Timeline on Japanese-American Internment
1790 - The U.S. Congress, in a law passed on March 26, 1790, states that "any alien, being a free white
person who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for a term
of two years, may be admitted to become a citizen thereof."1
1873 - The phrase "persons of African nativity or descent" is added to the 1790 law. The supplemented
1790 law will be used to deny U.S. citizenship to Asian immigrants until 1952.2
Late 1870s – Labor leaders in California, such as Dennis Kearney (an Irish immigrant who helped found
the California Workingman’s Party) mobilizes support for banning Chinese immigration to the U.S.A.3
[See Document 1, an 1878 speech by Kearney for his reasoning.]
May 6, 1882 - Congress passes the Chinese Exclusion Act, banning Chinese immigration to the United
States; the act also prohibits Chinese immigrants already residing in the continental U.S. from attaining
citizenship.4 This measure is the first significant effort to restrict immigration into the United States.5
With later renewals, this law will prohibit Chinese immigration for the next 60 years.6
1885 - Japanese laborers begin arriving in Hawaii, recruited by plantation owners to work the sugarcane
fields.7
September 2, 1885 - Anti-Chinese rioters set fire to Chinatown in Rock Springs, Wyoming, killing 28
Chinese miners and wounding fifteen. The rioters are angered by what they claim is the negative effect
of the Chinese on wages as well as the use of Chinese as strikebreakers. All 16 white suspects are later
acquitted.8
1890s - Japanese immigrants begin to arrive in significant numbers ( > 27,000 b/t 1891-1900) on the
mainland U.S. for work primarily as agricultural laborers. Most settle on the west coast of the U.S.,
especially California.9 Prior to 1908, the vast majority of Japanese immigrants to the continental U.S. are
young males, and Japanese communities are formed in cities such as San Francisco and Sacramento.10
1892 – Dennis Kearney of the California Workingman’s Party organizes mass meetings calling for the
exclusion of Japanese from the continental U.S.A.11
1893 – The San Francisco Board of Education considers segregating Japanese students from white
students, but backs down after protests from Japanese diplomatic officials.12
June 27, 1894 - A U.S. district court rules (In re Saito) that Japanese immigrants cannot become citizens
because they are neither "a free white person" as the Naturalization Act of 1790 requires, nor "persons
of African nativity or descent" as stipulated in the 1873 addition to the 1790 Act. By its decision, the
district court extends the Chinese Exclusion Act’s ban on Chinese immigrants being eligible for
citizenship to Japanese immigrants. As a result, Asian immigrants are banned from attaining citizenship
until 1952 (see below).13
1
May 7, 1900 - The first large-scale anti-Japanese protest is held in California, organized by various labor
groups.14 [See Document 2 by San Francisco Mayor James Duval Phelan during this protest explaining
why the ban on Chinese immigration should be extended to Japanese immigrants.]
1901 – The California legislature passes a resolution calling on the U.S. Congress to include a ban on
Japanese immigration when the Chinese Exclusion Act is renewed in 1902.15
1902 – The U.S. Congress renews the Chinese Exclusion Act, but does not extend it to include an official
ban on immigration from Japan.16
February 23, 1905 - An article, "The Japanese Invasion: The Problem of the Hour," on the front page of
the San Francisco Chronicle, helps escalate racist anger towards Japanese in the Bay Area.17
May 14, 1905 - The Asiatic Exclusion League is formed in San Francisco. In attendance are labor leaders
and European immigrants, marking the first organized effort of the anti-Japanese movement.18 The
League objects to Japanese immigration on racial and economic grounds.19 [See Document 3 by Asiatic
Exclusion League; for earlier examples of these racial and economic arguments, see Documents 1 & 2.]
The League’s founding also reflects how the anxieties of white nativists on West Coast had been
heightened by Japan’s victory over Russia in the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War.20
April 1906 – After an earthquake devastates San Francisco, some displaced residents of Japanese origins
try to move into areas that had previously been exclusively white. Physical attacks on Japanese persons
and businesses result.21
October 11, 1906 – Under pressure from the Asiatic Exclusion League and local labor unions, the San
Francisco Board of Education passes a resolution to segregate children of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean
ancestry from the majority population.22 The Board of Education asserts that this separation will relieve
congestion as well as protect white children from the evil influences of Asian students; this resolution
sparks a diplomatic crisis between the U.S.A. and Japan. 23
1907 – To resolve the crisis, President Theodore Roosevelt convinces the San Francisco Board of
Education to rescind its 1906 order in exchange for the Immigration of 1907 which allows the president
to block, by executive order, the entry of Japanese immigrants to the continental U.S. by way of
Hawaii.24 On March 14, 1907, Roosevelt issues an executive order that closes off a major route of
Japanese immigration to the continental United States.25 (Between 1901 to 1907) 42,457 Japanese
immigrated to the continental United States and an additional 38,000 re-migrated from Hawaii to the
continent. Between 1885 and 1908, about 154,000 Japanese immigrated to Hawaii. Although Japanese
immigrants and their decedents became a significant part of the population of Hawaii (43% by 1920),
those of Japanese descent in California in the late 1800s and early 1900s, never comprised even 1% of
the total Californian population. (In 1920, Japanese immigrants and their decedents in the continental
United States totaled 111,000 out of a total population of 106 million.)26
Late 1907 & early 1908 - Japan and the U.S. exchange a series of diplomatic notes (eventually called the
Gentlemen's Agreement) to halt the migration of Japanese laborers into the United States (both the
2
mainland as well as Hawaii). Japanese women, however, are allowed to immigrate if they are wives of
U.S. residents.27
1908 & later - The total number of Japanese immigrants to the continental United States begins a
dramatic decline,28 but because more Japanese women immigrate to joint their husbands, the number
of children born in the U.S. to Japanese immigrants grows. These children, unlike their parents, become
American citizens under the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. In addition to forming more stable
families, Japanese immigrants begin to buy land to an effort to become farmers as opposed to
agricultural laborers.29 Large-scale white farmers in California, who had earlier supported Japanese
immigration as a labor source, join the anti-Japanese movement to oppose what they see as unwelcome
competition.30 [See Document 8 for how these economic concerns later contribute to the push for
internment in the months after Pearl Harbor.]
