(Ash and Fazel, 2007). Biodiversity services are also considered as
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Draft for Comments NEPAL NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN ENVIRONMENT DIVISION MINISTRY OF FORESTS AND SOIL CONSERVATION SINGH DURBAR, KATHMANDU i Acronyms and Abbreviations ABS ACA ADB ADS AnGR ANSAB BCN BZ BZMR CA CAAN CBD CBO CBS CDM C/FUG CHAL CITES CNP COP CSO CSUWN DADO DBCC DDC DFID DFO DFRS DLS DNPWC DOA DOF DPR DSCO EFLGDCC EFLGF EFLGVCC EIA EPC FAO FECOFUN FNCCI FRISP Access and Benefit Sharing Annapurna Conservation Area Asian Development Bank Agriculture Development Strategy Animal Genetic Resource Asian Network of Sustainable Agriculture and Bio-resources Bird Conservation Nepal Buffer Zone Buffer Zone Management Regulations Conservation Area Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal Convention on Biological Diversity Community Based Organization Central Bureau of Statistics Clean Development Mechanism Community/Forest User Group Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Chitwan National Park Conference of Parties Civil Society Organization Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in Nepal District Agriculture Development Office/Officer District Biodiversity Coordination Committee District Development Committee Department for International Development (UK) District Forest Office/Officer Department of Forest Research and Survey Department of Livestock Services Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Department of Agriculture Department of Forests Department of Plant Resources District Soil Conservation Office Environment Friendly Local Governance District Coordination Committee Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework Environment Friendly Governance Village Coordination Committee Environmental Impact Assessment Environment Protection Council Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Federation of Community Forest Users in Nepal Federation of Nepalese Chamber of Commerce and Industry Forest Resource Information System Project National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pageii GDP GEF GHG GIZ GLOF GON GSI GTI IAS ICIMOD IFPRI I/NGO IPCC ITK ITPGRFA IUCN LAPA LDO LI-BIRD LNP LPG LRMP LSGA MAP MDG MEA MFSC MOAD MOF MOFALD MOSTE MRV MW NAPA NARC NAST NBCC NBS NBSAP NBSIP NBU NEA NFI NORAD NPC Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Greenhouse Gas Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (The German Society for International Cooperation) Glacial Lake Outburst Flood Government of Nepal Gender and Social Inclusion Global Taxonomic Initiative Invasive Alien Species International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development International Food Policy Research Institute International/ Nongovernment Organization Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Indigenous Traditional Knowledge International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture The World Conservation Union Local Adaptation Plan of Action Local Development Officer Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development Langtang National Park Liquefied Petroleum Gas Land Resources Mapping Project Local Self-Governance Act Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Millennium Development Goal Multilateral Environmental Agreement Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation Ministry of Agriculture Development Ministry of Finance Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment Monitoring, Reporting and Verification Megawatt National Adaptation Programme of Action Nepal Agriculture Research Council National Trust for Nature Conservation National Biodiversity Coordination Committee Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006) National Biodiversity Unit Nepal Electricity Authority National Forest Inventory Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation National Planning Commission National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pageiii NPR NPWCA NRM NTFP NTNC PES REDD SDAN SNP TISU TU UNDP UNEP UNESCO UNFCCC USAID VDC WCMC WECS WWF Nepali Rupees National Park and Wildlife Conservation Act Natural Resources Management Non-Timber Forest Product National Trust for Nature Conservation Payment for Ecosystem Services Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal Sagarmatha National Park Tree Improvement and Silviculture Unit Tribhuvan University United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United States Agency for International Development Village Development Committee World Conservation Monitoring Centre Water and Energy Commission Secretariat World Wildlife Fund National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pageiv Table of Contents Contents Acronyms and Abbreviations Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures List of Annexes EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Understanding Biodiversity 1.2 Importance of Biodiversity 1.3 Background to the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 1.4 Objective of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 1.5 Overview of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Development Process 1.6 Structure of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2 THE NATIONAL CONTEXT 2.1 Country Background 2.1.1 Physiography, Climate and Drainage 2.1.2 Land Use and Land Cover 2.1.3 Demography and Socio-economy 2.2 Status of Biodiversity 2.2.1 Ecosystem Diversity 2.2.2 Species Diversity 2.2.3 Genetic Diversity 2.2.4 Mountain Biodiversity 2.2.5 Representation of Global Priority Ecoregions 3 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN NEPAL 3.1 Forest Biodiversity 3.2 Rangeland Biodiversity 3.3 Wetland Biodiversity 3.4 Agro-biodiversity 3.5 Mountain Biodiversity 3.6 Climate Change: a Major Threat to Biodiversity 3.7 Underlying Causes of Biodiversity Loss 4 EFFORTS TO MANAGE BIODIVERSITY AND KEY OUTCOMES 4.1 Enabling Policies, Strategies and Regulatory Framework 4.2 Nepal’s Participation in International Conventions 4.3 Institutional Development 4.4 Establishment and Management of Protected Areas 4.5 Management of Forest Biodiversity Outside Protected Area 4.6 Other Efforts to In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation of Forest Biodiversity 4.7 Key Gaps, Issues and Challenges in the Management of Forest Biodiversity 4.8 Management of Rangelands Biodiversity 4.9 Management of Wetlands Biodiversity 4.10 Management of Mountain Biodiversity 4.11 Management of Agro-biodiversity 4.12 Key Gaps, Issues and Challenges in the Management of Agro-biodiversity Page ii v viii x xi xii 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 8 9 11 11 17 22 23 24 25 25 29 30 32 33 33 34 37 37 39 40 44 48 53 56 61 61 62 63 64 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagev 4.13 5 Cross-cutting Efforts and Outcomes 4.13.1 Landscapes Management 4.13.2 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation 4.13.3 Gender and Social Inclusion 4.13.4 Addressing Concerns of Indigenous and Local Communities 4.13.5 Access and Benefit Sharing, and Intellectual Property Rights 4.13.6 Mainstreaming Biodiversity Considerations into National Development Plans, Policies, Programmes and Sectors 4.13.7 Education and Research 4.13.8 Awareness Raising 4.13.9 Economics and Valuation of Biodiversity 4.14 Funding for Biodiversity Management in Key Sectors: Sources and Trends 4.14.1 Forest Biodiversity 4.14.2 Agro-biodiversity 4.14.3 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation 4.15 Implementation of NBS (2002) and NBSIP (2006): Status, Gaps and Lessons 4.15.1 Overview of the Progress 4.15.2 Major Gaps 4.15.3 Lessons Learned STRATEGY FOR MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY 5.1 Vision and Principles Underpinning the Strategy 5.1.1 The Vision 5.1.2 Principles 5.2 Goal of the Strategy 5.3 Strategic Approaches 5.4 Sectoral Goals, Strategies and Priorities for Actions 5.4.1 Management of Protected Areas 5.4.2 Management of Forest Biodiversity outside Protected Area 5.4.3 Management of Rangeland Biodiversity 5.4.4 Management of Wetlands Biodiversity 5.4.5 Management of Mountain Biodiversity 5.4.6 Management of Agro-biodiversity 5.5 Cross-sectoral Goals, Strategies, and Priorities for Action 5.5.1 Landscape Management 5.5.2 Institutional Strengthening 5.5.3 Enhancement of National Capacity for Improved Management of Biodiversity 5.5.4 Knowledge Generation and Management (including raising awareness) 5.5.5 Mainstreaming Biodiversity Across the Government, Society and Economy 5.5.6 Addressing the Policy and Legislative Gaps 5.5.7 Harmonization of Biodiversity related International Conventions 5.5.8 Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting 5.5.9 Mitigation and Adaptation to the Effects of Climate Change 5.5.10 Addressing Gender and Social Inclusion Issues 5.5.11 Conservation of and Respect to Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices of Indigenous and Local Communities 5.5.12 Enhancing the Benefits from Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services to All 5.5.13 Funding 5.5.14 Communication, Extension and Outreach National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 65 65 66 68 69 69 70 71 71 72 73 74 75 75 76 76 77 78 80 80 80 80 81 81 81 82 84 89 90 91 92 94 94 94 95 96 97 97 99 99 106 108 110 111 111 113 Pagevi 5.5.15 Technology Development, Acquisition and Use 6 ARRANGEMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STRATEGY 6.1 Institutional Arrangements 6.1.1 National Level Coordination and Monitoring 6.1.2 District Level Coordination and Monitoring 6.1.3 Local (VDC/Municipality) Level Coordination and Monitoring 6.1.4 Role of Implementing Agencies 6.1.5 Role of Development Partners 6.2 Capacity Enhancement 6.3 Technology Needs Assessment Plan 6.3.1 Brief overview of current situation on technology development, acquisition and use 6.3.2 Technology Needs for Biodiversity Management 6.3.3 Action plan 6.4 Monitoring and Evaluation 6.4.1 Introduction to Monitoring and Evaluation in the Context of NBSAP 6.4.2 Framework for Monitoring and Evaluation of NBSAP Implementation 6.5 Communication, Extension and Outreach 6.5.1 Communication Framework 6.5.2 Communication, Extension and Outreach Plan 6.6 Fund Generation and Mobilization 6.5.1 Current Situation of Funding for Biodiversity Management 6.5.2 Constraints and gaps 6.5.3 Options for Generation of Funds required for successful implementation of NBSAP 7 FRAMEWORK FOR LOCAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Goal and Objectives 7.3 LBSAP Development Process 7.4 Monitoring the Progress and Funding Source REFERENCES ANNEXES National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 114 116 116 116 117 118 119 110 110 123 123 124 125 127 127 128 130 130 132 134 134 135 135 137 137 137 138 144 146 159 Pagevii List of Tables Table 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 Title Physiographic and Bioclimatic Zones of Nepal Changes in Nepal’s Land Use/Land Cover in between 1979 and 1994 Distributions of Ecosystems by Physiographic Zone Estimated coverage by different types of wetlands in Nepal Ramsar sites of Nepal Major cropping patterns in different physiographic zones Status of Nepal’s species diversity Fish species endemic to Nepal Number of selected group of species in the IUCN Red List Number of selected group of species in the CITES Appendices Number of selected group of species that are protected in Nepal Estimated botanical sources of cultivated and wild food crop species in Nepal Diversity trend for plant genetic resources in major eco-sites Invasive alien fish species found in Nepal Important gaps, constraints and likely threats to agrobiodiversity in different physiographic zones Biodiversity related polices, strategies and legislations developed since 2002 Organizational Structure of National Biodiversity Coordination Committee Protected Forests in Nepal Evolution of REDD+ Readiness in Nepal Representation of ecosystems in Nepal’s protected area system Distribution of community forests among the physiographic zones Sources and trends of funding (NPR 000) for Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation Status of implementation of NBS (2002) strategies Strategies and priority actions for management of protected areas Strategies and priority actions for management of forest biodiversity outside protected area Strategies and priority actions for management of rangeland biodiversity Strategies and priority actions for management of wetland biodiversity Strategies and priority actions for management of mountain biodiversity Strategies and priority actions for management of agro-biodiversity Strategies and priority actions for landscapes management Strategies and priority actions for strengthening institutions for improved management of biodiversity Strategies and priority actions for Enhancement of National Capacity for Improved Management of Biodiversity Strategies and priority actions for biodiversity relevant knowledge generation and management Strategies and priority actions for Mainstreaming Biodiversity across the Government, Society and Economy Strategies and priority actions for addressing policies and legislative gaps Strategies and priority actions for harmonizing biodiversity related international conventions, treaties and protocols Important biodiversity indicators Strategies and priority actions for monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page 5 8 11 14 14 16 17 18 21 21 21 22 23 31 32 37 41 50 52 56 59 74 77 82 84 89 90 91 92 94 94 95 96 97 97 99 100 106 Pageviii 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 programmes and projects Strategies and priority actions for mitigation and adaptation to the effects of climate change Strategies and priority actions for addressing gender and social inclusion issues Strategies and priority actions for conservation of and respect to traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities Strategies and priority actions for enhancing the benefits from biodiversity and ecosystem services to all Strategies and priority actions for fund generation and mobilization Strategies and priority actions for technology development, acquisition and use Strengths and gaps in national capacity for biodiversity management Capacity Needs for successful implementation of the NBSAP Illustrative example of capacity building activities and their potential effects Technology needs for biodiversity management Action plan for technology development, acquisition and use Monitoring and evaluation framework for NBSAP Communication, extension and outreach framework Messages, communication tools and communication platforms Communication, Extension and Outreach Implementation Action Plan Summary of the NBSAP Financing Mechanisms National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 107 109 110 111 111 114 120 121 122 124 125 129 130 131 132 136 Pageix List of Figures Figure 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 6.1 Title Physiographic Zones of Nepal Main Rivers and their Catchments Distribution (%) of wetlands among the physiographic zones Location of Ramsar sites in Nepal Distribution of fish species in Nepal: (a) by physiographic zones (%), and (b) by river basins Changes in number of threatened bird species in Nepal during 2004-2010 Location and coverage of the global terrestrial ecoregions in Nepal Forest area (ha.) under encroachment in different development regions Major direct threats to forest biodiversity in Nepal Protected Areas in Nepal Percent coverage by different categories of protected areas Growth of protected area Changes population of tiger in Nepal Changes in population of rhino in Chitwan National Park Annual revenue generated from tourism in protected areas Changes in status of community forestry in between 2002 and 2013 Changes in status of pro-poor leasehold forestry in between 2002 and 2013 Protected Forests in Nepal Number of medicinal and aromatic plants seedlings produced in the last three years Changes in area of registered private forests in between 2000 and 2013 Some biodiversity-rich areas and strategic corridors that are without effective conservation arrangement Landscapes under management in Nepal Trends and sources of funding for management of forest biodiversity Trend of funding for management of agrobiodiversity Trend in climate change related funding in Nepal Monitoring, evaluation and reporting mechanism National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page 5 8 14 15 19 20 24 26 29 44 45 45 46 46 47 48 49 50 52 53 58 66 74 75 76 128 Pagex List of Annexes Annex 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 7.1 Title Methodology for the development of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and Framework for Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Endemic tree species of Nepal Major plant species found in different types of rangelands Freshwater fish species reported from Nepal Phytoplankton species reported from Nepal Zooplankton species reported from Nepal Species of aquatic insects reported from Nepal Freshwater mollusks reported from Nepal Amphibians reported from Nepal Common crops, fruits and vegetable species grown in Nepal Livestock breeds found in different physiographic zones Nationally-assessed status of wild mammals in Nepal Threatened tree species found in the mountains of Nepal Threatened wetland-dependent plant species of Nepal Threatened wetland-dependent animal species of Nepal Protected plant species in Nepal Protected animal species in Nepal Forest tree species with seed stands Brief description of the