Gulevich O.A., Sarieva I.R., Silchenko D.V.
Helping first-year students as planned behavior: the role of self-concept1
Abstract
The study examines the relationship between self-concept, attitudes towards
activity, perceived control and perceived norms with the intention of helping first-year
students. Theoretical basis of the study was the two-factor model of self-perception and
the model of planned behavior. The authors suggested that the self-assessment of
students based on "communal" traits predicts attitudes towards help, while selfassessment based on "activity" traits predicts perceived control. In turn, attitudes
towards help, perceived control and perceived norms predict intention to help first-year
students. The study involved students of the second and third year of the Higher School
of Economics (N = 184). They were asked to help prospective first-year students during
their adaptation period at the university. Respondents filled out a questionnaire, where
they noted their readiness to assist, attitudes towards helping behavior, perceived
control, perceived norms, and also rated themselves on the "communal" and "activity"
traits. The results partially confirmed the hypothesis. They have shown that selfassessment by "communal" traits predicts attitudes of students to assist, while attitudes
predict the willingness to help future first-year students.
Keywords: helping behavior, planned behavior model, two-factor model of selfimage, self-concept
1
This study comprises research findings from the "The step from protest to
helping: factors and dynamic of protest and prosocial behaviour" carried out within The
National Research University Higher School of Economics’ Academic Fund Program in
2013, grant No 13-05-0004.
1
Helping is one of the main forms of social interaction. Helping behavior can be
one-time or permanent, implemented in relation to friends and family or strangers.
Trying to systematically approach the study of factors affecting the probability of
helping, researchers turned to models of intentional behavior. Their supporters believe
that human behavior is determined by intentions while intentions, in turn, are influenced
by a limited number of variables (Sheeran, 2002; Sutton, 2002).
The most popular model of this kind is the theory of planned behavior by Ajzen
(Ajzen, 1991). According to her, a person's intention to behave in any way is
determined by three factors: attitudes towards behavior (an evaluation of its usefulness
and the pleasure of engaging in it), perceived norms (assessment of how people around
approve of this behavior and how they behave in reality), as well as perceived control
over behavior (the possibility of control and self-efficacy in this area).
This model was created to explain the various forms of human activity, and was
repeatedly used in the study of different types of behavior (Cook, Moore, Steel, 2005),
including sports (Brickell, Chatzisarantis, Pretty, 2006; Galea, Bray, 2006; Keats et.al.,
2007; Rhodes, Blanchard, Matheson, 2006; Rivis, Sheeran, Armitage, 2006; Schmiege
et.al., 2007; Sniehotta et.al, 2006), dieting (Conner et. al., 2003; Hinsz, Nickell, Park,
2007; Rivis, Sheeran, Armitage, 2006; Schmiege et.al., 2007), smoking (Conner et. al. ,
2006), alcohol (Norman, Conner, 2006), careful driving (Elliott, Armitage, Baughan,
2007), studying (Leone, Perugini, Ercolani, 1999), the use of forecasts in making
professional decisions (Artikov et. al. , 2006), following of rules in a homeless shelter
(Broadhead-Fearn, White, 2006), participation in virtual communities (Lin, 2006), and
participate in the discussion of current problems (Neuwirth, Frederick, 2004).
Conducted studies have demonstrated the validity of this model, but at the same time
helped to isolate some of its limitations.
First, it became clear that different components of the model make different
contributions to the prediction of intentions and actual behavior. In particular, it was
found that attitudes and perceived control, and above all, self-efficacy, are better than
subjective norms at predicting a person's intentions (Artikov et. Al., 2006; Brickell,
Chatzisarantis, Pretty, 2006; Broadhead-Fearn, White, 2006; Keats et.al., 2007; Lin,
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2006; Neuwirth, Frederick, 2004; Norman, Conner, 2006; Rhodes, Blanchard,
Matheson, 2006).
Second, this model is often used to study the behavior that a person can carry out
individually. This type includes various forms of activity that ensure a healthy and safe
lifestyle (exercise, diet, smoking cessation giving up alcohol, safe driving), as well as
allow people to achieve their goals (education, making of professional decisions). At the
same time, it is rarely used in the analysis of the actions which require other people for
implementation.
Third, most researchers use the model of planned behavior to explain systematic
activity that is carried out for a long time. For example, in the study of help it is used for
analysis of human behavior within the volunteer community (Greenslade, White, 2005;
Okun, Sloane, 2002; Warburton, Terry, 2000). The question arises how well the model
predicts the behavior of the proposed individual's willingness to provide a one-time
assistance, and the role of individual components of the model.