July 1911 -- The Asiatic Exclusion League campaigns for a formal ban on Japanese immigration to the
United States.31 [See Document 4.]
August 1913 - California passes the Alien Land Law, forbidding "all aliens ineligible for citizenship" from
owning land; the law, however, permits leases for up to three years.32 In response to the law, Japanese
immigrants often register land under the name of their children born in the U.S. who are citizens by
birth.33
1920 - Japanese American farmers produce $67 million dollars worth of crops, more than 10% of
California's total crop value, even though Japanese American farmers own less than 4% of total farmland
in California. Of the 111,000 Japanese Americans in the continental U.S., 82,000 are immigrants and
29,000 were born in the United States (those born in the U.S. are often called the Nisei; their immigrant
parents are often referred to as the Issei).34
November 1920 - A more stringent Alien Land Law passes in California that prohibits not only land
ownership but also any leasing of land by "aliens ineligible to citizenship." By 1925, the California
restrictions (of 1913 & 1920) are adopted in 12 other states (Washington, Arizona, Oregon, Idaho,
Nebraska, Texas, Kansas, Louisiana, Montana, New Mexico, Minnesota, and Missouri). During World
War II, Utah, Wyoming, and Arkansas pass similar restrictions bringing the total number of states with
such laws to sixteen. 35
July 19, 1921 - White vigilantes at gunpoint deport 58 Japanese laborers from Turlock, California. Other
incidents occur across California and in Oregon and Arizona.36
November 13, 1922 - In the Ozawa v. U.S. case, the Supreme Court reaffirms the ban on Japanese
immigrants becoming naturalized U.S. citizens.37
1924 - Congress passes the Immigration Act of 1924 effectively ending all Japanese (and any Asian)
immigration to the U.S. The 1924 act, as well as other measures passed in the 1920s, also significantly
restricts immigration from south and east Europe. Some scholars have argued that earlier actions
3
against the Chinese and the Japanese helped develop West Coast support for reducing immigration from
south and east Europe.38
1936 - President Franklin D. Roosevelt expresses concern to military officials on the loyalty of Japanese
residents in Hawaii; an FBI report at the time speculated that “every Japanese in the United States who
can read and write is a member of the Japanese intelligence system.” FDR eventually queries military
officials as to “What arrangements and plans have been made relative to concentration camps in the
Hawaiian Islands for dangerous or undesirable aliens or citizens in the event of [a] national
emergency?”39
1939 - Lists of "dangerous" enemy aliens and citizens began to be compiled by various government
departments, such as the FBI, special intelligence agencies of the Justice Department, the Office of Naval
Intelligence, and the Army's Military Intelligence Division.40
1940 - The census finds 126,947 Japanese Americans in the continental United States; 62.7% are citizens
by birth. In addition, 157,905 persons of Japanese ancestry are located in the Territory of Hawaii, and
another 263 are in the Territory of Alaska.41 Japanese Americans make up about 2% of the population in
California and about 1/3 of the population in Hawaii.42
Summer, 1941 - The Hawaiian National Guard (made up largely of Nisei) is federalized and later
becomes the 100th Infantry Battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team.43
November 7, 1941 - A U.S. Intelligence report known as the "Munson Report," commissioned by
President Roosevelt, concludes that the great majority of Japanese Americans are loyal to the U.S. and
do not pose a threat to national security in the event of war with Japan.44 Separate investigations by the
FBI and by the Office of Naval Intelligence into the loyalty of Japanese Americans produce similar
findings.45
November 26, 1941 - Grace Tully (Roosevelt's secretary) tells Henry Field (anthropologist and aide to
Roosevelt) that the President is ordering him to produce, in the shortest time possible, the full names
and addresses of each American-born and foreign-born Japanese listed by locality within each state. She
tells him to use the 1930 and 1940 census.46
December 7, 1941 - Japan bombs U.S. ships and planes at the Pearl Harbor military base in Hawaii. Over
3,500 servicemen are wounded or killed. Martial law is declared in Hawaii. The Japanese also attack
American military facilities in the Philippines, Guam, and Midway Island.