global terrestrial ecoregions found in Nepal Biodiversity related cross-sectoral policies, strategies, and regulatory framework developed since 2002 Biodiversity related sectoral policies, strategies, and regulatory framework formulated since 2002 Selected biodiversity-related international conventions, their goals and progress Protected Areas of Nepal Tree species having breeding seedlings orchards Status of implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) an Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006) Aichi Biodiversity Targets Framework for Development of Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page 159 167 168 169 172 174 176 177 179 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 192 194 197 200 202 205 206 209 211 Pagexi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Biodiversity and its Importance Biodiversity refers to all the living things on Earth and the ecological processes associated with them. It is often described in hierarchical terms including ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. The concept is linked primarily to the idea of biological variation that is largely unknown in its extent and its future values. Biodiversity, which occurs in both the terrestrial and aquatic environments, is constantly changing. It can be increased by natural evolutionary processes and genetic change or reduced by threats which lead to population decline and extinction. The capacity of an ecosystem to respond to changes and threats determines the rate of biodiversity loss. Biodiversity is important for human being in a number of ways: (i) species have utilitarian (subsistence and commercial) value to humans, (ii) biodiversity represents the natural balance within an ecosystem that provides a number of ecological services, including nutrient cycling and pollination of plants, and (iii) species have intrinsic value. Conserving biodiversity is thus an essential part of safeguarding the biological life support systems on Earth. In Nepal, biodiversity is closely linked tothe livelihoods and economic well being ofmillions of rural people who directly depend on natural resources for meeting their daily subsistence needs and cash income. The subjecttouches upon many aspects, including agricultural productivity, food security, human health and nutrition, indigenous knowledge, gender equality, culture, climate, water resources and aesthetic value to the society.The country’s biodiversity is also an important source of revenue to the government. Background to the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and Process Adopted in its Development The government had prepared and implemented Nepal Biodiversity Strategy in 2002 and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan in 2006. Useful experience and lessons have been learnt from their implementation. Moreover, substantial changes have taken place in the sociopolitical and environmental contexts of the country over the last decade. Several themes and issues (e.g. climate change, gender and social inclusion) have gained prominence after 2002. In view of these changes, Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation has prepared this revised National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) with technical support of the Kathmandu Forestry College, and funding support of the Global Environment Facility made available to the Ministry through United Nations Environment Programme. The NBSAP is a guiding framework for management of Nepal’s biodiversity. It is prepared to meet the national needs for managing biodiversity on sustainable basis for the benefit of the present and future generations and also to fulfillthe country’s international obligations. It has a long-term (i.e. 35 years) vision, and includes medium-term (15 years) strategic goals, and shortterm (up to 2020) priorities for actions and plans. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexii The NBSAP is primarily based on stocktaking of the current situation through extensive review of relevant literature, analysis of available secondary data,wide consultations with stakeholders and experts at various levels (national, regional, district and community) and limited field observations. Views, perceptions and opinions of a total of 1,664 individuals (including 26.7% women) consulted in Kathmandu, the five regional headquarters, 15 (out of 75) selected district headquarters, and 30 communities formed the main source of primary data. The CBD’s Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets provided broad theoretical framework and technical guidance in the development of the Strategy. Structure of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The NBSAP contains seven chapters, including: (i) introduction, (ii) the national context, (iii) threats to biodiversity in Nepal, (iv) efforts to manage biodiversity and key outcomes, (v) strategy for management of biodiversity, (vi) arrangements for implementation of the strategy, and (vii) framework for local biodiversity strategy and action plan. The description and analysis of past efforts and achievements, and formulation of strategies and actions are focused around six thematic areas and sectors: (a) protected areas, (b) forests outside protected areas, (c) rangelands, (d) wetlands, (e) agriculture, and (f) mountains. Cross-cutting themes, such as livelihoods, governance, gender and social inclusion, and climate change impacts and adaptations have been dealt with separately. The strategic goals, specific strategies and priority actions have been clustered into the six themes and prioritized by taking into account the links between them and by reference to key biodiversity issues and threats. The relation of each of the strategic goals with the CBD’s 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets included in the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 has been explicitly mentioned, which will make monitoring of the progress easier. The strategies also attempt to address the Millennium Development Goal of ensuring environmental sustainability.The arrangement for implementation of the strategy highlights the key aspects of institutional, capacity, technology, communication and extension, monitoring and reporting, and funding that are required for successful implementation of the NBSAP. The National Context Nepal has tremendous geographic diversity that ranges from alluvial plains in the tropical lowlands to very rugged and permanently snow and ice covered Himalayan Mountains. The country can be divided into five major physiographic landscapes extending from east to west, namely the High Himal, High Mountains, Middle Mountains, Siwalik and Tarai.The climate varies from alpine cold semi-desert type in the trans-Himalayan zone to tropical humid type in the Tarai lowlands. The climate is predominantly influenced by three major factors namely the altitudinal variations, monsoon, and westerly disturbances. Four major Himalayan river systems, namely Koshi, Gandaki, Karnali and Mahakali, drain 73 percent of the country. Forests, together with shrublands, covered 39.6 percent of the country’s land area in 1994. Agriculture and grasslands covered 21 percent and 12 percent, respectively. There are regional variations in terms of changes in forest conditions. The commercially and biologically valuable forests in the Tarai lowlands and adjoining Siwalik Hills suffered from high rates of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexiii deforestation and degradation over the last four decades. More recent estimates, however, indicate decreasing rate of forest loss in those regions (and Nepal). Forests in the Middle Mountains are, in general, better managed and in many places forest cover increased in recent years due mainly to the community forestry programme. Nepal’s population grew with an average rate of 1.35 percent during the last decade and reached 26,620,809people in 2011. There is a very wide variation in the distribution of population across the country. Nepal is a multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-ethnic and multicultural country inhabited by 125 castes and ethnic groups. The last decade witnessed a substantial decline in poverty, improvement in income equality, increase in average literacy rate, and decrease in the Global Hunger Index. Remittance played a crucial role in these developments. Despite these positive signs, thecountry’s overall economic growth has remained less than four percent since 2007. The prolonged political transition and uncertainties is speculated to be one of the major reasons behind the sluggish economic growth. Nepal isprimarily an agricultural country. The country’seconomy is very much dependent on the use of natural resources. Majority of the people live in rural mountain areas with fragile physiography and low productivity thereby creating a very strong poverty-environment-health and vulnerability nexus. Many marginal agriculture lands in those areas are being temporarily abandoned in recent years primarily because of labour scarcity due to outmigration of youths seeking off-farm and foreign employment. The country made some visible progress in infrastructure development during the last decade but many of the development projects are implemented without any environmental safeguard, thereby posing a direct threat to biodiversity. Rural roads constructed by the local governments and cascade of hydropower dams and stations constructed on some rivers are some example of the development efforts, which have caused considerable damages to the local biodiversity and environment. Status of Nepal’s Biodiversity Nepal’sunique geography withdramatic changes in elevation along the relatively short (150-250 km) north south transect and associated high variability in the eco-climatic conditionshave resulted in a disproportionately rich diversity of flora and fauna in the country. Moreover, the country’s standing at the crossroads of two major biogeographic regions of the world (IndoMalayan to the south and Palearctic to the north) has made Nepal a mixing place of species originating in both the regions.The country occupies about 0.1 percent of the global area but harbors over three percent and one percent of the world’s known flora and fauna, respectively.It includes 12of the 867 globalterrestrialecoregions. The natural ecosystems in Nepal range from tall grasslands, wetlands and tropical and subtropical broadleaf forests along the tropical lowlands and adjoining Siwalik foothills to alpine meadows above the treeline. The country’s forest ecosystems can be categorized into ten major groups, namely tropical, subtropical broadleaved, subtropical conifer, lower temperate broadleaved, lower temperate mixed broadleaved, upper temperate broadleaved, upper temperate mixed broadleaved, temperate coniferous, subalpine, and alpine scrub.Among the rangeland National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexiv ecosystems, the tropical savannas and marshlands, and alpine meadows are exceptionally rich in biodiversity.Nepalese wetlands have very high ecological significance, as they harbor many threatened and endemic species of flora and fauna and serve as resting places for many migratory and globally threatened birds.The wetlands also have high cultural and economic significance. Many ethnic groups of people are dependent on wetlands for their livelihoods. The diverse climatic and topographic conditions in the country have favored for maximum diversity of agricultural crops, their wild relatives, and animal species.Over 550 crop species areidentified as having food value, and around half of those species are believed to be currently under cultivation.The country’s horticulture diversity includes 400 species and subspecies of horticultural crops, including 45 species of seasonal fruits. An estimated 200 species of vegetables, including 11 different local varieties of potatoes, are grown in the country. A total of342 plants and 160 species of wild plants and animals have been reported as being endemic to the country. Of the 342 endemic plant species, 14 belong to treeand bamboo groups. The richness of endemic species increases steadily from low to high elevations. The high altitude rangelands are especially important from the perspective of endemism. Many species of plants and animals are threatened. This includes 55 species of wild mammals and 18 species of trees found in the mountains. Birds are among the most threatened group of fauna.Over half of Nepal’s nationally threatened bird species inhabit lowland forests, and over a quarter live in wetlands. Among the known species of domestic animals, pure siri cattle has become extinct, achhamicattle and lampuchhre sheep are near endangered, and bampudke pig is critically endangered. Very limited information exists on the country’s genetic diversity. Nine species of plants, 55 mammals, 149 birds, and 64 herpetofauna are included in the IUCN Red List. Similarly, 154 species of plants, 52 mammals, 108 birds and 19 reptiles and three insects have been listed in the CITES Appendices. Several species of plants and animals, including 27 mammals, nine birds, 14 angiosperms, and four gymnosperms have been declared as protected species by the government. Threats to Biodiversity in Nepal Nepal’s biodiversity is threatened by multiple factors.Loss and degradation of natural habitats,such as forests, grasslands, and wetlands due to expansion of settlements, agriculture and infrastructure; overexploitation; invasion by alien species; and pollution of water bodies remain thepredominant threats to natural systems.Poaching and illegal wildlife trade and human-wildlife conflict are other major direct threats to forest biodiversity, particularly in protected areas. Rapid expansion of hybrid varieties and indiscriminate use of insecticides and pesticides are the major threats to agro-biodiversity. Widespread mining of gravel from streams and riverbedshas been emerged as a major threat in the lowlands. Natural disasters, such as landslides, glacial lake outburst floods and droughtpose considerable threat to mountain ecosystems and the people living in those areas. Climate changecan haveprofound impacts in future, particularly in the mountains. Most of threats continue to increase. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexv Demographic changes; poverty; weak enforcement of the law; ignorance to biodiversity values in government and corporate accounting systems; unclear resource tenure and administrative jurisdictions; inadequate awareness and motivation to conserve biodiversity;gender, caste and ethnicity based inequality; and lack of an integrated approach to development planning at the national and district levels are the major underlying causes of biodiversity loss. Efforts to Manage Biodiversity and Key Outcomes Government of Nepal, together with its development partners and local communities, made substantial efforts to conserve and sustainably use the country’s biodiversity during the last decade. Some of the efforts and associated achievements relate to implementation of the strategies recommended by the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006), while many other achievements were made without reference to the Strategy or Implementation Plan. Various enabling plans, policies and legislations have been developed and implemented to facilitate sustainable economic growth and further enhance participation of local communities in the management of biodiversity and natural resources. All the national development plans developed and implemented since 2002 have some provisions related to biodiversity. Biodiversity has its place also in the Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007), whichrecognizes the right of every person to live in a clean environment as a fundamental right, and asks the government to make special arrangements for the conservation of biodiversity, its sustainable use and equitable distribution of the benefits derived from it. The Constitution also obliges the state to pursue a policy aimed at identifying and protecting traditional knowledge, skills and practices. Policies and legislations relating to community based forest and protected area management have been effective in bringing success in the management of forest and protected areas. Moreover, a number of other sectoral policies have been formulated in recent past. The Herbs and NonTimber Forest Products Policy (2006),Agrobiodiversity Policy (2007), Tourism Policy (2009), Rangeland Policy (2012), Wetlands Policy (2012), and National Seed Vision (2013-2025) are examples. The Plant Protection Act (2007) can be taken as an important step towards controlling introduction of invasive alien plant species. Overall, Nepal has a fairly comprehensive set of biodiversity related policies and legislations but the implementation of the policies, strategies and legislations is generally poor in the country. Moreover, there is poor integration and harmonization of biodiversity and environment related laws.Some of the existing laws are inconsistent, overlapping or contradictory, and constricted by sectoral biases. One of the major gaps in existing laws relates to sustainable utilization of biological resources and equitable sharing of the benefits accrued from conservation of genetic resources. The Genetic Resources (access, use and sharing of benefits) Bill and National Intellectual Property Policy, which were drafted in 2008 and 2012, respectively, still await approval. Lack ofstrategy to activate and capacitate local bodies (DDCs, VDCs, municipalities) for biodiversity management is another major gap. Lack of required legislation has also affected effective implementation of a number of multilateral environmental agreements concerning biodiversity conservation in which Nepal is a Party. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexvi On the institutional front, establishment of high level committees, such asClimate Change Council and National Tiger Committee are some of the noteworthy recent efforts of the government. Initiatives taken to strengthen cooperation with China and India were some other good efforts aimed at curbing poaching and illegal trade of wildlife parts. Inadequate human, financial and technical capacities and excessive political pressure have negatively affected functioning of the government forestry institutions. Poor inter-agency coordination and cooperation, and inadequate education, awareness and participation of the general public are some of the major gaps. Protected area is one of the few sub-sectors that made an impressive progress in conservation of biodiversity in the last few decades. The country’s protected area grew by more than 30 times in between 1973 and 2010. Currently, 23.2 percent of the country’s total land area is under protection, which is one of the highest in Asia. Population of some flagship species, including tiger and rhino increased in recent years. Substantial efforts have been made to linking local communities to benefits of protected areas. Contribution of protected areas to government revenue through tourism increased continuously and significantly in between 2003 and 2012.However, some gaps and issues remain unaddressed. For example, the Middle Mountain ecosystems still remain very much underrepresented in the country’s protected area network. The expansion of protected areas has also brought about controversies and conflict between the government and local forest users in some places. Illegal hunting and trade of important wildlife species and human-wildlife conflicts are increasing. Community based forest management programmes, including community forestry, leasehold forestry, and collaborative forestry were substantially expended during the last decade. The three programmes combined cover over 30 percent of the national forest area at present. Those efforts helped abate loss and degradation of forests and even reversed the trend in many areas,particularly the Middle Mountains. The improvement in forest condition under community management is believed to have positively contributed to biodiversity. The medium of community forest user groups is also helping in inculcating spirit of democracy among the people, and has helped bring gender balance and social justice to some extent.Eight natural forests with high biodiversity value have been declared as protected forests since 2002. Implementation of the landscape management and Rastrapati (i.e. President) Chure Conservation Programme, reclamation and reforestation of encroached forestland, and initiatives to implementing REDD+ and PES are some other efforts of the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation towards management of forests and forest biodiversity outside protected area. Continuous loss and degradation of forests in the Tarai and Siwaliks, inadequate attention to management of biodiversity in community forests, poor linkage of community forestry with livelihoods and poverty alleviations, limited participation of women and other disadvantaged social groups, poor relationship among key stakeholders, inadequate technical capacities for implementing REDD+ and scientific forest management are some of the major gaps and issues in the management of forest biodiversity outside protected area. Despite having high biodiversity and livelihood values, the rangelands and wetlands in Nepal remained neglected resources until recently. As a result, there is hardly any information on the status and trends of rangeland and wetland biodiversity.More recently, however, the government National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexvii took some concrete steps towards conservation of these valuable resources. National Rangeland Policy has been formulated in 2012. Nepal Agriculture Research Council has been conducting some research on forage and pasture seeds. The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation implemented wetland management activities in two Ramsar sites under a five year (2008-2013) project funded by GEF/UNDP. A PES system has been implemented to conserve local biodiversity in Rupa Lake in Kaski district.Unclear management responsibilities and inadequate technical, economic and institutional capacities are some underlying factors behind the continuous loss and degradation of most rangelands and wetlands. Community based biodiversity management, including registration of farmers’ landraces and varieties, participatory plant breeding, and community seed banks, is one of the successful initiatives towards conservation of agrobiodiversity. Establishment of anational gene bank, tissue culture, and identification and characterization of local livestock breeds were some other key efforts and achievements in conservation of agrobiodiversity during the last decade.Lack of incentives measuresfor protection of native landraces, inadequate capacity for bio-prospecting and quarantine, and weak coordination and cooperation among different agencies are some of the major gaps related to conservation of agrobiodiversity. In addition to the efforts of government line agencies, media (electronic and print) is playing a crucial role in improving conservation awareness in recent years. The Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists is at the forefront in improving awareness of general public through its popular television programmeAankhi Jhyal. LI-BIRD and Bird Conservation Nepal also have their own radio programmes. Different I/NGOs and international organizations, such as WWF, NTNC and ICIMOD occasionally organize exhibitions, information boards, anddistribute brochures and newsletters. A number of regional and local level NGOs and Civil Society groups also implement awareness programmes. The government’s efforts to addressing gender and social inclusion issues in the management of biodiversity and natural resources include: (i) emphasis of forestry and agriculture policies for involving women’s participation in decision making and benefit sharing mechanisms, (ii) establishment of gender equality divisions in the National Planning Commission, ministries and central departments of the government, and (iii) ratification of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People and ILO Convention 169 (Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention). The organizational activism and rights assertions of indigenous communities have increased substantially after the restoration of democracy in 1990. Several agencies, including the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, have adopted separate strategy to address gender and social inclusion issues. The government has recognized the importance of dealing with the impacts of climate change that cross-cut several sectors and themes, including biodiversity. Development of National Adaptation Programme of Action and REDD Readiness Preparation Proposal in 2010, and Climate Change Policy in 2011 are some of the key strategic efforts of the government towards mitigating and adapting to the impacts of climate change. A high level Climate Change Council chaired by the Prime Minister has been formed in 2009 to provide overall guidance in climate change mitigation and adaptation. Similarly, a multi-stakeholder Climate Change Initiatives Coordination Committee has been formed for coordinating climate change activities. Setting up of a REDD Cell at the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation; promotion of a clean and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexviii renewable energy for low carbon emissions, and piloting REDD+ are some other efforts made in climate change mitigation and adaptation. Poor understanding of impacts of climate change on species and ecosystems, weak assessment and learning loop, inadequate capacity, weak forestry sector governance, lengthyadministrative process in implementation of Clean Development Mechanism are some major gaps in effective implementation of climate change mitigation and adaptation programmes. The following are some of the key lessons learned from management of biodiversity in Nepal: (a) meaningful participation of local communities in the management of natural resources is a key to ensuring success and sustainability of programme interventions, (b) landscape approaches could be more appropriate for addressing multiple drivers of biodiversity loss, (c) cooperation and collaboration among relevant agencies (government, I/NGOs, local communities) is crucial to achieve success in biodiversity conservation, (d) regional cooperation can be helpful to curb transboundary trade of wildlife parts and strengthening ecological security in transboundary regions, (e) enabling policy is necessary to achieve the intended outcome and appropriate legislation is necessary in order to translate the policy pronouncements into practice, and (f) positive incentive measures, which promote conservation-friendly behaviors, are necessary to encourage local people in biodiversity conservation. Strategy for Management of Biodiversity The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is prepared with a long-term vision of prosperous Nepal where biological and cultural treasures are well protected, ecological systems are sound and well-functioning, local and indigenous peoples’legitimate rights over resources are ensured and livelihoods are enhanced and sustained.The overall goal is to significantly enhancethe integrity of Nepal’s ecological systems by 2025, thereby contributing to enhanced local livelihoods, human rights and sustainable development of the country. This is to be achieved through implementation of a number of sector specific and cross-sectoral strategies and priority actions.Eight principles underpin the strategy and 15 broad strategic approaches have been recommended to facilitate implementation of the strategy. The lessons learned from implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006) provided the necessary context for formulating the new strategies and priorities for actions. The specific strategies and associated actions are grouped into the six biodiversity themes and a number of cross-cutting subjects. The strategies for managing forest biodiversity aim at reducing or managing human pressures on natural resources, reducing climatic threats to ecosystems, species and their habitats, and addressing economic and social concerns of local and indigenous communities through targeted programmes and enabling policy and legislative environment. Reducing the rate of loss and degradation of forest habitats, improving biological connectivity and species composition, enhancing knowledge and understanding about forests, promoting conservation of species and genetic diversities, enhancement of forest-based livelihoods are some of the specific focuses. The strategies for management of rangeland biodiversity emphasize on improving knowledge understanding of rangeland ecology and biodiversity; development and implementation of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexix integrated rangeland management plans and programmes for improving conservation of rangeland biodiversity and enhancing the herders’ livelihoods. The strategies for wetland biodiversity focus on effective conservation and sustainable utilization of wetland resources, and addressing the legislative gap and administrative ambiguities. Improving and expanding the existing community based conservation and use of agricultural genetic resources; strengthening the national ex situ conservation programme; enhancing communication, education and public awareness; and promotion of indigenous traditional knowledge, skills and practices for conservation and use of agro biodiversity are some of the strategies for management of agrobiodiversity. Strategies for managing mountain biodiversity include: generating and strengthening knowledge on the ecology of mountain ecosystems; promoting alternative livelihoods opportunities; enhancing environmental governance to drive green economy; promoting public–private partnerships and regional cooperation; and consolidating diverse funding mechanisms for biodiversity management, climate change, and sustainable development. Some of the cross-sectoral strategies included in the reportinclude: (i) designing and implementation of an integrated landscape management strategy that focuses on local, community-led actions to solve resource management, biodiversity conservation, and climate change challenges,(ii) enhancement of national capacity for biodiversity research, (iii) integration of biodiversity values into national and local policies, strategies plans and programmes, (iv) educating society and business the importance of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services, (v) promotion of transparency, accountability and multi-stakeholder approach at different levels, (vi) promoting synergies among biodiversity related international conventions, (vii)ensuring effective learning from the monitoring and evaluation processes and using the learning in decision making, and (viii)strengthening implementation mechanisms.Development of knowledge base to broaden temporal and spatial perspectives and possible risks of climate change on biodiversity; incorporation of climate change adaptation measures in the design and implementation of biodiversity management programmes; implementation of REDD+ and PES and promotion of non-conventional energy sources, where feasible are some of the strategies for mitigation and adaption to the effects of climate change on biodiversity. Arrangements for Implementation of the Strategy The arrangements for implementation of the strategyare focused on the institutional, capacity, technology, communication and extension, monitoring and evaluation, and funding aspects. The institutional arrangement plan has presented mechanisms for coordination and monitoring of biodiversity related plans, programmes and activities at the national, district and local levels. The capacity enhancement plan has identified the strengths, gaps or constraints in capacity and recommended the needs for actions to enhance national capacity for improved management of biodiversity. The monitoring and evaluation plan includes a monitoring and evaluation mechanism and framework, and the plan for funding has identified cost categories and possible financing mechanisms for successful implementation of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexx The framework for Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan(LBSAP) presented in Chapter 7 is to serve as a guide while preparing detailed and specific LBSAP by the VDCs and municipalities across the country for their own use. The framework outlines the process to be followed in development of the LBSAP; recommends specific strategies and actions for effective management of biodiversity at the local (VDC/municipality) level; and outlines monitoring and funding mechanisms. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Pagexxi 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Understanding Biodiversity Biodiversity (or biological diversity) has been defined in many ways. The Convention on BiologicalDiversity (CBD) defines it asthe variability among living organisms from all sources including, among other, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.The term generally refers to all aspects of variability evident within the living world, including diversity within and between individuals, populations, species, communities, and ecosystems. The range of habitats within a forest ecosystem, differences in pest resistance among rice varieties or the global extinction of species of lake fish, all illustrate different aspects of biodiversity. In short, the term biodiversity refers to all the living things on Earth and the ecological processes associated with them (Vermeulen and Koziell, 2002). Biodiversity is often described in hierarchical terms including ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity. Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of habitats, the dynamic complexes of plant, animal and microorganism communities and their non-living environment, which interact as a functional unit and their change over time. Species diversity refers to the frequency and variety of species within a geographical area, and genetic diversity refers to the genetic differences between populations of a single species and between individuals within a single population.Number of ecosystems that occur in a forest complex, number of plant and animal species coexisting in a geographical area, and varieties of wheat exemplify the ecosystem, species and genetic diversity, respectively. Species diversity can be further distinguished into three types: alpha, beta, and gamma diversities. Alpha diversity refers the diversity at one site;beta diversity is species turn over across an environmental or geographical gradient; and gammadiversity refers to the total number of species in a region. The “region” here means a geographical area that includes no significant barriers to dispersal of organisms. Despite a wide range of definitions and approaches in describing it, the concept of biodiversity is linked primarily to the idea of biological variation that is largely unknown in its extent and its future values (Gautam, 2007). 