factors have been identified as significant in the ways students affect their own
learning outcomes. These are cognitive ability, personality and behavioural factors,
and students’ approaches to learning. This essay will now discuss each in turn.
Cognitive ability may seem like an obvious determinant of academic success.
Cognitive ability is usually understood in terms of previous academic performance
and/or various ‘intelligence’ or ‘aptitude’ tests (Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer & Elliot,
2002). Various studies have suggested that cognitive ability is indeed a major factor
in predicting academic performance. For example, it has been claimed that
‘students who enter university with higher entry scores also achieve higher academic
results’ (McKenzie & Schwiitzer in Burton & Dowling, 2005, p.69). Similarly, a study
by Burton and Dowling (2005) found that previous academic performance was a
significant predictor of first year university performance. However, these findings
have been debated, with other studies suggesting that this measure of success (in
terms of grade point average or student attrition) has been overstated (Parker,
48
Summerfeldt, Hogan & Majeski, 2004). This is because some students who achieve
high scores on aptitude tests perform badly or leave university, whilst others who do
not score well are very successful. Indeed, according to Ransdell (2001), current
research indicates that ‘standardized college admissions tests … account for no
more than about 20% of the variance in first-year GPA’ (p. 357). This suggests that
cognitive or intellectual ability alone is not a major factor in achieving academic
success.
Subsequently, there is an interest in non-cognitive factors that may contribute
to academic success. Some studies focus on various personality or behavioural
traits or capacities. One of these has been described as ‘emotional intelligence’. This
term encompasses a number of abilities, including a capacity to perceive, use and
manage the emotions of one’s self and others (Goleman, 1995; Mayer & Salovey,
1990). Emotional intelligence, it is claimed, is an important predictor of academic
achievement. For example, Parker et al. (2004) suggest that the ability to recognise
and understand one’s feelings (intrapersonal ability), the ability to adjust one’s
emotions and behaviours to changing situations (adaptability), and the ability to
manage one’s emotions and behaviours in times of stress (stress management or
resilience) all contribute to successful transition from high school to university and
successful completion of the first year at university. Willpower, or self-discipline,
identified in some research as an important predictor of success (Duckworth &
Seligman, 2006) may be seen as a component of emotional intelligence, since it
rests on an ability to delay gratification.
As well as emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, or a belief in one’s ability to
manage situations and achieve goals (Bandura, 1993) has also been suggested to
49
be an important predictor of academic success. According to Bandura, this is
because students with high self-efficacy
approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as threats
to be avoided … set themselves challenging goals and maintain strong
commitment to them …heighten and sustain their efforts in the face of failure
… [and] quickly recover their sense of efficacy after failures and setbacks
(p.144).
Self-efficacy has been linked to motivation, effort and perseverance (Cassidy &
Eachus, 2000), all factors identified as important in achieving academic success.
However, not all studies concur with Bandura’s findings. For example, Cassidy and
Eachus (2000), in a study of first and second year undergraduates, found that
academic self-efficacy alone was not a direct predicator of academic achievement.
Burton and Dowling (2005) claim that several studies confirm this finding. They
suggest that more than just a belief in one’s abilities contributes to academic
success.
The deliberate acquisition of strategies that enhance learning and thinking is
considered by some researchers to be particularly important. This is often called
academic self-regulation, which is defined as taking responsibility for one’s academic
performance (Dembo & Eaton, 2000). Unlike self-efficacy, which focuses on belief in
one’s ability, or emotional intelligence, which focuses on emotional management,
this approach focuses on correlations between academic achievement and the ways
in which students actively seek out strategies and techniques to achieve their goals.
According to Zimmerman (1990)
Self-regulated learners are aware when they know a fact or possess a skill
and when they do not ….[and] …proactively seek out information when
50
needed. [They] view acquisition as a systematic and controllable process, and
they accept greater responsibility for their achievement outcomes (p. 4).
Because of this emphasis on self-regulation, successful students plan, set goals,
organise, self-motivate, self-monitor and self-evaluate, and take responsibility for
finding ways to acquire skills that enable these strategies. Importantly, the emphasis
here is not on innate traits, but on the proactive seeking out of help with learning and
study. Strategies that can be taught include note taking techniques, organising and
analysing information, critical thinking, effective reading and writing techniques, time
management, prioritising and overcoming procrastination (Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
Thus, students who attend academic institutions that offer such learning resources
and take advantage of these resources, appear to perform better than those who do
not, and may actually increase their self-efficacy as a consequence (Cassidy &
Eachus, 2000; Dembo & Eaton, 2000).