December 7, 1941 - A blanket presidential warrant authorizes U.S. Attorney General Francis Biddle to
have the FBI arrest a predetermined number of "dangerous enemy aliens," including German, Italian,
and Japanese nationals. The FBI begins arresting Japanese immigrants identified as community leaders:
priests, Japanese language teachers, newspaper publishers, and heads of organizations. Within 48
hours, 1,291 are arrested. Most of these men will be incarcerated for the duration of the war.47
December 8, 1941 - A declaration of war against Japan is requested by the President and passed by
Congress. The Attorney General of the United States also announces that the FBI is detaining a select
4
group of Japanese aliens who are regarded as “dangerous to the peace and security” of the nation. He
states that only a small number of Japanese aliens will be arrested and warns against a tendency to
consider all Japanese aliens in the United States as enemies. On December 8, 1941, the U.S. government
closes the land borders of the United States to all enemy aliens and to all people of Japanese ancestry,
whether alien or citizen.48
December 11, 1941 - The Army creates the Western Defense Command, which is given the responsibility
of defending the Pacific Coast of the United States. Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt is appointed as
the WDC’s commander.49
December 15, 1941 - Without any evidence of sabotage, Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox announces to
the press, "I think the most effective Fifth Column work of the entire war was done in Hawaii...."50 [For
an excellent brief explanation why claims at the time and since that Japanese Americans were engaged
in espionage are false, see Greg Robinson, “Why the Media Should Stop Paying Attention to the New
Book that Defends Japanese Internment” (9-8-2004) http://hnn.us/articles/7092.html.51 During WWII,
none of the 10 people convicted of spying for Japan were of Japanese ancestry; all ten were white.52]
December 22, 1941 - The Agriculture Committee of the L.A. Chamber of Commerce recommends that all
Japanese nationals be put under "absolute Federal control."53 [See Document 8 for how the Salinas
Vegetable Grower-Shipper Association will later use economic and racial reasoning for the internment of
Japanese Americans.]
December 29, 1941 - All enemy aliens in California, Oregon, Washington, Montana, Idaho, Utah, and
Nevada are ordered to surrender contraband. In the following weeks, the FBI searches thousands of
Japanese American homes on the West Coast for contraband. Short wave radios, cameras, heirloom
swords, and explosives used for clearing stumps in agriculture are among the items confiscated.54
December 30, 1941 - The Attorney General of the United States authorizes raids without a search
warrant on the homes of people of Japanese descent provided that at least one resident is a Japanese
alien.55
January 4, 1942 - Lt. Gen. DeWitt meets with the Chief of the War Department's Aliens Division to
devise a definition of strategic areas from which all enemy aliens will be excluded.56 [For DeWitt’s views
on Japanese Americans, see Documents 6 & 7.]
January 5, 1942 - Japanese American selective service registrants are classified as enemy aliens (IV-C).
Many Japanese American soldiers are discharged or assigned to menial labor such as "kitchen police."57
January 6, 1942 - "I do not believe that we could be any too strict in our consideration of the Japanese in
the face of the treacherous way in which they do things," writes Leland Ford, L.A. Congressman, in a
telegram to Secretary of State Cordell Hull, asking that all Japanese Americans be removed from the
West Coast.58
5
January 25, 1942 - The government releases a report about the Pearl Harbor attack, prepared by U.S.
Supreme Court Justice Owen J. Roberts. The report alleges, without documentation, that spies in Hawaii,
including Japanese-American citizens, helped the Japanese naval force attack Pearl Harbor.59
January 28, 1942 - The California State Personnel Board votes to bar all "descendants of natives with
whom the United States [is] at war" from all civil service positions. This was only enforced against
Japanese Americans.60
January 29, 1942 - The Attorney General begins to establish prohibited zones forbidden to all enemy
aliens. German, Italian, and Japanese aliens are ordered to leave San Francisco waterfront areas.61
January 30, 1942 - "Unless something is done [,] it may bring about a repetition of Pearl Harbor," says
Earl Warren, California Attorney General, calling Japanese Californians the "Achilles heel of the entire
civilian defense effort."62 [In 1941, Warren had argued that, "when we are dealing with the Caucasian
race we have methods that will test [their] loyalty," but "when we deal with the Japanese we are in an
entirely different field" because their “method of living” is so different from whites.63]
February 4, 1942 - The U.S. Army establishes 12 "restricted areas" in which enemy aliens are under a 9
p.m. to 6 a.m. curfew, are allowed to travel only to and from work, and not more than 5 miles from their
home.64
February 6, 1942 - A Portland American Legion post urges the removal of "enemy aliens, especially from
critical Coast areas," including Japanese American citizens.65
February 10, 1942 - Secretary of War Henry Stimson writes in his diary: "The second generation
Japanese can only be evacuated either as part of a total evacuation, giving access to the areas only by
permits, or by frankly trying to put them out on the ground that their racial characteristics are such that
we cannot understand or even trust the citizen Japanese. This latter is the fact [,] but I am afraid it will
make a tremendous hole in our constitutional system to apply it."66
February 10, 1942 - Attorney General Biddle is advised by agency lawyers that removal of people of
Japanese descent from Pacific Coast areas can be a legal exercise of the President's war powers.67
February 11, 1942 - Secretary of War Stimson calls President Roosevelt and recommends the mass
evacuation of people of Japanese descent from the Pacific Coast area. Roosevelt tells Stimson to do
whatever he believes is necessary.68
February 12, 1942 – Columnist Walter Lippmann publishes a nationally syndicated column in which he
says, "The Pacific Coast is in imminent danger of a combined attack from within and from without."69
February 13, 1942 - The West Coast congressional delegation requests that the President remove "all
persons of Japanese lineage... aliens and citizens alike, from the strategic areas of California, Oregon and
Washington."70 [See also Document 5, an editorial cartoon by Dr. Seuss (Theodor Seuss Geisel) published
on February 13, 1942 in New York newspaper PM.]
6
February 14, 1942 - The U. S. Army’s Western Defense Command sends a memorandum to the
Secretary of War recommending the evacuation of “Japanese and other subversive persons” from the
Pacific Coast area.71
February 16, 1942 – The California Joint Immigration Committee urges that all Japanese Americans be
removed from the Pacific Coast and any other vital areas.72
February 19, 1942 -- President Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066, authorizing the secretary of war to
define military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded as deemed necessary or
desirable." Under this order, military authorities can exclude civilians from any area without trial or
hearing. Although the order did not specify Japanese Americans, they are the only group to be
imprisoned without individual hearings. During WWII, 3,200 resident aliens of Italian background are
arrested and about 11,000 German residents, including some naturalized citizens, are arrested, but all
those of European ancestry who are arrested are granted trials where they face specific charges – a
process denied to Japanese Americans. Eventually more than 300 resident aliens of Italian background
are interned and more than 5000 German residents are interned.73 The only significant opposition to
Executive Order 9066 at the time comes from the Quakers and the American Civil Liberties Union.74 [For
the text of Executive Order 9066, see http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5154.]