1.2 Importance of Biodiversity Biodiversity is important for human being in a number of ways. First, species have utilitarian (subsistence and commercial) value to humans. Diversity of plants and animals is a crucial component in the livelihood of millions of rural people who depend on diverse species and varieties of these biological organisms to meet their nutritional, medicinal and energy needs. Different cultures and social groups use, value, and protect these resources and services in a variety of ways. The geneticdiversity of cultivated and domesticated species is also of great importance from a human perspective, because it allows the species to adapt to changing conditions.Moreover, there are huge prospects of benefiting from unknown species and genetic diversity. Second, biodiversity represents the natural balance within an ecosystem.Detoxification and decomposition of wastes by biological communities (particularly bacteria and fungi), generation and renewal of soil fertility including nutrient cycling, and pollination of plants are just a few examples of ecological services National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page37 associated with biological diversity. Third, species have intrinsic value. It is human being’s ethical responsibility to save them from extinction by saving their habitats. Biodiversity has a vital role in attaining the Millennium Development Goals as it contributes to povertyreduction and to sustaining human livelihoods and well-being through several ways. For example, it underpins food security and human health, provides clean air and water, and supports economic development (Ash and Fazel, 2007). Biodiversity services are also considered as low cost and locally suitable adaptation measures to moderate the negative impacts of climate change. Studies have found that biodiverse systems, on average, store morecarbon and do so more reliably (Bunker et al., 2005). In Nepal, biodiversity is closely linked to the livelihoods and economic well being of most of the people. The subject touches upon almost every aspects of Nepalese life, including agricultural productivity, food security, building materials, human health and nutrition, indigenous knowledge, gender equality, culture, climate, water resources and aesthetic value to the society. Agrobiodiversity is the backbone for the sustainable development of agriculture, food security and poverty alleviation as it provides for both the immediate needs and the long-term sustenance of the country’s farming communities. Diversity of crops and animals is particularly vital to the country’s marginalized mountain communities for maintaining their food security. Millions of rural people directly depend on forest biodiversity for meeting their daily subsistence livelihoods requirements. According to an estimate, at least 1,463 species of herbal medicinal plants are used by the rural people in Nepal (MFSC, 2006a). The collection and trade of several valuable herbs, such as Chirayito (Swertia chirata), Jatamansi (Nardostachysgrandiflora), Yarchagumba (Cordyceps sinensis) has generated considerable employment opportunities and income of the local people in remote areas. The rich diversity of plants and animals that exists in wetlands provides a wide range of goods and services as well as income-generating opportunities for the local people,including many ethnic groups (ICIMOD, 2004). Mountain biodiversity is of high importance for a number of ecological functions, including soil retention and slope stability. Those functions are often closely connected with the extent of aboveground and belowground vegetation. The high functional diversity of plantsin mountain ecosystems may also add to the resiliency of those ecosystems that often provides effective barriers to high-energy events such as rockfalls and avalanches. The country’s biodiversity is an important source of revenue. Tourism is the second most important source of foreign exchange for Nepal, which is directly related to biodiversity. For example, a total of NPR 258,525,499 was collected as revenue from 502,092 tourists who visited protected areas in between July 2011 and July 2012 (DNPWC, 2012). 1.3 Background to the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The government and people of Nepal have shown their commitments for protection and utilization of the country’s unique biodiversity and biological resources on a sustainable basis for the benefit of the present and future generations. Moreover, asa Party to the CBD, Nepal has an obligation of developing a national strategy for conservation and sustainable use of her biological diversity and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page38 integrating conservation into relevant sectoral and cross-sectoral plans and policies. Accordingly, the first national biodiversity strategy and its implementation plan were prepared by the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (CBD Focal Agency) in 2002 and 2006, respectively. This National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) is arevised and updated version of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002), which is prepared by taking into considerations of the national needs in terms of conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits accrued from conservation of genetic resources. Relevant decisions and guidelines of the CBD Conference of Parties (COP), particularly the COP 10 Decision X/2on Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 adopted by the Parties in October 2010, and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets provided theoretical framework and technical guidance in the revision. The CBD biodiversity goals and targets aim at achieving the vision of a world living in harmony with nature and where biodiversity is valued, conserved,restored and wisely used. The NBSAP has been prepared by the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MFSC) with technical support of the Kathmandu Forestry College and funding support of the Global Environment Facility made available to the Ministry through United Nations Environment Programme. 1.4 Objective of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The overall objective of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan is to provide a strategic planning framework for conservation of Nepal’s biodiversity, sustainable use of the biological resources for enhancing local livelihoods and eco-friendly national development, and equitable sharing of the benefits accrued from biological resources across all sections of the society. 1.5 Overview of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Development Process Revision of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was primarily based on stocktaking of current situation through extensive review of relevant plans, policies, strategies, agencies reports and other literature, and collection and analysis of secondary data available with different government and non-government agencies. Consultations with stakeholders at various levels (national, regional, district and community) and limited field observations formed the main sources of primary data and information.Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used in data analysis. The main tasks involved in the process are summarized below and the methodology used is described in Annex 1.1. 1) Assessment of the trends of changes and current status of Nepal’s biodiversity. 2) Review and critical analysis of the existing mechanisms for management of the country’s biodiversity, and identify key achievements, gaps, constraints, issues and challenges. 3) Review and assessment of the progress made in implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006), and identification of gaps and lessons learned. 4) Identification of the major threats to Nepal’s biodiversity, and their underlying causes. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page39 5) Formulation of strategies for conservation of the country’s biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits accrued. 6) Development of action plans to implement the strategies, including plans for institutional arrangements at different levels, capacity enhancement, monitoring and evaluation, and financing. 1.6 Structure of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan has been structured into seven chapters, including: (i) introduction, (ii) the national context, (iii) threats to biodiversity, (iv) efforts to manage biodiversity and key outcomes, (v) strategy for management of biodiversity, (vi) arrangements for implementation of the strategy, and (vii) framework for local biodiversity strategy and action plan. The description and analysis of past efforts and achievements, and formulation of strategies and actions are focused around six thematic areas and sectors: (i) protected areas, (ii) forests outside protected areas, (iii) rangelands, (iv) wetlands, (v) agriculture, and (vi) mountains. Cross-cutting themes, such as livelihoods, governance, gender and social inclusion, and climate change impacts and adaptations have been dealt separately. The sectoral and cross-cutting themes have been selected based on the past strategy, recommendations of the consultative workshops and meetings organized at different levels, and suggestions from relevantexperts. Mountain biodiversity is treated separately in the report because mountains deserve a special treatment in the strategic planning of biodiversity due mainly to the following reasons: (i) mountains are characterized by high biodiversity and cultural diversity, (ii) mountain ecosystems are exceptionally fragile, (iii) half of the human population depends on mountains, (iv)both poverty and ethnic diversity are high in mountain regions,and people are often more vulnerable than people elsewhere, and (v) strengthened highland-lowland linkages is necessary to improve sustainability for both upstream and downstream populations. Moreover, scenic landscapes and clean air make mountains target regions for recreation and tourism, and for many societies, mountains have spiritual significance (Körner and Ohsawa, 2005). In Nepal, the mountain regions contain 70 percent of the country’s protected areas, as well as about half of the country’s global priority ecoregions. Many endangered species of flora and fauna inhabit the mountains. All the major rivers originate from the High Himal areas.Sustainable development of the country, therefore, is very much dependent on mountain ecosystems and natural resources. However, these invaluable mountain ecosystems and the services they provide are increasingly at risk due to deep-rooted poverty, widespread degradation of natural resources and the adverse impacts of climate change. The strategies and priorities for actions have been clustered into the six sectoral and several crosssectoral thematic areas and prioritized by taking into account the links between them and by reference to key biodiversity issues and threats.The action plans are intended to make necessary arrangements for smooth implementation of the strategies. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page40 2 THE NATIONAL CONTEXT 2.1 Country Background Nepal is situated in central part of the Himalayas between 26022’ and 30027’ N latitudes and 80040’ and 88012’ E longitudes, covering an area 147,181 sq. km.The country is landlocked by India on three sides and Tibet Autonomous Region of the Peoples’ Republic of China to the north. Ithas tremendous geographic diversity. The elevation ranges from around 70 meter (m) above sea level in the southeastern alluvial plains to 8,848 m at the Mount Everest. Nepal is an agricultural country, inhabited by a wide range of ethnic groups and a variety of people. 2.1.1 Physiography, Climate and Drainage Nepal’s physiography ranges from alluvial plains in the tropical lowlands to very rugged and permanently snow and ice covered Himalayanmountains. The range includes five major physiographic landscapes extending from east to west, including the High Himal, High Mountains, Middle Mountains (or Middle Hills), Siwaliks (or Chure), and Tarai (LRMP, 1986; Figure 2.1). The physiographic zones closely correspond to the seven bioclimatic zonesdeveloped by Dobremez (1976) and used by the Biodiversity Profile Project (1995) for classification of vegetation (Table 2.1). Figure 2.1: Physiographic Zones of Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page41 Table 2.1: Physiographic and Bioclimatic Zones of Nepal Physiographic Zone High Himal High Mountains Area (%) 23 19 Middle Mountains 29 Siwalik Tarai 15 14 Elevation (m)1 Above 5,000 4,000-5,000 3,000-4,000 2,000-3,000 1,000-2,000 500-1,000 Below 500 Bioclimatic Zone Nival (Tundra and Arctic) Alpine Subalpine Montane (Temperate) Subtropical Tropical Tropical The High Himal physiographic zone lies above 5,000m in northern part of the country. High altitude plant species adapted to very cold and dry climatic conditions are found in higher elevations. Heavy snowfall is common during the winter months. Above 5,500m, the Himalayas are covered with perpetual snow and no vegetation. The zone also includes some dry inner-Himalayan valleys and treeless plateaus, such as in Mustang, Manang and Dolpa. The dominant soil consists of glaciated bedrock surfaces of gneiss, schist, limestone and shale. The High Mountains zone can be characterized by high steep slopes and deep gorges. The zone comprises subalpine and alpine climates and associated vegetation types. The higher elevations areas include biologically diverse summer grazing pastures. At the lower elevations, the zone harbors luxuriant natural conifer and mixed forests in some locations. The soils can be characterized by Precambrian metamorphosed gneisses and mica schist. The Middle Mountains (also known as Middle Hills or Midhills) region is physiographically the most diverse. It has subtropical to temperate monsoonal climate and is characterized by a great variety of terrain types and intensive farming on hillside terraces. The dominant soil types include Precambrian phyllite, quartzite, schist, granite and limestone. The zone has the greatest diversity of ecosystems and species in Nepal. It also includes several fertile and densely populated valleys, including Kathmandu and Pokhara. The Siwalikzone (also known as Chure) comprises mainly of steep hills of unstable geomorphology, primarily composed of semi-consolidated Tertiary sandstone, siltstone, shale and conglomerate. The soils remain usually dry (except during Monsoon season) and prone to high levels of erosion. The foothills (known as Bhavar), which are almost exclusively formed of gravel, boulders, stone, and sand washed down from the Siwaliks hills, sustain luxuriant and economically valuable forests dominated by Sal (Shorea robusta). The zone also includes a few densely populated valleys (including Trijuga, Chitwan and Dang). A mountain range, locally known as the Mahabharat, separates the Siwaliks hills from the Middle Mountains. The Siwalik zone provides numerous ecological services, including prevention of soil erosion, recharging of ground water for the Tarai plains, and preventing natural disaster such as flash floods. A Middle Mountain Landscape in Eastern Nepal (Ilam) Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam 1 The characterization of the physiographic and bioclimatic zones into different elevation ranges is approximate. Some zones can extend beyond the given range. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page42 The Tarai(or Madhesh) comprises of a narrow belt of flat and fertile land in the southernmost part of the country below 500 m above m.s.l.It is composed of recent post Pleistocene alluvialdeposits forming a piedmont plain. The natural vegetation consists of scattered patches of tropical evergreen and deciduous forests, and riverine forests dominated by Dalbergia sisoo and Acacia catechu. There are some other physiographic or bioclimatic categorizations of the country. Hagen (1998), for example, divided the country into seven bio-climatic zones, including the Tarai, Siwaliks hills, MahabharatMountains, the Midlands, the Himalayas, Inner-Himalayan Valleys, and the Tibetan Marginal Mountains. Stainton (1972) categorized the country into six regions based on climate, vegetation and floristic composition. Many different types of climates are found in Nepal, ranging from alpine cold semi-desert typein the trans-Himalayan zone to tropical humid type in the Tarai. The climate is predominantly influenced by three major factors namely the altitudinal variations, monsoon, and westerly disturbances. It is characterized by four distinct seasons, namelythe pre-monsoon (March-May), monsoon (June-September), post-monsoon (October-November) and winter (December-February) (WECS, 2011). Other important climatic factors influencing biodiversity and the distribution of flora and fauna include humidity, temperature, and aspect (ADB/ICIMOD, 2006). The country receives average annual rainfall of around 1,600 mm, which varies from 165 millimetres in the rainshadow areas north of the Himalaya (Upper Mustang) to 5,500 millimetres in the Pokhara valley. Most of the precipitation occurs during June-September in the form of monsoon rains (Practical Action, 2009). Nepal is drained by four major Himalayan river systems, namely Koshi, Gandaki (also known as Narayani), Karnali and Mahakali. Karnali has the largest catchment area (29.3% of the country), which is followed by Gandaki (21.7%) and Koshi (19.0%). Mahakali, which flows along the NepalIndia border, covers 3.2 percent of the country’s area. The rest of the country is drained by a few medium-sized perennial rivers thatrise in the Middle Mountains and Mahabharat Range, and a large number of small and usually seasonal rivers and streams those mostly originate in the Siwalik Hills and pass through the Tarai (Figure 2.2). Figure 2.2: Main Rivers and their Catchments National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page43 2.1.2 Land Use and Land Cover The first detail assessment and mapping of Nepal’s land resources was carried out by the Land Resources Mapping Project (LRMP) implemented by the Government of Nepal andKenting Earth Sciences Limited, Canada during 1977-1884. The assessment and mapping was based on aerial photography flown in 1978-79, supplemented by extensive field checking and sampling. The LRMP (1986) estimated the total area covered by forests and shrubs as 6.3 million (m.)hectares (ha.), including 4.0 m. ha.in the mountains, 1.7 m. ha.in the Siwaliks and 0.6 m. ha.in the Tarai. The secondnation-wide survey of forest resources was conducted by the Department of Forest Research and Survey between 1987 and 1998, with assistance from the Forest Resource Information System Project funded by the government of Finland. The survey, named as the National Forest Inventory (NFI), took 1994 as the reference year. The survey used different methods for different areas. The inventory results of NFI, which were published in 1999, show 4.3 m. ha.