Linked to this, it has been claimed that students who take responsibility for
forming peer support networks, and actively take advantage of institutional services
designed to encourage social participation and engagement, are less likely to
experience alienation and withdraw from academic study (Kuh et al., 2005; Zepke et
al., 2003; Hoffman et al., 2003). This may be particularly important for international
students. Studies suggest that social isolation is frequently identified by this broad
group as a major problem, and that those who attempt to solve this problem by
actively seeking ways to make friends and engage in social activities are more
successful (Beaver & Tuck,1999; Robertson, Line, Jones & Thomas, 2000).
These diverse and sometimes contradictory explanations for why some
students succeed where other fail suggest that academic success can not be
attributed to a single factor. Rather, it seems probable that a complex mix of factors
51
explains a successful academic performance. These include the policies and
practices of the university itself, although, as Coates points out ‘the best facilities,
courses and teachers are of no consequence if students don’t capitalise on them’
(Coates, 2006, p. 28).Therefore, it also seems that students who take control of and
accept responsibility for their academic performance, and actively seek ways to stay
motivated and engaged, study, think and learn effectively, and who form peer or
other support networks, may well have the edge when it comes to success at
university.
52
References
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and
functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28 (2), 117-148.
Beaver, B. & Tuck, B. (1999). The adjustment of overseas students at a tertiary
institution in New Zealand. HERDSA Annual international Conference,
Melbourne, 12-15 July.
http://www.herdsa.org.au/branches/vic/Cornerstones/pdf/Beaver/PDF
Retrieved 14/06/2006.
Burton, L. & Dowling, D. (2005). In search of the key factors that influence student
success at university. HERDSA conference, Sydney, July
http://conference.herdsa.org.au/2005/pdf/refereed/paper_422.pdf
Retrieved
14/06/2006.
Cassidy, S. & Eachus, P. (2000). Learning styles, academic belief systems, selfreport student proficiency and academic achievement in higher education.
Educational Psychology, 20 (3), 307-322.
Coaldrake, P., Stedman, L., & Little, P. (2003). Issues in Australian University
Governance www.chancellery.qut.edu.au/vc/governancefinal.pdf
53
Coates, H. (2006). Engage the entire experience. The Australian, Higher Education,
Wednesday July 26, 28.
Dembo, M. & Eaton, M. (2000). Self-regulation of academic learning in middle-level
schools. The Elementary School Journal, 100 (5), 473-549.
Duckworth, A. & Seligman, M. (2006). Self-discipline gives girls the edge:gender in
self-discipline, grades, and achievement test scores. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 98 (1), 198 - 208.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
Harackiewicz, J., Barron, K., Tauer, J., & Elliot, A. (2002). Predicting success in
college: A longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as
predictors of interest and performance from freshmen year through
graduation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94 (3), 562-575.
Hoffman, M., Richmond, J., Morrow, J., & Salomone, K. (2003). Investigating “sense
of belonging” in first-year college students. Journal of College Student
Retention: Research, Theory and Practice, 4 (3), 227-256.
http://baywood.metapress.com/(u4st0fn0xslxh545thhrkc55)/app/home/contrib
ution Retrieved 21/07/2006.
54
Kuh, G., Kinzie, J., Schuh, J., & Whitt, E. (2005). Assessing Conditions to Enhance
Educational Effectiveness. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
Levy, S. & Murray, J. (2006). The transition of ‘at risk’ students: strategies for
success. Seventh Pacific Rim First Year in Higher Education,
http://www.fyhe.qut.edu.au/FYHE_Previous/papers03/Refereed%20Papers/F
ull%20papers/Levy&Murray-paper.doc Retrieved 17/07/2006.
Mayer, J. & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence.
Intelligence, 12 (1), 433-442.
Parker, J., Summerfeldt, L., Hogan, M., & Majeski, S. (2004). Emotional intelligence
and academic success: examining the transition from high school to
university. Personality and Individual Differences, 36 (1), 163-172,
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob+ArticleURL&_udi Retrieved
14/06/2006.
Ransdell, S. (2001). Predicting college success: the importance of ability and noncognitive variables. International Journal of Educational Research, 35 (4),
357-364.
55
Robertson, M., Line, M., Jones, S., &Thomas, S. (2000). International students,
learning environments and perceptions: a case study using the Delphi
technique. Higher Education Research & Development, 19 (1), 89-102.
Zepke, N., Leach, L., & Prebble, T. (2003). Student support and its impact on
learning outcomes. HERDSA conference, Christchurch , July,
http://surveys.canterbury.ac.nz/herdsa03/pdfsnon/N1148pdf Retrieved
24/07/2006.
Zimmerman, B. (1990). Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: an
overview. Educational Psychologist, 25 (1), 3-17.
http://www/eaonline.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1207/51532698sep25012 Retrieved
14/06/2006.
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