February 20, 1942 - Secretary of War Stimson appoints Lt. General DeWitt to carry out Executive Order
9066.75 [See Document 6 by DeWitt from 1942 in which he recommends the exclusion of Japanese
Americans from the West Coast. See also Document 7 by DeWitt (1943) in which he further explains
the rationale for his actions during 1942.]
February 23, 1942 - A Japanese submarine shells an oil refinery near Santa Barbara, California, causing a
small amount of damage. [Later, another Japanese submarine shells the Oregon coast on June 21, 1942
with little effect. A submarine-launched aircraft will drop two incendiary bombs in the forest near
Brookings, Oregon on September 9, 1942, and another two bombs will be dropped by the same aircraft
in the Oregon forest about three weeks later. Neither bombing causes significant damage.76]
February 25, 1942 - The U.S. Navy orders all Japanese Americans living on Terminal Island in the Port of
Los Angeles -- some 500 families -- to leave within 48 hours. As the first group to be removed en masse,
they incur especially heavy losses.77
February 28, 1942 – The House Committee on Un-American Activities (Dies Committee) releases its 300
page “Report on Japanese Activities,” containing almost every possible charge against Japanese
Americans.78
March 2, 1942 - General DeWitt issues Public Proclamation No. 1, creating military areas in Washington,
Oregon, California, and parts of Arizona and declaring the right to remove German, Italian, and Japanese
aliens and anyone of "Japanese Ancestry" living in Military Areas No. 1 and 2 should it become
necessary. DeWitt begins the process of removing all persons of Japanese ancestry -- U.S. citizens and
aliens alike -- living in the western halves of Washington State, California, Oregon, and parts of Arizona.
7
A curfew goes into effect in these areas -- all those of Japanese ancestry must remain at home from 8
pm to 6 am.79
March 5, 1942 - The State of California "releases" 34 Japanese American civil servants from their jobs.80
March 12, 1942 - The Secretary of Treasury designates the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco to
handle Japanese American property, while the Farm Security Administration is given control over
Japanese American farms and farm equipment. Evictees are told:
no Japanese need sacrifice any personal property of value. If he cannot dispose of it at a fair
price, he will have opportunity to store it prior to the time he is forced to evacuate by Exclusion
Order. Persons who attempt to take advantage of Japanese evacuees by trying to obtain
property at sacrifice prices are un-American, unfair, and are deserving only of the severest
censure.
However, there are no interventions to freeze unfair transactions by the Federal Reserve Bank and only
one instance of intervention by the Farm Security Administration.81
March 16, 1942 - DeWitt issues Public Proclamation No. 2, creating Military Areas 3 to 6 in Idaho,
Montana, Nevada, and Utah, respectively.82
March 1942 - The Wartime Civil Control Administration opens 16 "Assembly Centers" to detain
approximately 92,000 men, women, & children until the permanent incarceration camps are
completed.83
March 18, 1942 - The President signs Executive Order 9102 establishing the War Relocation Authority
(WRA) with Milton Eisenhower as director. The WRA is empowered “to provide for the removal from
designated areas of persons whose removal is necessary in the interests of national security….” The
WRA is further empowered to provide for evacuees’ relocation and their needs, to supervise their
activities, and to provide for their useful employment.84
March 21, 1942 - Congress imposes federal penalties for anyone who refuses to obey orders to leave
designated military areas. Manzanar, the first American internment camp, opens.85
March 23, 1942 - The first Civilian Exclusion Order is issued by the DeWitt for Bainbridge Island near
Seattle, Washington. Alien and non-alien persons of Japanese ancestry (45 families) are given one week
to leave Bainbridge Island in Seattle's Puget Sound. [By the end of October 1942, 108 exclusion orders
will be issued.]86
March 24, 1942 - Public Proclamation No. 3 includes Japanese American citizens among "enemy aliens"
who must obey travel restrictions, curfew, and contraband regulations.87
March 27, 1942 - "Voluntary evacuation" ends as the Army prohibits the changing of residence for all
Japanese Americans in the western halves of Washington State, California and Oregon.88
8
March 28, 1942 - Minoru Yasui walks into a Portland police station to surrender himself for arrest to test
the curfew regulations in court.89
April 7, 1942 - A meeting of WRA officials with representatives of 11 western states convenes in Salt
Lake City, Utah. The representatives for the most part express distrust of and dislike for the people of
Japanese descent who were being evacuated to their states. The WRA concludes that, because of this
hostile local opinion, the evacuees from the Pacific Coast must be housed in evacuation camps guarded
by the Army. During the meeting, the governor of Wyoming told the director of the WRA, “If you bring
Japanese into my state, I promise you they will be hanging from every tree.”90
May 1942 - Incarcerees begin transfer to permanent WRA incarceration facilities or "camps." The camps
eventually total ten: Manzanar, Poston, Gila River, Topaz, Granada, Heart Mountain, Minidoka, Tule
Lake, Jerome, and Rohwer.91
May 13, 1942 - Ichiro Shimoda is shot and killed for trying to escape from Fort Sill.92
May 16, 1942 - University of Washington student Gordon Hirabayashi turns himself in to authorities
with a four-page statement explaining why he will not submit to imprisonment on Constitutional
grounds.93
May 30, 1942 - Fred Korematsu is arrested in San Leandro, California for exclusion violation.94
June 3-6, 1942 - The significant Allied victory at the Battle of Midway turns the advantage in the Pacific
war to the United States.95
June 7, 1942 - General DeWitt announces completion of the removal of 100,000 Japanese Americans
from Military Area No. 1.