(29%) area under forest cover and an additional 1.6 m. ha.(10.6%) under shrubs (DFRS/FRISP, 1999). A comparison of the NFI results with LRMP shows that the forest area in the country decreased by 24 percent over a period of 15 years (1979-1994), by an annual rate of 1.6 percent, and the area under shrubs increased by 125 percent during the same period. The high increase of shrubland while the forest area was decreasing gives clear evidence of high rates of forest degradation over the period, although the total loss of forested area was not substantial. The area under other land uses remained more or less stable during the period (Table 2.2). Table 2.2: Changes in Nepal’s Land Use/Land Cover in between 1979 and 1994 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page44 Category Cultivated Non-cultivated Forest Shrubland Grassland Water Other Total 1978/79 (LRMP) Area (000 ha) % 2,969.4 20.1 986.9 6.7 5,612.4 38.1 694.0 4.7 1,755.9 11.9 N/A N/A 2,729.8 18.5 14,748.4 100.0 1994 (NFI) % Change, 1979-1994 Area (000 ha) % Total Annual 3,090.8 21.0 4.1 0.3 1,030.4 7.0 4.4 0.3 4,268.2 29.0 -24.0 -1.6 1,560.1 10.6 124.8 8.4 1,766.2 12.0 0.6 0.0 382.7 2.6 N/A N/A 2,619.8 17.8 -4.0 -0.3 14,718.1 100.0 There are regional variations in terms of changes in forest conditions. For example, the forest area in the Tarai decreased with annual rate of 1.3 percent during 1978-79-1990/91 (DOF, 2005). Forests in the Middle Mountains are, in general, better managed and in many places forest cover increased in recent years due mainly to the community forestry programme (see e.g. Gautam et al., 2002; Niraula et al., 2013). Little information exists for the High Mountains, except frequent news of cross-border smuggling of timber from some districts to Tibet (MFSC, 2010). A few, more recent assessments have indicated decreasing trend of deforestation in the country. An estimate by the Water and Energy Commission shows that the annual deforestation rate in the 20 Tarai districts decreased to 0.06 percent (WECS, 2010). According to FAO (2010), the forest area remained stable during 2005-2010. The Forest Resource Assessment Project under the Forest Research and Survey Department is currently conducting a comprehensive survey of forest resources for the whole country using high resolution satellite data supplemented by ground sample surveys. The project’s findings are expected to provide a clearer picture of status of the country’s forest resources. 2.1.3 Demography and Socio-economy Nepal had 26,620,809people in 2011. The population grew with an average rate of 1.35 percent during the last decade. There is a very wide variation in the distribution of population across the country. Mustang district had the lowest (i.e. three people per sq. km.) and Kathmandu the highest (i.e. 4,408 people per sq. km.) density of population in 2011. Socio-culturally, Nepal is a multilingual, multi-religious, multi-ethnic and multicultural country inhabited by 125 castes and ethnic groups(CBS, 2012). The results of the Third Nepal Living Standards Survey (2010-11) suggest a substantial decline in poverty, and an improvement in income equality in Nepal.The last decade witnessed increase in average literacy rate to 65.9 percent from 54.1 percent in 2001. The Global Hunger Index for Nepal decreased from 20.3 in 2012 to 17.3 in 2013, and by 38.2 percent in the last two decades (IFPRI, 2013). Remittance is playing a crucial role in these developments. In 2010, 55.8 percent of households received remittance with an average of NPR 80,436 per household (CBS, 2011). Despite these progresses, the rate of country’s economic growth has remained slow (<4% after 2007), and theHuman Development Index (0.463)and Gender Inequality Index (0.485) were below the south Asian average in 2012 (UNDP, 2013).The prolonged political transition and uncertainties is speculated to be one of the major reasons behind the sluggish economic growth. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page45 Nepalese economy is very much dependent on the use of natural resources, including agricultural lands, wetlands, rangelands, forests, and protected areas. Agriculture is the main occupation for a vast majority of the people.Agriculture (including forestry and fishery) remains the country’s principal economic activity, employing 80 percent of the population and providing 35 percent of the GDP. At the national level, 28 percent of all household income comes from agriculture, 37 percent from nonfarm enterprises, and 17 percent from remittances (CBS, 2011). Majority of the people live in rural mountain areas with fragile physiography and low productivity thereby creating a very strong poverty-environment-health and vulnerability nexus. Many marginal agriculture lands in those areas are being temporarily abandoned in recent years primarily because of labour scarcity due to outmigration of youths seeking off-farm and foreign employment. This has increased scope for introduction of perennial cash crops or forest crops in private lands. A vast number of rural families substantially depend on Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) for meeting their food and healthcare requirements. Many NTFPs, particularly the medicinal and aromatic plants, are also important source of cash income for thousands of rural families. Nepalese farmers also extensively use traditional botanical pesticides with considerable success in crop protection (NPC/UNDP, 2005). High dependency on forests for meeting subsistence needs has caused degradation of forests in many areas. For example, fuelwood supplied about 78 percent of the total energy consumed in 2008/09, and the demand is increasing by an annual rate of around 2.5 percent (WECS, 2010).Many NTFPs, which playimportant roles in maintenance of ecological balance, and income generation by the people in rural areas, are facing over and unsustainable exploitation.The high demand for agricultural land has led to considerable loss of forests, particularly in the Tarai and Siwalik regions. Nepal had a total of 10,835 km road network in 2010 of which 4,952 km was blacktopped. Seventyone district headquarters (out of 75) are now connected by road. About 25,000 km of additional rural road tracks had been opened by 2010 (DOR, 2010). Most of the rural roads have been constructed without any environmental safeguard, and pose a direct threat to biodiversity, particularly in the Middle Mountains.There are 55 airports, including an international, five regional, and 43 other domestic airports. Of these, 34 airports are in operation at present. Five airports are currently under construction (CAAN, 2010). Nepal has developed approximately 638-meghawatt hydropower. Most of the power plants are runof-the-river type(WECS, 2010;NEA, 2011). While in one hand, increased establishment of hydropower plants is a right step towards meeting the energy deficits, on the other hand cascade of hydropower dams and stations on some rivers might have causedsevere negative impacts on the aquatic biodiversity and livelihoods of some local communities (such as fishermen). 2.2 Status of Biodiversity The country’s unique geography withdramatic changes in elevation along the relatively short (150250 km) north south transect and associated variability in the eco-climatic conditionshave resulted in a disproportionately rich diversity of flora and fauna in Nepal.Other important climatic factors such as rainfall, winter snowfall, temperature, and aspect also have influence on biodiversity. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page46 Besides these local factors, the country’s standing at the crossroads of two major biogeographic regions of the world (Indo-Malayan to the south and Palearctic to the north) has made Nepal a mixing place of species originating in both the regions (Stainton, 1972). 2.2.1 Ecosystem Diversity Nepal’s natural ecosystems range from the tall grasslands, marshlands and tropical and subtropical broadleaf forests along the Tarai and Siwaliks foothills to subtropical and temperate broadleaf and conifer forests in the Middle Mountains; mixed and conifer forests in the High Mountains; and alpine meadows above the treeline. Forests, rangelands, wetlands, and agro-ecosystems are the major group of ecosystems. The original study to identify and classify the country’s ecosystems was carried out by a French national Dobremez and his Nepali colleagues in the late 1960s. The classification was based on altitude, climatic variations and vegetation types (Dobremez, 1970; 1976). Building on the Dobremez’s work, the Biodiversity Profiles Project (1995) reported 118 ecosystems with 75 vegetation types, which is the most widely used categorization of ecosystems and vegetation since then. The majority of the ecosystems are found in the Middle Mountainsand High Mountains regions (Table 2.3). Table 2.3: Distributions of Ecosystems by Physiographic Zone Physiographic Zone Ecosystems Number % 38 32.2 High Himal and High Mountains Middle Mountains 53 44.9 Siwalik 14 11.9 Tarai 12 10.2 Other 1 0.8 Total 118 100 Source: Biodiversity Profile Project (1995) Types 37 ‘forest’, and one ‘glacier/snow/rock’ 52 ‘forest’, and one ‘cultivated’ (Pokhara) 13 ‘forest’, and one ‘cultivated’ (Dun) 10 ‘forest’, and two ‘cultivated’ ‘Water bodies’, found in all zones, except the Siwalik (A) Forest Ecosystems There has been no any comprehensive study to identify and map Nepal’s forest ecosystems. Stainton (1972) delineated phyto-geographic boundariesbased on climate, vegetation and floristic composition and classified the country’s forests into 35 types. These types are often categorized into ten major groups: (i) tropical, (ii) subtropical broadleaved, (iii) subtropical conifer, (iv) lower temperate broadleaved, (v) lower temperate mixed broadleaved, (vi) upper temperate broadleaved, (vii) upper temperate mixed broadleaved, (viii) temperate coniferous, (ix) subalpine, and (x) alpine scrub. This has been widely used as a basis for classifying forest ecosystems since then. Tropical forests mostly occur in the Tarai and Siwalik regions. Shorea robusta, Terminalia spp., Adina cordifolia, Lagerstomia parviflora, Bombax ceiba, Albizzia spp., Eugenia jambolana, and Anogiessus latifolia are the main tree species in these forests. Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo, and Bombax ceiba are common in riverine forests. Species composition and dominance slightly National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page47 differ between the western part and rest of the country. These forest ecosystemshave very high ecological as well as economic significance. The forests harbor globally threatened species of fauna and flora, and also contain tree species of high economic value such as Shorea robusta, Dalbergia latifolia, Dalbergia sissoo and Acacia catechu. Subtropical broadleaved forests occur mainly in the eastern half of the country between 1,000 m and 2,000 m and are dominated by Schima wallichii and Castanopsis indica. Riverine forest of Cedrela toona is common along river valley sides, while Alnus nepalensis is widespread along streams and moist places. Pinus roxburghii occurs in the southern dry slopes. Subtropical conifer forests primarily consist of Pinus roxburghii forests that occur in southern dry slopes between 1,000-2,000 m. Lower temperate broadleaved forestsare generally confined between 1,700 m and 2,500 m in the east and 2,000-2,700 m in the west.Castanopsis tribuloides, C. hystrixand Quercuslamellosa are the main tree species in these forests.Alnus nitida forests are found in the riverbanks of Mugu Karnali in between 2,130-2,440 m elevations, and Lithocarpus pachyphylla forests occur in eastern Nepal (MFSC, 2002). Lower temperate mixed broadleaved forests are found in the moister north and west-facing slopes. Many of the tree species in this forest type belong to the Lauraceae family. Upper temperate broadleaved forestsare found in drier south-facing slopes between 2,200-3,000 m. Quercus semecarpifolia is the main tree species in these forests, except in higher rainfall areas such as the hills to the north of Pokhara, upper Arun and Tamor valleys. Upper temperate mixed broadleaved forests occur in moister north and west-facing slopes in between 2,500 to 3,500 m and are dominated by Acer spp. and Rhododendron spp. Temperate coniferous forests, which are commonly found between 2000-3000 m, are mainly comprised of Pinus wallichiana, Abiesspectabilis, and Picea smithiana. Cupressus torulosa and Tsuga dumosa are other common tree species between 2,130-3,340 m.Cedrus deodara forests are found in western Nepal (west of Bheri River). Larix himalaica forest, which favors glacial moraine habitats, occurs in the Langtang and Budi Gandaki valleys. Larix nepalensis, the only deciduous conifer in the region, is found in Langtang National Park and surrounding areas (Stainton, 1972). Subalpine forests occur between 3,000 – 4,100 m and are mainly comprised of small and generally ill-formed trees of Abiesspectabilis, Picea smithiana, Betula utilis, and Rhododendron spp. Alpine scrub vegetation occurs between the treeline (around 4000 m) and snowline (around 5,500 m.) in the eastern half of the country. The alpine meadows, whichdisplay spectacular colorful flowers of alpine herbs during the spring and summer, support one of the world's richest alpine floral diversities but are heavily grazed during summer and rainy seasons(Mittermeier et al., 2004). Many of the species found in this region are endemic to the regionand others are high-value medicinal and aromatic plants. Caragana versicolor, Lonicera spinosa, Rosa sericea and Sophora moorcroftiana species are found in areas north of the Dhaulagiri-Annapurna massif (Stainton, 1972). (B) Rangeland Ecosystems Rangeland ecosystems in Nepal are comprised of grasslands, pastures, shrublands and wetlandsthat coverabout 1.7 million ha.or nearly 12 percent of country’s land area. About 79 percent of the rangelands are located in the High Mountains and High Himal areas, 17 percent in Middle National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page48 Mountains and the remaining four percent in the Siwalik and Tarai. About half of the rangelands are in the mid-western development region (LRMP, 1986). The country’s rangeland ecosystems can be broadly grouped into five categories: (i) tropicalsavannas, (ii) subtropical rangelands, (iii) temperate rangelands,(iv) subalpine rangelands, and (v) alpine meadows. The tropical savannas are characterized by a mosaic of tall grasslands dominated by Saccharum spontaneumand Imperata cylindrica. Many of the riverside grasslands (e.g. in Chitwan Valley) are intermixed with broadleaf forests of evergreen and deciduous species such as Eugenia jambolana, Bombaxceiba, Trewia nudiflora, and Mallotus philippensis. These grasslands are excellent habitat for rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), and gharial crocodile (Gavialis gangeticus). The grasslands in Shukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, Chitwan National Park, Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, and Bardia National Park are also home to several species of globally threatened birds (Baral and Inskipp 2009). Subtropical rangelands are mostly associated with Pinus roxburghii forests. These grasslands are heavily grazed and are often infested with Eupatorium adenophorum, Pteridium aquilinum, Urtica parviflora and Artemisia vulgaris (LRMP, 1986; Pande, 2009).Temperate rangelands are associated with broadleaved or conifer tree species such as Quercus spp. and Pinus wallichiana forests. Most of these grasslands are heavily grazed. The subalpine rangelandsare associated with a variety of shrubs such as Berberis spp., Caragana spp., Juniperus spp. Elymus nutans is one of the most valuable native species to highland pastoral systems. Pipthantus nepalensis shrub and forbs such as Anaphalis spp. and Potentilla spp. have heavily invaded many productive pastures, which were once dominated by Danthonia spp. (LRMP, 1986). The alpine meadowsthat cover a broad areaare exceptionally rich in floral diversity, including numerous species of colorful flowers of alpine herbs. Varied associations of Rhododendron spp. and Juniperus spp. are found scattered across the meadows. These grasslands are also home to endangered snow leopard, Himalayan goral (Naemorhedus baileyi), serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) and are very rich in faunal diversity(Mittermeier et al., 2004). The meadows are heavily grazed during summer and rainy seasons. Many of the rangelands (including alpine meadows) are also rich in diversity of endemic and threatened species. In addition, grasslands also sustain domestic livestock, an important source of local livelihoods. Despite these facts, rangelands are some of the least studied ecosystems in Nepal (MFSC, 2002). (C) Wetland Ecosystems Wetland ecosystems of Nepal fall into two broad categories: (i) natural wetlands, comprising of lakes and ponds, riverine floodplains, swamps and marshes, and (ii) man-made wetlands, including water reservoirs, ponds and deep-water paddy fields.Irrigated paddy fields cover the largest area followed by rivers (Table 2.3; DFD, 2012). Table 2.4: Estimated coverage by different types of wetlands in Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Figure 2.3: Distribution (%) of wetlands among the physiographic zones Page49 SN Wetland Type Estimated Coverage Area (ha.) Percent 1. Rivers 395,000 48.2 2. Lakes 5,000 0.6 3 Reservoirs 1,500 0.2 4. Ponds 7,277 0.9 5. Marginal swamps 12,500 1.5 6 Irrigated paddy fields 398,000 48.6 Total 819,277 100.0 Source: Directorate of Fisheries Development (2012) Nearly half (45%) of the wetlands are in High Himal (Figure 2.4). This is due mainly to the large number of glaciers and glacial lakes in the Himalyan region.Among the major river basins, Karnali houses the highest number (36%) of wetlands, followed by Koshi (Bhandari, 2009). Nine of the country’s wetlands are listed as Ramsar sites (Table 2.5; Figure 2.4). Table 2.5: Ramsar sites of Nepal SN Name Designation Date Area (ha.) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Koshi Tappu Beeshazari and Associated Lakes Ghodaghodi Lake Complex Jagadishpur Reservoir Gokyo and Associated Lakes Gosaikunda and Associated Lakes Phoksundo Lake Rara Lake Mai Pokhari 12/17/1987 08/13/2003 08/13/2003 08/13/2003 09/29/2007 09/29/2007 09/29/2007 09/29/2007 10/27/2008 17,500 3,200 2,563 225 7,770 1,030 494 1,583 90 Elevation (m. above m.s.l.) 80 286 205 197 4,710-4,950 4,054-4,620 3,611 2,900 2,100 Nepalese wetlands have very high ecological significance, as they harbor many threatened and endemic species of flora and fauna and serve as resting places for many migratory and globally threatened birds. The wetland ecosystems offer excellent habitats to at least 230 indigenous species of fish belonging to 104 genera, and 11 exotic species of high economic, environmental and academic value (Swar and Shrestha, 1998; Rajbanshi, 2013). Figure 2.4: Location of Ramsar sites in Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page50 Beeshazari Lake (a Ramsar site) in the Buffer Zone of Chitwan National Park Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page51 The wetlands also have high cultural and economic significance. Many ethnic groups are dependent on wetlands for their livelihoods. The wide variety of plants and animals that the wetlands support provide a wide range of goods and services as well as income-generating opportunities for the local people. Loss and degradation of these vital natural resources during the last few decades has severely affected these relationships. (D) Agro-ecosystems Nepal has a high degree of agro-ecological diversity caused by the wide altitudinal variation, slope, aspect, and topographic conditions. The diverse climatic and topographic conditions have favored for maximum diversity of agricultural crops, their wild relatives, and animal species. Crops, livestock and forests are the three major components of the country’s complex farming systems. The traditional farming systems, which use local indigenous knowledge and experiences, are assumed to have great role in maintaining the agricultural diversity. Unfortunately, the traditional systems have not been documented well. Available information indicates that there are differences in traditional cropping systems across the country(Table 2.6). Table 2.6: Major cropping patterns in different physiographic zones Physiographic Zone Tarai Land Type Irrigated Siwalik Rain-fed Irrigated Rain-fed Cropping Pattern Rice –wheat;rice-rice-wheat; rice-rice/legumes; rice-maize; rice-vegetables. Rice/legumes; maize/finger millet-wheat;rice-fallow;rice-grain legumes. Rice-wheat; rice-maize; rice-vegetables; rice-potato-potato. Maize+soybean-mustard/fallow; maize/fingermillet-wheat; maize+upland rice –fallow. Middle Irrigated Rice-wheat; rice-vegetables; rice-potato-potato; Mountains maize+soybean-mustard/fallow; maize+upland rice-lentil or fallow. Rain-fed Maize/fingermillet-fallow;maize-buckwheat High Irrigated Rice-naked barley; rice-wheat; potato-buckwheat or mustard or vegetables; Mountains maize/fingermillet-naked barley; maize-wheat;buckwheat-wheat or naked barley. Rain-fed Potato –fallow; buckwheat-fallow; naked barley –fallow. High Himal Limited agriculture (terminal point for crops) Source: Upadhyay and Joshi (2003) Diversity of horticultural systems is another important component of the country’s agro-ecosystem, which can be broadly classified into three types: (i) Tarai and Siwalik (tropical and subtropical); (ii) Middle Mountains (subtropical and temperate), and (iii) High Mountains (temperate and alpine). Farm animal production systems in the country can be grouped into three major types: (i) transhumant migratory system, (ii) stationary with semi-migratory or with semi-intensive system, and (iii) stationary stall feeding or closed system intensive system. The transhumant migratory systemis the most common animal production system in trans-Himalayan region. Stationary with semi-migratory or with semi-intensive system is more common in the Middle Mountains and High Mountain areas. Stall-feeding is common in urban and semi-urban areas. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page52 2.2.2 Species Diversity Species diversity, particularly the beta diversity, is very high in Nepal. The country occupies about 0.1 percent of the global area but harbors over three percent and one percent of the world’s known flora and fauna, respectively (Table 2.7). Table 2.7: Status of Nepal’s species diversity Group Flora Angiosperms Gymnosperms Pteridophytes Bryophytes Lichens Fungi Algae Flora Total Fauna Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Moths Butterflies Spiders Rotifers Crustaceans Other Insects Platyhelminthes Fauna Total Number of known species Percent of known species in the world+ Reference 6,973 26 534 1,150 771 2,025 1001 12,480 3.2 5.1 5.1 8.2 4.5 2.9 2.5 3.3 UNEP-WCMC (2004) Bista (2006) Kunwar et al. (2010) 208 8672 123 118 230 79 3,958 651 175 61 5.2 9.5 1.9 2.5 1.9 N/A 3.6 3.7 0.4 N/A Jnyawali et al. (2011) BCN and DNPWC (2011) Schleich and Kastle (2002) ICIMOD and MOEST (2007) Rajbansi (2013) Nesemann and Sharma (2005) Haruta (2006) Bhuju et al. (2007) 59 N/A 5,052 168 11,706 0.7 1.4 1.1 Prasad (2013) Deams and Dumont (1974); Surana et al. (2005) Swar (1979); Tiwari and Chhetry (2009) Thapa (1997) Gupta (1997) + Computed based on CBS (2012); NA = Not Available A total of342 plants and 160 species of wild plants and animals have been reported as being endemic to the country (MFSC, 2006a). Of the 342 endemic plant species, 14 belong to treeand bamboo groups (Annex 2.2). The richness of endemic species increases steadily from low to high elevations (Vetas and Grytnes, 2002). 2 Of the total 867 recorded species, 755 are residents and summer and winter visitors, 29 are not passage migrants, 74 are vagrants, and the rest are extinct or extirpated species. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page53 The species diversity in rangelands can be characterized by certain combinations of dominant grass species that arefound in different types of rangelands. The major types include: (i) PhragmitisSaccharum- Imperata type found in tropicalsavannas, (ii) Themeda- Arundinella type in subtropical rangelands, (iii) Andropogon type in temperate rangelands, (iv) Danthoniatype in subalpine rangelands, and (v) Kobresia type found in alpine meadows. The major plant species found in these grasslands are listed in Annex 2.3. The faunal diversity of Nepalese wetlands includes 230 species of freshwater fish, 102 species of phytoplanktons, 109 species of zooplanktons, 74 species of aquatic insects, 79 species of mollusks, and 53 species of amphibians (Annex 2.4; Annex 2.5; Annex 2.6; Annex 2.7; Annex 2.8; Annex 2.9). Sixteen species of fresh water fish are endemic to Nepal (Table 2.8; Rajbanshi, 2013). Table 2.8:Fish speciesendemic to Nepal SN 1 2 3 Name Myersglanis blythii Psilorhynchus pseudechenies P. nepalensis Location Pharping, Kathmandu Valley River Dudh Koshi Rivers Rapti, Seti, Narayani 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Pseudeutropius murius batarensis Schizothoraichthys macropthalmus S. nepalnensis S. raraensis Batasio macronotus Pseudecheneis crassicaudata P. serracula 11 12 P. eddsi Erethistoides ascita 13 E. cavatura 14 Balitora eddsi Batar, Trushuli Rara Lake Rara Lake Rara Lake River Koshi Mewa Khola (River Tamor) Rivers Seti, Kali Gandaki, Narayani, Mahakali and Karnali Mahesh Khola (R. Tirshuli) Rivers Mechi, Kankai, Trijuga, and Koshi Rivers Dhungra, Rapti and Narayani River Karnali 15 16 Neoanguilla nepalensis Turcinoemacheilus himalaya Chitwan Rivers Indrawati, Koshi, Kali Gandaki and Narayani Reference Jayaram (1999) Menon (1962) Conway and Mayden (2010) Shrestha (1981) Terashima (1984) Terashima (1984) Terashima (1984) Ng and Edds (2004) Ng and Edds (2005) Ng and Edds (2005) Ng (2006) Ng and Edds (2005) Ng and Edds (2005) Conway and Mayden (2010) Shrestha (2008) Conway, et al. (2011) The diversity of fish species is highest in the Tarai, and decreases with increase in the elevation. Among the river basins, the highest richness of fish (195) is reported in Gandaki, followed by Koshi (178). Gandaki basin also has highest number of indigenous and endemic species (Figure 2.5). Many of the wetlands are resting places for migratory and globally threatened birds. Some of the important migratory species of birds that commonly visit Nepalese wetlands during their en route to the south include: cinereous vulture (Aegypius monachus), common greenshank (Tringa nebularia), common teal (Anas crecca) , Eurasian curlew (Numenius arquata), godwall (Anas strepera), great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), great spotted eagle (Aquila clanga), imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), Kentish plover(Charadrius alexandrinus), northern pintail(Anas acuta), northern National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page54 shoveler(Anas clypeata), Pallas gull (Larus ichthyaetus), and Ruddyshel duck (Tadorna ferruginea).The bar-headed goose (Anserindicus), the highest flying migratory bird in the world, fly above Mount Everest at the altitude of 9,375 m. (Bhandari, 2009). Figure 2.5: Distribution of fish species in Nepal: (a)by physiographic zones (%), and (b) by river basins (a)(b) Source: Rajbanshi (2002); Swar (2002). Wetlands in Nepal also play a significant role in conservation of floral diversity. Twenty-five percent of Nepal’s vascular plants are believed to be wholly or significantly dependent on wetlands and 26 (out of 246) endemic species of flowering plants are so dependent. Four of the 17 plants that are legally protected by the government, and 10 (out of 91) nationally threatened plants are dependent on wetlands. Nepal’s wetlands also hold several species of wild cultivars and wild relatives of cultivated crops, including five species of wild rice, namely Oryza nivara, O. granulata, O. officinalis, O. sativa f. spontanea and O. rufipogon, and two species of wild relatives of rice, namely Hygrorhyza aristata and Leersia hexandra(CSUWN, 2010). Agrodiversity is another important component of Nepal’s species diversity. A total of 550 crop species areidentified as having food value, and around half of those species are believed to be currently under cultivation (MFSC, 2002). The country’s horticulture diversity includes400 species and sub species of horticultural crops, including 45 species of seasonal fruits, and 11 different local varieties of potatoes. Of the estimated 200 species of vegetables that are grown in the country, around 50 species have been commercialized(Upadhyay and Joshi, 2003). The major crop, fruit and vegetable species grown in different physiographic zones are listed in Annex 2.10. Several breeds and strains of domestic animals that are found in different ecological belts are yet to be identified and characterized. The available information suggeststhat the country is rich in diversity of domestic animals, which varies across the physiographic zones (Annex 2.11; Neopane (2006) The hills and mountains generally have higher agricultural biodiversity (both crop and animal) as compared to the lowlands (MFSC, 2002). High climatic and physiographic variability,relatively low influence of modern technology, and higher level of ethnic diversity of human communities is believed to have contributed to higher richness of crop and livestock species in the mountains as compared to the Tarai. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page55 Many species of plants and animals are threatened. For example, among the 208 known species of wild mammals, one is considered “regionally extinct”, eight “critically endangered”, 25 “endangered”, 14 “vulnerable” and seven “near threatened” (Annex 2.12; Jnyawali et al., 2011). Similarly, 18 species of trees found in the mountains are reportedly threatened (Annex 2.13; Shrestha and Joshi, 1996; Press et al., 2000). Many of the threatened species of flora and fauna are wetland dependent (Annex 2.14; Annex 2.15). Birds are among the most threatened group of fauna in Nepal. A recent study revealed that the number of Threatened, Endangered, and Critically Endangered species significantly increased, and number of vulnerable species decreased in between 2004 and 2010(Figure 2.6). Fourteenbird species have not been recorded for at least 10 years. Birds that rely on wetlands and inhabit the tropical, subtropical and lower temperate zones are particularly at risk (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). Figure 2.6: Changes in number of threatened bird species in Nepal during 2004-2010 2004 2010 Source: BCN and DNPWC (2011) Over half (i.e. 56%) of Nepal’s nationally threatened birds inhabit forests, with over a quarter in wetlands, and smaller numbers in grasslands. Most threatened forest birds inhabit tropical, subtropical and lower temperate zones, where forests have been most depleted(BCN and DNPWC, 2011). No globally-threatened fish species are currently listed for Nepal, but nine species, namely Sahar (Tor putitora), Jalkapoor (Clupisoma garuwa or Ompak bimaculatus), Katle (Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis), Patharchatti (Chagunius chagunio), Zebra (Danio rerio), Asala (Schizothorax richardsonii), Bucche asala (Schizothorax plagiostomus), Chuche asala (Schizothoraichthys progastus), and Rajabam (Anguilla bengalensis) are considered nationally threatened. Additional 17 species are rare(Shrestha, 1995). Several valuable medicinal and aromatic plants, including Aconitum bisma, Alstonia scholaris, Ophicordyceps sinensis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Neo-picrorhiza scrophulariifolia, Podophylum hexandrum, and Raulfia serpentina are endangered in the country (NARC, 1995). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page56 A number of species, including nine plants, 55 mammals, 149 birds, and 64 herpetofauna are included in the IUCN Red List (Table 2.9). Similarly, 154 species of plants, 52 mammals, 108 birds and 19 reptiles and three insects have been listed in the CITES Appendices (Table 2.10). Table 2.9:Number of selected group of speciesin the IUCN Red List Category Plants Mammals* Birds** Herpetofauna Critically Endangered N/A 8 61 1 Endangered 2 26 38 3 Vulnerable 5 14 50 7 Near Threatened 2 7 N/A 4 Total 9 55 149 64 Source: ICIMOD and MOEST (2007); *Jnyawali et al. (2011); **BCN and DNPWC (2011) Table 2.10: Number of Selected Group of Species in the CITES Appendices CITES Plants Animals Appendices Mammals Appendix I 32 2 Appendix II 16 148 Appendix III 4 4 52 Total 154 Source: UNEP-WCMC (2013) Birds 12 95 1 108 Reptiles 2 15 2 19 Insects 0 3 0 3 Total 46 129 7 182 Among the known species of domestic animals, pure siri cattle have become extinct and achhami cattle near endangerd(Neopane and Pokhrel, 2005). Pure Tarai goat has become rare due to indiscriminate crossbreeding of the breed with Indian large size goat (Neopane and Pokharel, 2008a). Lampuchhre sheep is close to endangerment (Neopane and Pokharel, 2008b) and bampudke pigs are at critical state in their domesticated habitats (Neopane and Kadel, 2008) Table 2.11: Number of selected group ofspecies that are protected in Nepal Fauna Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Flora Angiosperms Gymnosperms Lichens Protected Species Number %* Reference 27 9 3 2 14.9 1.0 2.4 3.7 Jnyawali et al. (2011) 14 4 1 0.2 GON (2001) 15.4 GON (2001) 0.1 GON (2001) BCN and DNPWC (2011) Chapagain and Dhakal (2003) Shah and Tiwari (2004) Bengal Florican (protected) Species Group * Percent of known species in Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page57 The Government has taken initiatives to conserve the threatened species by declaring them as protected species. The list includes 27 species of mammals, nine species of birds, 14 species of angiosperms, and four species of gymnosperms (Table 2.11; Annex 2.16; Annex 2.17). 