Fourthly and finally, the model does not take into account the content of the selfconcept. However, psychological studies show that the perception of the self in a person
affects the implementation of certain forms of activity, including helping behavior. Help
is often provided by people for whom kindness is a key element of self-concept: a
prosocial self-schema, strongly developed prosocial, moral and volunteer identity
(Finkelstein, Penner, Brannick, 2005; Froming, Nasby, McManus, 1998; Grant, Dutton,
2012; Grant et.al., 2009; Hardy, 2006; Matsubabu Hart, Atkins, 2007). The question
arises: how the self-concept is associated with human factors described in the model of
planned behavior - attitudes, perceived norms and perceived control?
To answer this question, let us turn to the two-factor model of self-concept,
according to which all the characteristics that a person ascribes to himself and the
people around him, are interconnected with each other and form two factors: activity
(agentic traits) and municipal (communal traits). The "communal" factor includes traits
that are manifested in people's dealings with others: willingness to communicate (e.g.,
friendliness, courtesy, tact), help (e.g., kindness, compassion, humanity), integrity (e.g.,
honesty sincerity). The structure of "the activity" factor includes psychological
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characteristics associated with intelligence (e.g., intelligence, erudition, competence),
activity (e.g., activity, commitment, perseverance) and independence (e.g., selfconfidence, independence and non-conformism) that help a person achieve his goals
(Uchronski, 2008; Wojciszke, 2005). In favor of the two-factor model of self-concept
speaks the fact that "communal" and "activity" characteristics have different effects on
behavior. Some researchers believe that the main role in the self-perception of the
person is played by the "activity" traits (Wojciszke, 2005; Wojciszke et.al., 2011), while
others highlight the "communal" characteristics (Uchronski, 2008; Van Lange,
Sedikides, 1998; Ybarra et.al., 2012).
The two-factor model allows us to advance two alternative assumptions about the
role of self-concept in the model of planned behavior. Perception of a person about
himself can have a direct and an indirect impact on the intention to help others. In the
first case it directly predicts intentions, along with attitudes, perceived norms, and
perceived control (Figure 1a). In the second case, the self-concept predicts attitudes
towards help and perceived control, which, in turn, contribute to the formation of
intentions (Figure 1b). To test these models was carried out an empirical study.
Figure 1. The role of Self-concept in the model of planned behavior
(а) Model 1
Self-active,
Self-communal
Attitudes:
Usefulness, pleasure
Intentions
Perceived control
Perceived norms
4
(b) Model 2
Attitudes:
Usefulness
Self-communal
Attitudes:
Pleasure
Intensions
Self-active
Perceived control
Perceived norms
Sample. The study involved 184 students of the Higher School of Economics,
studying at the faculties of economics, sociology and psychology. Among them, there
were 57% of women aged 17 to 22 years (M = 19, SD = .54).
Methods. Before the start of the study the researcher told students that starting
from the next academic year at the Higher School of Economics it is planned to
intensify work on the adaptation of first year admitted to the University. For the
students who have just finished school it is difficult to understand what rights they
possess in the HSE structure, as well as what are their opportunities and responsibilities
and how they can achieve their goals. Helping first-year students requires the efforts of
various people, including younger students who can share their experiences and thus
facilitate the process of adaptation. The aim is to study the attitudes of students towards
5
different forms of assistance, and the factors that influence the willingness to help the
students who have just finished school.
After that, the students that agreed to participate in the study questionnaire, which
included questions about the intention to provide various kinds of assistance to firstyear students, attitudes towards this form of assistance, perceived norms, perceived
control, and self-perception.
Intention to help. Respondents were asked to read the proposed help options and
assess whether they are ready to perform each action: (a) Conduct a master class for the
first-years, in which they explain how to resolve any problems that arise in a student's
life, (b) pass a memo to the students about "who is who in the university," how to find
the desired control, etc., and (c) to organize a single meeting at the beginning of the
year, where they can answer questions the first-years have, (d) pass to the first-year
students all lecture notes and homework. Thus, the forms of assistance differed in two
parameters - complexity and autonomy. Variants (a) and (c) require more effort and
skill from the person than variant (b) and (d). Also, the variants (a) and (b) were
autonomous, while the variants forms (c) and (d) were a type of dependent help. The
purpose of autonomous assistance is to form human skills that a person can use in
different situations, and thereby independently solve problems; while the goal of
dependent help is help people solve the immediate problem, and thus make them
dependent on help. Respondents were asked to note their readiness to implement each
action on a 5-point scale from "1" - "definitely refuse" to "5" - "definitely agree."