June 12, 1942 - Fred T. Korematsu is charged with violation of Exclusion Order No. 34 in the U.S. District
Court for Northern California.
June 17, 1942 - Dillon S. Myer replaces Milton Eisenhower as WRA Director.96
July 12, 1942 - Mitsuye Endo's attorney files a writ of habeas corpus on her behalf. Although the case
will not be decided until December 1944, its ruling will signal the end of the incarceration camps.97
June 29, 1942 - 1600 inmates from assembly and relocation centers are sent to fill the sugar beet labor
shortage in Oregon, Utah, Idaho, and Montana.98
July 27, 1942 - Two men are shot dead by a camp guard while allegedly trying to escape from the
Lordsburg, New Mexico, internment camp. Both men had been too ill to walk from the train station to
the camp gate prior to being shot.99
August 7, 1942 - Removal of all Japanese Americans (over 110,000) completed in Military Areas No. 1
and 2.100
9
August 18, 1942 - The War Department assigns military area status to the four relocation centers
outside the Western Defense Command.101
October 12, 1942 - Roosevelt declares that Italian aliens are no longer considered "enemy aliens."102
October 20, 1942 - Trial of Gordon K. Hirabayashi begins in Seattle with Judge Lloyd L. Black.103
October 24, 1942 - Over 8000 Japanese American prisoners are working to save the beet and potato
crop harvest in various western states.104
January 1943 - The War Department announces the formation of a segregated unit of Japanese
American soldiers, and calls for volunteers in Hawaii (where Executive Order 9066 did not apply & as
such, Japanese Americans are not incarcerated en masse) and from among men incarcerated in the
internment camps. By March 1943, nearly 10,000 Japanese American men volunteer for the armed
services from Hawaii; more than 1,100 volunteer from the camps.105 [For an excellent brief explanation
of why Japanese Americans were not incarcerated en masse in Hawaii, see Greg Robinson, “Another
Sort of Pearl Harbor Infamy for Japanese Americans” (12-7-2011) http://hnn.us/articles/another-sortpearl-harbor-infamy-japanese-americans.106]
January 5, 1943 - Hirabayashi's conviction for curfew violation is reaffirmed by Ninth Circuit Court of
Appeals.107
February 3, 1943 - The U.S. Army officially activates the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, composed of
the 100th Infantry Battalion from Hawaii and Japanese American volunteers from the mainland
concentration camps. During 1943, the 100th Infantry Battalion fights in North Africa and Italy, joining
the 442nd Regimental Combat Team in June 1944. They then fight in Italy, France, and Germany, and
their 522nd Field Artillery Battalion liberates the survivors at the Dachau death camp.108
February 3, 1943 - WRA begins processing the loyalty questionnaire.109
February 20, 1943 - Seven months after it was filed, Mitsuye Endo's case is forwarded to the Supreme
Court by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.110
April 11, 1943 - Elderly man shot to death at Topaz.
May 14, 1943 - Dillon S. Myer, director of the War Relocation Authority, issues a statement which says
that the relocation centers "are undesirable institutions and should be removed from the American
scene as soon as possible. Life in a relocation center is an unnatural and un-American sort of life. Keep in
mind that the evacuees were charged with nothing except having Japanese ancestors; yet the very fact
of their confinement in relocation centers fosters suspicion of their loyalties and adds to their
discouragement. It has added weight to the contentions of the enemy [the Empire of Japan] that we are
fighting a race war -- that this nation preaches democracy and practices racial discrimination."111
10
June 9, 1943 - California Governor Earl Warren signs law prohibiting the granting commercial fishing
licenses to alien Japanese.112
June 21, 1943 - The U.S. Supreme Court upholds the constitutionality of the curfew order in Hirabayashi
v. U.S. and in Yasui v. U.S. The Court, however, refuses to address the question of constitutionality raised
in the Hirabayashi case.113 One of the concurring opinions in the Hirabayashi case notes that "Today is
the first time, so far as I am aware, that we have sustained a substantial restriction of the personal
liberty of citizens of the United States based on the accident of race or ancestry. It bears a melancholy
resemblance to the treatment accorded to [Jews] in Germany."114
July 31, 1943 - WRA designates Tule Lake as a "segregation camp."115 The Tule Lake relocation center is
selected as the place where evacuees perceived to be loyal to Japan rather than to the United States,
often on very imperfect evidence, are to be segregated.116
September 1943 - From the results of the "loyalty questionnaire," "loyal" incarcerees from Tule Lake
begin to depart to other camps and "disloyal" incarcerees from other camps begin to arrive at Tule
Lake.117 About 9,000 evacuees were moved to Tule Lake from the other nine relocation centers in
September and October, 1943. The center eventually housed about 18,000 evacuees.118
October 15, 1943 - A strike in Tule Lake follows the death of an inmate in a truck accident.119
November 1, 1943 - Mass demonstrations are held in Tule Lake after it is placed under Army control.120
January 14, 1944 - Tule Lake is no longer under Army control.121
January 20, 1944 - The War Department imposes the draft on Japanese American men, including those
incarcerated in the camps. The vast majority comply, a few hundred resist and are brought up on federal
charges. Most of the resisters are imprisoned in a federal penitentiary.122
May 10, 1944 – Sixty-three Heart Mountain draft resisters are indicted by a federal grand jury.