2.2.3 Genetic Diversity Information on forest genetic diversity is very limited in Nepal. The Tree Improvement and Silviculture Unit under the Department of Forests, has established seed stands for 38 socially and economically important tree species to conserve the genetic resources of these species (Annex 2.18). Among the forest tree species studied, Dalbergia sissoo, Pinus roxburghii and Shorea robusta have found to possess high level of genetic diversity (TISU, 2012). Many wetlands are the sources of genetic material. For example, the Ajingara marsh in Kapilvastu harborsthree species of wild rice,namelyOryza rufipogan, O. officinales and O. nivara. Hydroryza aristata is a wild relative of many rice varieties found in the Tarai. These local land races provide genetic materials for improvement of commercial varieties (Bhandari, 1998). Among the agriculture species, crops such as rice (Oryza sativa), rice bean (Vigna unbellata), egg plant (Solanum melongena), buck wheat (Fagopyrum esculentum,F. tatricum), soybean (Glycine max), foxtail millet (Setaria italic), citrus (Citrus aurantium, C. limon, C. medica) and mango (Magnifera indica) have high genetic diversity. Similarly, the genetic diversity in under-utilized or minor crops, such as calocacia, yam, buckwheat, horse gram, sweet potato, amaranthus, proso millet, foxtail millet, and tropical fruit species such as litchi, jack fruit, jujube, black plum is very high. Traditional farming systems and wild relatives found in proximity have helped maintain the genetic variability in these species (Jhaet al., 1996; Table 2.12). Table 2.12: Estimated botanical sources of cultivated and wild food crop species in Nepal Plant Groups Number of Food Crop Species Cultivated Wild Imported Total Dicotyledons 175 (44) 190 (48) 30 (8) 395 Monocotyledons 50 (60) 20 (24) 13 (16) 83 Pteridophytes 11 (100) 11 Thallophytes 108 (100) 108 Gymnosperms 2 (100) 2 Total 225 331 43 599 Source: MFSC (2002). Number in the parenthesis refers to percentage. There are variations in the distribution of crop genetic diversity across the country. For example, the findings of an on-farm agrobiodiversity research carried out by the Strengthening the Scientific Basis of Agrobiodiversity Conservation Project showed the highest number of farmer-named cultivars of rice, taro and sponge gourds in Kaski (Middle Mountains). Genetic diversity of buckwheat and barley were high in Jumla (High Mountains), and the diversity of pigeon pea was highest in Bara (Tarai; Table 2.13). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page58 Table 2.13: Diversity trend for plant genetic resources in major eco-sites Eco-site Physiographic Zone Level of Diversity Jumla High Mountains Moderate-High Degree of Intervention Low Kaski Middle Mountains Moderate-High Medium Bara Tarai (100-150m) Low-Moderate High Targeted Crops Rice, millet, barley, buckwheat, cucumber Rice, millet, taro, sponge gourd, cucumber Rice, millet, sponge gourd, cucumber, pigeon pea Source: Upadhyay and Joshi (2003) The amount and distribution of diversity for these crops was highly linked to distribution of soils, temperatures, rainfall and topography in addition to the cultivars’ use and quality values. Limited works on assessing genetic diversity in livestock has been done in the country. The available information suggests that a high level of genetic diversity exists in Khari goats (found across the middle mountains) (Kuwar et al., 2003). 2.2.4 Mountain Biodiversity Most of Nepal’s biodiversity is in the mountains. For example, 34 percent of the biodiversity (plants and animal species) is found in the High Mountains (above 3,000m), and 63 percent in the Middle Mountains (1,000-3,000 m). The highest numbers of plants occur between 1,500 and 2,500 m elevations. About 420 floweringplant species are distributed in the areas that lie above 5,000 m. Vascular plants (e.g. angiosperm Christolae himalayayensis) have even been recorded at more than 6,000 melevation in the eastern Himalaya (MFSC, 2005).Mosses and lichens are seen up to 6,300m, and mammals and birds are seen even above 5,000m (MFSC, 2002). High altitude rangelands are especially important from the perspective of endemism. Ofthe total 246 species flowering plants that are endemic to Nepal, about 131 species are known to occur in subalpine and alpine rangelands (Shrestha and Joshi, 1997).Of the 41 key NTFP species, 14 species (34% of the country’s total) that are primarily medicinal herbs occur in alpine rangelands (Biodiversity Profile Project, 1995). The high elevation mountains also possess enormously diverse species and genetic resources of wild fauna. Some 80 species of mammals are known to occur in the High Mountains and High Himal areas of which eight, namely snow leopard, grey wolf, Tibetan argali, lynx, brown bear, musk deer, red panda and Tibetan antelope, are major wildlife species found in Nepal. Four of these species are endangered and vulnerable. Similarly, eight out of 20 endemic breeds of livestock are from the alpine region (Sherchand and Pradhan, 1998; MFSC, 2005). Among the bird species, around 413 species are reported to occur above 3,000 m altitude. Of these, 19 species are known to breed in these high grounds. Nine species of birds are restricted to alpine rangelands of which five species, including imperial eagle, Pallas’ fish eagle, Hodgson’s bush chat, lesser kestrel, and Kasmir flycatcher are of international significance (Inskipp and Inskipp, 1991). Five of the nine Ramsar-listed wetlands in Nepal are located above 2,000 m elevations. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page59 The mountain biodiversity of the Himalayanregion also contributes significantly to the global biodiversity. Considering the fact that Himalayan Mountains are endowed with immense biodiversity, including a great diversity of endemic species, and significant threat to biodiversity due to human activities, the Conservation International has identified the entire Himalayan region as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots3 in the world. Nepal is at the center of the hotspot. 2.2.5 Representation of Global Terrestrial Ecoregions Nepal includes 12of the 867 terrestrial ecoregions 4 in the world. These include: (i) The Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf Forests, (ii) Eastern Himalayan Conifer Forests, (iii) Eastern Himalayan Alpine Shrub and Meadows, (iv) Himalayan Subtropical Broadleaf Forests, (v) Himalayan Subtropical Pine Forests, (vi) Western Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests, (vii) Western Himalayan Broadleaf Forests, (viii) Western Himalayan Alpine Shrub and Meadows, (ix) Upper Gangetic Plains Moist Deciduous Forests, (x) Lower Gangetic Plains Moist Deciduous Forests, and (xi) Tarai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands (Olson et al., 2001; Wickamanayake, et al., 2002). A significant proportion of the high elevation areas in the northernmost belt of the Himalayas comprise of rock and ice (Figure 2.7; Annex 2.19). Figure 2.7: Location and coverage of the global terrestrialecoregions in Nepal “Biodiversity Hotspots” are areas that harbor great biodiversity with unique plant and animal species, which are at serious risk of extinction. 3 4 Ecoregions are relatively large units of land containing distinct assemblages of natural communities and species, with boundaries that approximate the original extent of natural communities prior to major land-use change (Olson et al., 2001). The central concept behind this approach is to conserve the broadest variety of the world’s habitats and the most endangered. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page60 3 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN NEPAL Nepal’s biodiversity is threatened by multiple factors.Loss and degradation of natural habitats,such as forests, grasslands and wetlands due to expansion of settlements, agriculture and infrastructure; overexploitation; invasion by alien species; and pollution of water bodies remain thepredominant threats to natural systems.Rapid expansion of hybrid varieties and indiscriminate use of insecticides and pesticides are the major threats to agro-biodiversity. Climate change, for which the country is not responsible but has to face it,can haveprofound impacts in future, particularly in the mountains. Most of threats are continuing to increase. Moreover, interaction of multiple threats is speculated to have increased pressures on biodiversity thereby leading to further decline, degradation and loss of habitats. 3.1 Forest Biodiversity The threats to forest biodiversity can be categorized into two broad groups: (i)loss and degradation of natural habitats, and (ii) overexploitation and illegal exploitation of forest products. The threats are briefly described in the following sections and impacts of the major threats and general trends in the impacts in different physiographic zones over the last decade are summarized in Figure 3.2. (i)Loss of Habitat Continuous loss of forest area is a major threat to forest biodiversity. According to the Global Forest Resources Assessment by FAO, Nepal lost its forest area by 2.1 percent and 1.4 percent during 1990-2000 and 2000-2005, respectively. The rate of decrease of primary forests was even higher. During 1990-2000, the country lost 700 ha of primary forest per year, but this figure rose by 10 times to 7,000 ha per year during 2000-2005 (FAO, 2010). The factors driving forest lossslightly vary among the physiographic zones and include mainly the following. (a) Encroachmentof forest area for resettlements is a major cause of forest loss in the Tarai and Siwaliks. Some encroachments, especially along the highways, are for expansion of local markets and urban areas. (b) Expansion of cultivation to forest areas is taking place to meet spiraling demands for agricultural lands. The problem is more severe in the Tarai and Siwalikswhere productivity of land and population density is high and enforcement of law is weak. Shifting cultivation on steep hill slopes is a major driver of deforestation in some areas of the Siwaliks and adjoining Mahabharat range. (c) Development of infrastructureinside forestland is an important driver of forest loss throughout the country. Unplanned and unregulated construction of rural roads by VDCs and DDCs is a major threat in the Middle Mountains, which has undermined the positive contributions of community forestry programme to some extent. Illegal construction of schools, hospitals, temples, water storage tanks and other infrastructure within forest is a problem, particularlyin the Tarai and Siwaliks. Encroachment of forest for construction of hotels, monasteries and trekking trailsis common in the High Mountains. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page61 A hospital constructed inside a sal forest at Danda, Nawalparasi Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam Records available at the Department of Forests show that a total of 82,934 ha. forestland was under illegal occupation in 2012. This is 66 percent higher as compared to the encroached area in 1994. The increasing trend of encroachment could be related to general lawlessness created by political instability, inadequate capacity of district forest offices to deal with the problem, and poor coordination among the law enforcement agencies. Severity of the problem varies among the development regions (Figure 3.1; DOF, 2012). Figure 3.1: Forest area (ha.) under illegal occupation in different development regions 14,599.1 26,517.3 9,883.4 Far-Western Mid-Western 26,547.9 5,386.3 Western Central Eastern (d) Planned conversion of forestland by the government for implementing economic development priority projects, such as construction of road, electric transmission line and reservoir has taken place in many places. The government has also allowed some private sector companies to set up mines and other industries in forestland. (ii) Degradation of Habitat Degradation of forest habitats is a major threat to biodiversity, particularly in government-managed forests outside protected areas. The World Bank (2008) estimated that one quarter of Nepal’s forest area is heavily degraded, which has led to loss of biodiversity, increased landslides, and soil erosion. While little information exists about the condition inside protected areas, a recently published news article citing long-term research by Michigan State University scientists mentioned that the tiger habitat inside Chitwan National Park has degraded and the habitat of the buffer zone has improved over the last 20 years (Flowers, 2013). The following are the major driversof forest degradation. (a) Over and unsustainable harvest of forest products to meet persistently high demands for fuel, construction timber, fodder and other forest products is common in forestsoutside protected areas. Illicit felling of commercially valuable trees and trans-boundary timber trade are major problems in the Tarai, Siwalik and some parts of the High Mountain regions.High demand for fuelwood and unemployment has motivated many people for illegal collection of firewood for sell, particularly along the highways. Selective felling of trees for building materials and over-lopping for fodder and fuelwood also contribute significantly to forest degradation. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page62 Over exploitation of high value and rare species, such as satisal (Dalbergia latifolia), champ (Michelia champaca), bijayasal (Pterocarpus marsupim)and wild olive (Olea cuspidata) has threatened the survival of these species in their natural habitats.Unregulated commercial harvest of medicinal plants using inappropriate harvesting methods has caused direct threat to the high value species, including yarchagumba (Cordyceps sinensis), jatamansi (Valeriana jatamansi),sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina), and many species of orchids. Community forests in the mountains are also not immune from overharvest. For example, the biodiversity-rich Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale forest in eastern Nepal is reportedly undergoing uncontrolled deforestation in recent time (Karki, 2013). (b) Uncontrolled forest fireis an important threat, particularly in the Siwaliks region. Most of the fires are deliberately set by the local farmersto clear land for agriculture or stimulate early growth of grass for livestock to graze. Recurrent forest fires severely damage and prohibit regeneration and growth of seedlings, destroy non-timber forest products and ground fauna and, in some cases, encourage invasive species. In the Middle Mountains, frequent burning has favored the spread of fire-resistant species, such as pines and greatly reduced the development of forest understorey, leading to an open forest with relatively low biodiversity. (c) Overgrazingin forests by sedentary small farmers or nomadic herders has negatively affected regeneration and growth of seedlings and ultimately caused forest degradation in many places. The practice of grazing in forest has substantially decreased in the Middle Mountains due to implementation of the community forestry programme, as FUGs rules usually do not allow grazing in community forests. In some areas of High Mountains, however, the grazing ban in community forests, has invited conflicts between nomadic herders and CFUGs. (iii) Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trade Illegal hunting and trade of important wildlife species, which is prevalent throughout the country, is a major problem in the management of protected area biodiversity. The threat isparticularly severe for some vertebrates, driven, in particular,by demand for wildlife products from China.Rhino, tiger, musk deer (Moschus moschiferus), pangolin (Manis spp.) are some of the species that are especially at risk from poaching.Around 43 nationally threatened bird species (29% of the total threatened)are affected to some degree by hunting or trapping(BCN and DNPWC, 2011). (iv) Human-WildlifeConflict The conflictrelates to crop raids and livestock depredation by wild animals, which is common in all protected areas. This is a major threat to wild fauna particularly large predators (e.g. snow leopard). Every year, wild animals, especially wild boars, elephants, rhinos, deers, and monkeys destroy crops, inflicting immense misery on the local farmers. Livestock depredation by predator species, especially tigers and leopards is also common both inside and outside protected areas. Occasionally, big wild animals also kill humans. Local villagers occasionally resort to retribution killings in the form of hunting, trapping and poisoning of wildlife species. The government is trying to resolve the problem through a system of awareness and cash compensation but the efforts have not yet proved to be effective. The conflicts are likely to increase in future if amicable solutions are not sorted out soon. (v) Invasion by Alien Plant Species National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page63 Invasive alien species affect nativespecies mainly through predation, competition and habitatmodification (McGeoch et al.,2010). Invasion and rapid expansion of some alien species, such as Mikania