The respondents which showed willingness to help first-year students were asked
to leave their contact details on the questionnaire (e-mail address or phone number),
which could be used to get in touch with them by the people in charge of adapting firstyear students to university life. After the study those contact details were indeed passed
on to appropriate people in the university.
Attitudes towards help. Respondents were asked to indicate their interest in
providing various types of help. To do this, they assessed all four actions by four bipolar
5-point scales, "it will cause harm to the first-years - it will benefit the first-years", "it
does not help to solve the first-years' problems - it will help first-years solve problems,"
6
"I will be bored while doing this - I would be interested to do this, "" It will not give me
pleasure - it will give me pleasure" In processing the results we have calculated the
indexes of "utility» (α = .79) and "Fun» (α = .90) for each form of assistance.
Perceived control. Respondents noted how, in their opinion, they are able to
control various forms of help. To do this, they assessed all four actions by two 5-point
bipolar scales: "I can not do it - I can do this", "I will not be able to overcome all
obstacles preventing me from doing this - I can overcome all obstacles preventing me
from doing this" When processing the results, we have calculated the overall index of
perceived control for each form of assistance (α = .81).
Perceived norm. Respondents were asked to indicate how, from their points of
view, other students of HSE would act. To do this, they rated how likely it is that their
friends and classmates at HSE would agree to provide each of the four forms of
assistance by a 5-point scale from "1" - "definitely refuse" to "5" - "definitely agree."
When processing the results the general index of subjective norms for each form of
assistance was calculated (α = .62).
Self-concept. Respondents rated themselves on twelve unipolar 7-point scale,
reflecting the six "activity" traits (clever, purposeful, active, erudite, able to cope with
problems, persistent) and six "communal" traits (friendly, kind, gentle, humane,
sympathetic, tactful), where "1" means that the quality is not present, and the "7" "strongly present." Activity and communal characteristics were mixed. In processing
the results the indexes were calculated for the "activity" traits (α = .79) and "communal"
traits (α = .84)
Results
The study showed that students prefer some forms of assistance at the expense of
others (Friedman χ2 = 63.31 ***). The most popular form is a one-time meeting with
first-year students at the beginning of the year (M = 3.88 SD = 1.32); followed by
spreading memos (M = 3.41 SD = 1.47) and conducting master classes (M = 3.17 SD =
1.63); the least popular measure is the spreading of lecture notes (M = 3.09 SD = 1.84).
To test the hypotheses, linear modeling was conducted using the package EQS 6.1,
the results of which are presented in Table 2. In the first step structural validity of the
7
two theoretical models discussed above was tested: Model 1 is shown in Figure 1a, and
Model 2 in Figure 1b.
The results demonstrated that the model of the indirect effect of the self-concept
has a higher, albeit insufficient structural validity than the direct effects model. This
trend is evident in the evaluation of all four forms of assistance: the master class
(CFImodel1=.739 RMSEAmodel1=.087; CFI
(CFImodel1=.752 RMSEAmodel1=.087; CFI
model2=.800
model2=.787
meeting (CFImodel1=.685 RMSEAmodel1=.099; CFI
RMSEA
RMSEA
model2=.736
model2=.077),
model2=.082),
RMSEA
sharing lecture notes (CFImodel1=.722 RMSEAmodel1=.099; CFI
memo
one-time
model2=.092),
model2=.745
RMSEA
model2=.096).