[Eventually found guilty, the 63 are sentenced to jail terms. The 63 are later pardoned on December 24,
1947, by President Harry Truman.]123
May 24, 1944 - Shoichi James Okamoto shot by camp soldier.124
July 1, 1944 - President Roosevelt signs Public Law 78-405 (the Denaturalization Act of 1944) which
creates a procedure whereby American citizens may lose their citizenship in time of war by renouncing it
in writing. In late 1944 and early 1945, about 5,500 evacuees at the Tule Lake segregation center make
applications to renounce their American citizenship under the provisions of Public Law 78-405.125
July 1944 - Seven leaders of the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee, along with newspaper editor
James Omura, are arrested for conspiracy to encourage draft resistance.126
July 29, 1944 - Federal Judge Louis E. Goodman dismisses indictments against 26 Tule Lake draft
resisters, declaring "It is shocking... that an American citizen be confined on the ground of disloyalty, and
then... be compelled to serve in the armed forces, or be prosecuted for not."127
11
November, 1944 – Although James Omura is acquitted, the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee leaders
are sentenced to three years imprisonment for conspiracy. Later a Court of Appeals will reverse the
conspiracy convictions of the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee leaders on technical grounds; they
remain in prison, however, until March 1946.128
December 17, 1944 - Public Proclamation No. 21 is issued by Major General Henry C. Pratt (effective
January 2, 1945), allowing evacuees to return home and lifting contraband regulations.129
December 18, 1944 - Two years and five months after it was filed, Supreme Court rules in the Endo case
that the WRA cannot detain "loyal" citizens. Executive Order 9066 and the evacuation, however, are
upheld in the Korematsu case. Justice Frank Murphy disagrees:
I dissent, therefore, from this legalization of racism. Racial discrimination in any form and in any
degree has no justifiable part whatever in our democratic way of life. It is unattractive in any
setting but it is utterly revolting among a free people who have embraced the principles set forth
in the Constitution of the United States."130
December 18, 1944 - The director of the WRA announces that all relocation centers will be closed by the
end of 1945, and that the WRA's operations will be ended by June 30, 1946.131
January 1945 and following - Evacuees returning to the Pacific Coast are often received with
intimidation and acts of violence.132 In Hood River, Oregon, the American Legion in January removes the
names of 17 Nisei soldiers from the community honor roll.133
May 7, 1945 - Germany surrenders, ending the war in Europe.
July 13, 1945 - The director of the WRA announces that all relocation centers, except the one at Tule
Lake, California, will be closed on scheduled dates between October 15 and December 15, 1945.134
August 6, 1945 - The U.S. drops an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, a second bomb is
dropped on Nagasaki.
August 14, 1945 - Japan surrenders, ending the war in the Pacific.
August 1945 - Some 44,000 people still remain in the camps. Many have nowhere to go, having lost
their homes and jobs. Many are afraid of anti-Japanese hostility and refuse to leave.135
September 4, 1945 - The Western Defense Command issues a proclamation revoking all exclusion orders
and military restrictions against persons of Japanese descent.136
December 1, 1945 - The number of evacuees at the Tule Lake segregation center, the last of the WRA
centers to remain in operation, is about 12,500.137
12
March 20, 1946 – The Tule Lake "Segregation Center" closes. This is the last War Relocation Authority
facility to close.138 About half of all evacuees released from the relocation centers in 1945-1946 return to
the Pacific Coast area; most of the remainder settle in other parts of the country.139
April 24, 1946 - The Truman administration sends to Congress proposed legislation that would establish
an Evacuation Claims Commission to adjudicate claims against the United States for losses suffered by
evacuees as a result of their removal from their homes and detention in relocation centers.140
June 26, 1946 - President Truman signs Executive Order 9742, which terminates the WRA effective June
30, 1946.141
July 15, 1946 - President Harry Truman states that "You not only fought the enemy but you fought
prejudice... and you won" during a ceremony on the White House lawn for the 442nd Regimental
Combat Team.142
1948 - In Oyama v. California, the Supreme Court strikes down the Alien Land Laws as violations of the
Fourteenth Amendment.143
February 2, 1948 - President Truman sends to Congress a special message on civil rights in which he
requests legislation to settle claims against the government by the 110,000 people of Japanese descent
who were evacuated from their homes during World War II.144
July 2, 1948 - President Truman signs the Japanese-American Claims Act, which authorizes the
settlement of property loss claims by people of Japanese descent who were removed from the Pacific
Coast area during World War II. According to a Senate Report about the act, “The question of whether
the evacuation of the Japanese people from the West Coast was justified is now moot. The government
did move these people, bodily, the resulting loss was great, and the principles of justice and responsible
government require that there should be compensation for such losses.”145 With the necessary proof, 10
cents is returned for every $1.00 lost.146 The Congress overtime appropriates $38 million to settle 23,000
claims for damages totaling $131 million. The final claim is adjudicated in 1965.147
September 23, 1950 - Congress passes, over President Truman's veto, Public Law 81-831, which includes
the Emergency Detention Act of 1950. This act authorizes the implementation of procedures, modeled
on Japanese American internment, for use against those, assumed to be Communists or Communist
sympathizers, who might commit acts of espionage or sabotage in time of war or national emergency.