Table 2. Fit indexes CFA (method Robust)
Model
χ2 (df, p)
RMSEA (90% CI)
CFI
Help: master-class
Model 1
χ2 = 435.69 (df =183
p≤.001)
.739
.087 (.076… .097)
Model 2
χ2 = 370.05 (df =177
p≤.001)
.800
.077 (.066… .088)
Model 3
χ2 = 89.79 (df =25
p≤.001)
.874
.119 (.093… .145)
Model 4
χ2 = 70.53 (df =25
p≤.001)
.911
.100 (.072 … .127)
Help: memo
Model 1
χ2 = 437.54 (df
=183 p≤.001)
.752
.087 (.076… .097)
8
Model 2
χ2 = 396.35 (df
=177 p≤.001)
.787
.082 (.071… .093)
Model 3
χ2 = 58.41 (df =25
p≤.001)
.934
.085 (.057… .114)
Model 4
χ2 = 59.50 (df =25
p≤.001)
.932
.087 (.058… .115)
Help: one-time meeting
Model 1
χ2 = 510.36 (df
=183 p≤.001)
.685
.099 (.088… .109)
Model 2
χ2 = 451.25 (df =177
p≤.001)
.736
.092 (.081… .102)
Model 3
χ2 = 69.68 (df =25
p≤.001)
.910
.099 (.071… .126)
Model 4
χ2 = 56.32 (df =25
p≤.001)
.937
.083 (.054… .111)
Help: lecture notes
Model 1
χ2 = 508.53 (df =183
p≤.001)
.722
.099 (.088… .108)
Model 2
χ2 = 475.63 (df =177
p≤.001)
.745
.096 (.085… .106)
9
Model 3
.911
χ2 = 62.57 (df =25
p≤.001)
.091 (.063… .119)
Model 4
.944
χ2 = 49.39 (df =25
p≤.01)
.073 (.042… .103)
Note: the models take into account the correlation between variables
Further analysis has shown that the intention to help is predicted mostly by the
communal aspect of self-concept and the pleasure factor. Therefore, during the second
stage two simplified models were tested. Model 3 includes the communal aspect of selfconcept and the pleasure factor that predict intention to help. In accordance with model
4, the communal aspect of the self-concept predicts the pleasure of providing help, and
pleasure predicts the intention to provide it.
The results have shown that even in this case the model of indirect effects of selfconcept has a higher structural validity than direct effects model. This tendency is
manifested in assessing three forms of assistance: the master class (CFImodel1 = .874
RMSEAmodel1 = .119; CFImodel2 = .911 RMSEAmodel2 = .100), single meeting (CFImodel1 =
.910 RMSEAmodel1 = .099; CFImodel2 = .937 RMSEAmodel2 = .083) and spreading lecture
notes (CFImodel1 = .911 RMSEAmodel1 = .091; CFImodel2 = .944 RMSEAmodel2 = .073). An
exception is the distribution of memos (CFImodel1 = .934 RMSEAmodel1 = .085; CFImodel2
= .932 RMSEAmodel2 = .087)
Discussion
Psychological studies suggest that the probability of helping behavior is
determined by several factors related to the characteristics of the subject of aid, its
object, the activity and the interaction situation. During our research, we have tried to
combine different theoretical models of helping behavior, demonstrating the
relationship between them.
Theoretical basis of the study was the model of planned behavior. The results
showed that the main predictors of intention to help first-year students are attitudes
10
towards various forms of assistance, primarily pleasure that is brought by this activity:
the higher a person assesses help based on this criterion, the stronger the intention. At
the same time, the usefulness of these activities for first-year students, perceived control
and perceived norms are much less important. This is a general trend that affects all
forms of assistance offered to the respondents.
On the one hand, these results may be related to the specifics of helping behavior.
First, the proposed forms of assistance were fairly simple and did not require any
special knowledge or skills from the respondents. Because of this the factor of
perceived control loses its importance. We can assume that the importance of this factor
increases with the forms of assistance that require students to possess unusual skills,
input considerable effort, time, etc. Second, among the students there are no special
rules regarding participation in such activities: it is regarded as optional and is not
regulated by the group. As a consequence, the intentions of students do not depend on
subjective norms.
On the other hand, these results suggest that aiding first-year students is also a
selfish action. Always the intention to help first-years depends on personal interest and
enjoyment of the student rather than on an assessment of the usefulness of this activity
for freshmen. It can be assumed that the impact of assessment of the effectiveness of aid
on the intention is mediated by any factors that increase the level of empathy for the
first-year students.
In addition, the study demonstrated that attitudes regarding assistance play an
important role in the formation of intentions. In particular, they mediate the effects of
the self-concept on the willingness to help. Of great importance in this case is the
communal aspect of the self-concept - a person's assessment of his or her kindness and
sociability: the higher the students rated themselves on this parameter, the more fun
they expected participating in the activity would be and the stronger was their intention
to help first-year students. Thus, the formation of positive attitudes is one of the
mechanisms by which self-concept affects helping behavior.
Nevertheless, this study has some limitations. First, it measured the intention to
assist, but did not assess the actual behavior of the students. Second, as the majority of
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studies conducted in the framework of planned behavior, our study was correlational in
nature. Third, the study has not taken into account all the components of perceived
control and perceived norms. In addition, it is based on the "asymmetric" assessment of
attitudes: "utility" was recorded in relation to the first-years, while "fun" - was recorded
relation to the respondent. To address these limitations more research is needed.
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