Congress repealed this law in 1971.148
June 1952 - The McCarran-Walter Act is passed into law ending the racially-based naturalization ban and
the 1924 ban on Asian immigration. This act grants Japan a token immigration quota and allows
Japanese immigrants to become naturalized U.S. citizens.149
February 19, 1976 - President Gerald R. Ford issues Proclamation 4417, titled “An American Promise,”
on the 34th anniversary of the issuance of Executive Order 9066. “I call upon the American people to
13
affirm with me this American Promise,” President Ford’s proclamation reads, “that we have learned
from the tragedy of that long-ago experience forever to treasure liberty and justice for each individual
American, and resolve that this kind of action shall never again be repeated.”150
1980 - The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians is established calling for a
congressional committee to investigate the detention program.151 The commission’s mandate is to
determine whether any wrong had been committed against people of Japanese descent in America
during World War II, and, if a wrong had been done, to recommend appropriate remedial action.152
1981 - The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians holds hearings in 10
locations. They hear testimony from over 750 witnesses.153
1983 - The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians issues its report, Personal
Justice Denied, on February 24 and its Recommendations, on June 16.154 The report concludes,
“The promulgation of Executive Order 9066 was not justified by military necessity, and the
decisions which followed from it … were not driven by analysis of military conditions. The broad
historical causes which shaped these decisions were race prejudice, war hysteria and a failure of
political leadership. Widespread ignorance of Japanese Americans contributed to a policy
conceived in haste and executed in an atmosphere of fear and anger at Japan. A grave injustice
was done to Americans and resident aliens of Japanese ancestry who … were excluded, removed
and detained by the United States during World War II.”155
The Recommendations call for a presidential apology & a $20,000 payment to each of the approximately
60,000 surviving persons excluded from their places of residence pursuant to Executive Order 9066.156
1983 - 1988 - The wartime convictions of Gordon Hirabayashi, Minoru Yasui, & Fred Korematsu (the 3
men who protested the curfew &/or incarceration orders) are nullified on the basis of newly discovered
evidence that the U.S. Government lied to the Supreme Court in the original proceedings.157
August 10, 1988 - President Ronald Reagan signs HR 442 (the Civil Rights Act of 1988) into law. It
acknowledges that the incarceration of more than 110,000 individuals of Japanese descent was unjust,
and offers an apology and reparation payments of $20,000 to each person incarcerated.158
October 9, 1990 - Attorney General Richard Thornburgh, in a ceremony at the Justice Department in
Washington, DC, presents the first payments to 9 Japanese Americans under the Civil Rights Act of
1988.159 “Your struggle for Redress and the events that led to today,” the Attorney General states, “are
the finest examples of what our country is about,.., for your efforts have strengthened the nation’s
Constitution by reaffirming the inalienability of our civil rights.”160
1998 - President Bill Clinton bestows the Presidential Medal of Freedom on Fred Korematsu, the
plaintiff in Korematsu vs. United States (1944), in which the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality
of the internment. Korematsu’s conviction had been overturned in 1984 because the government’s
evidence was determined to be tainted.161
14
1
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
3
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5046/%7C.
4
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
5
Aristide R. Zolberg, “The Great Wall Against China,” in Major Problems in American Immigration History:
Documents and Essays, 2nd Ed., by Mae Ngai and Jon Gjerde (Boston, 2013), 194-203.
6
For the text of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, see http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=47 or
http://www.usnews.com/usnews/documents/docpages/document_page47.htm.
7
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
8
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
9
Harry Kitano, “Japanese,” Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thernstrom (Cambridge,
1980), 562-563.
10
Yamato Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States: A Critical Study of the Problems of the Japanese Immigrants
and Their Children (Stanford, 1932), 73-74; Robert Wilson and Bill Hosokawa, East to America: A History of the
Japanese in the United States (New York, 1980), 106-107.
11
Frank Chuman, The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese Americans (Del Mar, California, 1976), 15-16.
12
Wilson and Hosokawa, East to America, 116.
13
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; Chuman, The Bamboo People, 6-7.
14
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
15
Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 230-233.
16
Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 230-233.
17
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
18
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
19
Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese
Exclusion (Gloucester, Massachusetts, 1966), 27-30.
20
Wilson and Hosokawa, East to America, 122-123; and John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American
Nativism, 1860-1925 (New York, 1963), 171-172. [Note: The Asiatic Exclusion League was initially titled the
Japanese and Korean Exclusion League.] For more, see “Proceedings of the Asiatic Exclusion League (Dec, 1907)”
http://darrow.law.umn.edu/documents/Dec%201907%20Asiatic%20exc.pdf and “Proceedings of the Asiatic
Exclusion League (Dec, 1908 )” http://darrow.law.umn.edu/documents/Dec%2008%20Asiatic.pdf.
21
Wilson and Hosokawa, East to America, 123.
22
Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice, 32-34; http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; Ichihashi, Japanese in
the United States, 234-237.
23
Chuman, The Bamboo People, 19-21.
24
Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice, 36-44.
25
Chuman, The Bamboo People, 30-32.
26
Kitano, “Japanese,” 562-563; Gary Okihiro, “An American Story,” in Impounded: Dorothea Lange and the
Censored Images of Japanese American Interment, ed. By Linda Gordan and Gary Okihiro (New York, 2006), 48-49.
27
Ichihashi, Japanese in the United States, 245-247; Wilson and Hosokawa, East to America, 125.
28
Chuman, The Bamboo People, 36.
29
Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice, 44-45; Kitano, “Japanese,” 564; Wilson and Hosokawa, East to America, 125126.
30
Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice, 45.
31
“The Asiatic Exclusion League Argues That Asians Cannot Be Assimilated, 1911,” in Major Problems in American
Immigration History: Documents and Essays, 2nd Ed., by Mae Ngai and Jon Gjerde, (Boston, 2013), 314-316.
32
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice, 59-64.
33
Wilson and Hosokawa, East to America, 126-127; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm .
34
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp. For information on how Japanese immigrants worked hard to
attain economic success as farmers, see Okihiro, “An American Story,” 48-49.
35
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm
36
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
2
15
37
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
Higham, Strangers in the Land, 164-166. For how nativists came to see immigrants from south and east Europe
as “undesirable,” see Thomas Archdeacon, Becoming American: An Ethnic History (New York, 1983), 149-172.
39
Okihiro, “An American Story,” 50. For more detail, see Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the
Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, 2001).
40
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
41
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
42
Alice Yang Murray, “The History of ‘Military Necessity’ in the Japanese American Internment,” in Major Problems
in American Immigration History: Documents and Essays, 2nd Ed., by Mae Ngai and Jon Gjerde, (Boston, 2013), 436.
43
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm .
44
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp. For more on the Munson Report, see Murray, “The History of
‘Military Necessity’ in the Japanese American Internment,” 436-437.
45
Murray, “The History of ‘Military Necessity’ in the Japanese American Internment,” 432-433, 436-437.
According to Murray, FBI Chief J. Edgar Hoover informed his superiors that, because almost all Japanese Americans
were law-abiding, mass removal could not be justified on the “factual data.” See also, Robinson, By Order of the
President, 3-4. For the ONI’s Ringle Report, see http://blogs.usdoj.gov/blog/archives/1346 and
http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/jap%20intern.htm.
46
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm
47
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm. For
more detail, see Okihiro, “An American Story,” 50-59.
48
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm. For more on
Biddle, see Murray, “The History of ‘Military Necessity’ in the Japanese American Internment,” 436-437. According
to Murray, Biddle saw no factual data to support internment, but in a letter on February 12, 1942, Biddle advised
President Roosevelt how the concept of “military” necessity could be used as a legal justification for the mass
imprisonment of Japanese Americans, citizens and non-citizens alike.
49
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp;
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
50
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
51
See also, Murray, “The History of ‘Military Necessity’ in the Japanese American Internment,” 432-433, 436-437.
52
Joy Hakim, War, Peace, and All That Jazz, 1918-1945, Revised 3rd Ed., (New York, 2006), 152.
53
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
54
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
55
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
56
http://www.sfmuseum.org/war/42.html.
57
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
58
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
59
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm;
http://www.sfmuseum.org/war/42.html.
60
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
61
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
62
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
63
G. Edward White, “The Unacknowledged Lesson: Earl Warren and the Japanese Relocation Controversy,”
http://www.vqronline.org/articles/1979/autumn/white-unacknowledged-lesson/. See also, “California Attorney
General Earl Warren Questions Japanese Americans’ Loyalty, 1941,” in Major Problems in American Immigration
History: Documents and Essays, 2nd Ed., by Mae Ngai and Jon Gjerde, (Boston, 2013), 414.
64
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
65
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
66
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
67
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
68
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
69
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
38
16
70
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
72
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
73
http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5154. For an excellent discussion of the contrast drawn by white Americans
during WWII between the Germans and the Japanese, and how that contrast contributed to the internment, see
John W. Dower, War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York, 1986), 78-82, 92.
74
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
75
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
76
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm. For more detail
on the Oregon attacks of 1942 as well as Japan’s effort to hit the U.S. with high-altitude balloon bombs in 19441945, see http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/exhibits/ww2/threat/bombs.htm.
77
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
78
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
79
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
80
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
81
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
82
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
83
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
84
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm;
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
85
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
86
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp; http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
87
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
88
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
89
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
90
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1942.htm.
91
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
92
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
93
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
94
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
95
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
96
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
97
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
98
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
99
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
100
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
101
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
102
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
103
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
104
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
105
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
106
See also, Murray, “The History of ‘Military Necessity’ in the Japanese American Internment,” 435-436.
107
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
108
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
109
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
110
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
111
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1943.htm.
112
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
113
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm; http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
114
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1943.htm.
115
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
71
17
116
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1943.htm. For a discussion
of how administrative tribunals used inexact cultural and religious concepts to determine the loyalty of internees,
see Eric Muller, American Inquisition: The Hunt for Japanese American Disloyalty in World War II (Chapel Hill,
2007); for a summary of Muller’s findings, see http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/author_interview?title_id=1507.
117
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
118
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1943.htm.
119
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
120
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
121
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
122
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
123
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
124
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
125
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1944.htm.
126
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
127
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
128
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
129
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
130
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
131
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1944.htm.
132
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1945.htm.
133
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
134
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1945.htm.
135
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
136
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1945.htm.
137
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1945.htm.
138
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
139
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1946.htm.
140
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1946.htm.
141
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1946.htm.
142
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
143
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm.
144
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1948.htm.
145
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1948.htm.
146
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm; http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
147
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1948.htm.
148
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1950.htm. For a discussion
of how the Japanese American internment shaped later loyalty programs during the Cold War and after 9/11, see
Eric Muller, American Inquisition: The Hunt for Japanese American Disloyalty in World War II (Chapel Hill, 2007);
for a summary of Muller’s findings, see http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/author_interview?title_id=1507.
149
http://academic.udayton.edu/race/02rights/intern05.htm; http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
150
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1976.htm.
151
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
152
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1980.htm.
153
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
154
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
155
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1983.htm.
156
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
157
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp. See also http://blogs.usdoj.gov/blog/archives/1346, and
Murray, “The History of ‘Military Necessity’ in the Japanese American Internment,” 434.
158
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp.
18
159
http://www.densho.org/resources/default.asp, and
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1990.htm.
160
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1990.htm.
161
http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/japanese_internment/1998.htm.
19