micrantha, Eupatorium adenophorum, E. odoratum, and Lantana camarahas been emerged as a major threat to forest biodiversity. Mikania micranthais a climber that spreads extremely fast over forest canopy thereby blocking sunlight for the native plants and eventually killing them or stunting their growth. Its invasion has been a serious problem in the forests and grasslands of Chitwan valley and many other areas in the Tarai, Siwaliks and Middle Mountains. Mikania micrantha in Chitwan National Park Photo ©: Bharat Babu Shrestha Eupatorium adenophorum, which grows profusely in disturbed forest, forest margins and fallowlands and displaces the native ground flora, is a major cause of biodiversity loss in the Middle Mountains (500-2400 m.). The plant is reportedly moving to higher elevation areas in recent years, possibly because of changing climatic conditions.E. odoratum grows in sunny open and drained areas. The mode of propagation and impact on biodiversity are similar to E.adenophorum, except that it is non-palatable by livestock and difficult to uproot.Lantana camarais commonly found in shrublands, fallowlands and forest margins in the Siwaliks and lower Middle Mountains (subtropical areas). Many native plants are reportedly replaced due to Lantana invasion. (vi) Stone, Gravel and Sand Mining Excessive and unregulated extraction of boulders from forested areas and gravel and sand from rivers and streams is a localized driver of deforestation in some areas, which has posed a direct threat to biodiversity. (vii) Unmanaged tourismis an important threat to biodiversity in some protected areas. Figure 3.2: Major direct threats to forest biodiversity in Nepal Physiographic Zone High Himal High Mountains Middle Mountains Siwaliks Tarai A B C D E F G Impact High Medium Low Trend Increasing Decreasing Constant A =Loss of habitat; B = Degradation of habitat; C = Poaching and illegal trade;D = Human-wildlife conflict; E = Invasion by alien plant species; F = Stone, gravel and sand mining; G = Unmanaged tourism. Blank cell refers to not applicable or lack of information. (viii) Other Threats Conversion of native species rich forests to plantations, such asin Sagarnath, Ratuwamai and Nepalgunj forest development projects, inappropriate application of silviculture techniques, and absence of sustainable management practices are some other factors thathave posed threatto forest ecosystems, species and genetic diversity outside the protected areas. The practices of planting National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page64 seedlings and cuttings from unknown source and small number of mother trees have led to the loss of genetic diversity (MFSC, 2013). Landslide, which is caused by both anthropogenic and natural factors, is an important driver of deforestation in the hills and mountains. 3.2 Rangeland Biodiversity Threats to rangelands biodiversity differ with the location and type of rangelands. The following are some of the major threats. (i)Overgrazing and tramplingby large herds of livestock (especially yak) is a main threat to biodiversity in high altitude pastures, including the Eastern Himalayan Alpine Shrub and Meadows ecoregion. (ii) Conversion of the grasslands and savannas to agriculture and other use is a major threat to the Tarai-Duar savannas, grasslands and marshlands. The loss and fragmentation has greatly affected grassland-dependent wild animals and bird species. (iii)Intrusionof riverine tree specieshas caused decline in quality and extent of some grassland habitats, including in the Chitwan National Park.Intrusions by tree species have also been reported in sub-alpine and alpine grasslands. (iv) Invasion of alien plant species is a threat to many Tarai, Siwaliks and Middle Mountains grasslands. (v) Unregulated commercial harvest of medicinal plants is a main threat to biodiversity in alpine and suu-alpine meadows. (vi)Inappropriate management of protected area grasslands, including untimely and intensive annual cutting, has posed a serious threat to country’s specialist grassland birds,many of which are now almost entirely confined to protected areas (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). (vi) Fire, which is an essential component of management tools used to maintain lowland grassland ecosystems and biodiversity (especially in protected areas), is also a serious threat to biodiversity. Fires during the breeding season can be extremely damaging to grassland birds and reptiles as they destroy the nests and eggs. Comprehensive burning can also be harmful to other wildlife. 3.3 Wetland Biodiversity Wetland biodiversity is threatened by: (i) drainage and encroachment for agriculture, settlement and infrastructure development, (ii) diversion and abstraction of water for farmland irrigation, (iii) unsustainable exploitation of wetland resources, including overfishing and destructive fishing,and overgrazing of marshes (iv) widespread mining of gravel from streams and rivers beds, (v) water pollution from households and industrial discharges and agricultural run-off, (vi) invasion of alien speciesinto wetland ecosystems, (vii) illegal hunting and trapping of birds and other wildlife, and (viii) siltation. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page65 High dams that have been built on many rivers have posed serious threats to many species of fish and other aquatic species; the scale of this threat is expected to further increase in future. Uncontrolled use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers is a significant threat to many species of birds and aquatic life. The eutrophication of wetlands due to over-use of fertilizers can cause more severe damage to freshwater biodiversity in future. Over-fishing and fish-poisoning have significantly reduced the food supply of fish-eating birds.Some wetland bird species, such as Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus), Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia), Black-bellied Tern (S. acuticauda) and River Tern (S. aurantia) have shown continuous decline in recent years due to degradation of their habitats. Some other species, including Lesser Fish Eagle (Ichthyaetus humilis) and Tawny Fish Owl (Ketupa flavipes) are now included in the nationally threatened list(BCN and DNPWC, 2011). Invasion of jalkumbhi (Eichhornia crassipes)is a major threat to tropical and sub-tropical wetlands. Many internationally important wetlands, including the Bishazari Lake in the Barandabhar corridor forest in Chitwan and Phewa Lake in Pokhara, are already severely invaded by Eichhornia. The plant grows fast and soon covers the entire water surface. The substantial reduction in light and air (oxygen) reaching below the surface due to Eichhornia invasion affects the submerged organisms.Ipomoea carnea and Mikania micrantha are also becoming more abundant around wetlands, thereby affecting habitats of wetland dependent fauna. Blanket of Eichhornia crassipes on a stream in Dhanusha Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam Introduction and rapid expansion of exotic fish has also been emerged as a major threat to native species. Twelve alien fish species have been introduced in Nepalese wetlands for aquaculture development (Table 3.1). Some of those exotic species (e.g. Tilapia) can be invasive. Table 3.1: Invasive alien fish species found in Nepal SN Name Scientific 1 Oreochromis mosambicus, 2 O. niloticus 3 Clarias gariepinus 4 Aristichthys nobilis 5 Hypop-thalmicthys molitrix 6 Cteno-pharyngodon ideallus 7 Cyprinus carpio 8 Pangasius hypothalmus 9 P. suchi 10 Puntius gonototus 11 Onchorhynchus mykiss Native Invaded Habitat Common Tilapia Africa Lakes, ponds, streams, rivers Catfish Crap fish Africa China, Russia Lakes, ponds, streams, rivers Lakes, ponds, streams, rivers Common carp Hungery, Isreal Ponds, lakes Pangasia Bangladesh, India Ponds Silver barb Rainbow trout Thailand Japan Ponds Raceways National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page66 12 Macrobrachium rosenbergii Freshwater prawn Thailand Ponds Source: CSUWN (2011) Although the extent of impacts of exotic species on native diversity is not assessed for Nepal, limited studies conducted at specific locations show the coverage of exotic species is being rapidly expanded and they can have significant negative effects on local biodiversity. For example, a recent assessment of natural lakes in Kailali district showed that of the 101 natural lakes found in the district at least 80 were being used for exotic fish farming, mostly carps. In another study, a reduction of 42 percent in the yield of native fish species (Mystus and Puntius spp.) was observed in Begnas Lake in Pokhara after introduction of exotic Bighead Carp (Aristichthys nobilis), Silver Carp (Hypopthalmicthys molitrix) and Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon ideallus).Surviving native fish populations are reduced by exotics by preying on their fry, or by out-competing them for food and breeding sites, which can ultimately result into extinction of the native species. 3.4 Agrobiodiversity Agrobiodiversity is under threat due to: (i) commercialization of agriculture and the extension of modern high yielding varieties, (ii) indiscriminate use of pesticides, (iii) population growth and urbanization, and (iv) changes in farmer’s priorities (MFSC, 2002).Poor level of awareness about the importance of biodiversity, lack of suitable policy for conservation of local species and varieties, and inadequate knowledgeareother threats. The type and intensity of threats to agrobiodiversity slightly vary among the physiographic regions. For example, commercialization of agriculture and the extension of modern high yielding varieties, and urbanization are more relevant to the Tarai, while poor level of awareness is more related to the mountains (Table 3.2). Table 3.2: Important threats to agrobiodiversity in different physiographic zones Threats High Mountains x xx x x x Middle Mountains x xx xx xx xx xx Tarai and Siwaliks xx xxx x xx xx xx Urbanization and disorganized settlements Use of hybrids and improved varieties/breeds Low awareness Lack of conservation friendly policy Inadequate research Cultivation of profit-oriented crops (e.g. cardamom in place of traditional cereal crops) Loss of exchange of seed system x xx xx Indiscriminate crossbreeding xx xxx Prevalence of new insects and pests x xx xx Climate change (draught and flood) xx xx xx Indiscrimante use of insecticides and pesticides x xx xxx Lack of local species and varieties friendly policy xx xx xx Invasion by alien species x xx xx Source: MFSC (2002) and stakeholders consultations. Number of “x” indicates degree of the threat. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page67 Livestock diversity is threatened by: (i) decline of local breeds, (ii) weak quarantine, (iii) limited exsitu conservation of local breeds, (iv) inadequate research and technologies, (v) limited access to good quality seed of local breeds (live or semen), and (vi) lack of incentives to continue keeping less productive local breeds. 3.5Mountain Biodiversity Some of the main threats to mountain biodiversity include: (i) unplanned and unregulated construction of rural roads, (ii) poor management of natural resources, including overexploitation of non-wood and wood products and mineral resources, and (iii) inappropriate farming practices. The mountain ecosystems are fragile and vulnerable to natural disasters, such as landslides, glacial lake outburst floods and drought, which cause considerable damage to mountain ecosystems and the people living in those areas. The changing climatic conditions have exacerbated the threats to biodiversity and livelihoods, especially in the mountain areas in recent years. 3.6 Climate Change: a Major Threat to Biodiversity Globally, climate change and its consequences present one of the most important threats to biodiversity and the functions of ecosystems. It likely becomes a leading driver of biodiversity degradation in the21st century. A recent study by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the World MeteorologicalOrganization has predictedthat 20-30 percent species will likely be at a higher risk of extinction with increase in temperature due to climate change (IPCC, 2007). The understanding of impacts of climate change on Nepal’s biodiversity is very poor. Some of the known impacts are: (i) shifts in agro-ecological zones, prolonged dry spells, and higher incidences of pests and diseasesincreased temperature and rainfall variability, (ii) increased emergence and fast spread of invasive alien plant species, (iii) increased incidence of forest fire in recent years, (iv) changes in phonological cycles of tree species, (v) shifting of treeline in the Himalaya, and (v) depletion of wetlands (MOE, 2010). The following are some of the likely impacts of climate change on biodiversity. (a) The climatic range of many species will move poleward or upward in elevation from their current locations. This will have differential effects on species. Some species will migrate through fragmented landscapes whilst others may not be able to do so. (b) Many species that are already vulnerable are likely to become extinct. Species with limited climatic ranges and/or with limited geographical opportunities (e.g., mountain top species), species with restricted habitat requirements, and/or small populations are typically the most vulnerable. (c) Changes in the frequency, intensity, extent, and locations of climatically and non-climatically induced disturbances will affect how and at what rate the existing ecosystems will be replaced by new plant and animal assemblages. Many ecosystems are likely be dominated by opportunistic, “weedy” species, i.e., species well adapted to dispersal and rapid establishment, especially if the frequency and intensity of disturbance is high. The High Himal and High Mountain ecosystems are National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page68 likely to be worst affected by climate change.Among the natural habitats, remnant native grasslands are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). The impacts of climate change are likely to increase in future, which will not only affect biodiversity but also livelihoods of millions of local and indigenous people who depend on biodiversity.Disruption of ecological services on which they depend due to climate change is expected to especially affect the poorest and most vulnerable communities (UNEP, 2010). 3.7. Underlying Causes of Biodiversity Loss Thethreats to biodiversity discussed in the preceding sections are the results of several underlying causes. These causes constitute a complex of social, political, economic, technological, and cultural variables that operate at various spatial levels. The following are some of the major underlying causes of biodiversity loss in Nepal. (i) Demographic Changes Nepal’s population grew with an average rate of 1.35 percent during the last decade. Moreover, there is a wide spatial variation in the distribution of population across the country (CBS, 2012).Although correlating population with forest use pattern is difficult, it is widely believed that the growth of population, along with changing density and distribution patterns are believed to have driven deforestation and forest degradation in different ways, including increased forest encroachment for agricultural expansions and increased pressure on forests for meeting energy and timber needs. Migration, which is high in Nepal, is another major demographic factor that is believed to have direct relationship with the management and use of forest resources. (ii)Poverty and Other Economic Factors Widespread poverty, combined with lack of or very limited alternative livelihood opportunities and general underdevelopment situation, is a key underlying cause of forest loss and degradation, because low economic growth and commercial development have contributed to high forest dependency. Poverty is also an important underlying cause for loss of wetland and rangeland biodiversity, and a major threat to mountain biodiversity. Pressure on forests has substantially increased due also to increased demand of forestland and timber for infrastructural development, and increased commercialization of forest products (e.g. firewood) due to increased market accessibility. Remittance-based economic growth is creating more and more demands of construction timber for construction of new houses in recent years. Forests close to urban areas are facing increased pressure for recreation. Drive to economic development coupled with weak enforcement of forest law has led to unplanned and unregulated construction of infrastructure inside forestland. The pursuit of economic growth through intensive agriculture and urbanization has negative effects on agrobiodiversity. In the absence of cheap alternatives, woodfuel remains the major source of energy in rural areas. Use of alternative fuel (LPG, electricity, kerosene) by residents of major urban centers, and limited use of biogas and LPG in some rural areas has not effectively decreased the demand for firewood. (iii) Poor Governance National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page69 Weak enforcement of the law and regulatory mechanisms, and overall poor governance of the forestry sector is a major underlying factor behind deforestation and forest degradation. The poor governance of forestry sector is related to conflicting sectoral policies, poor coordination, and inadequate capacity of Department of Forestsand Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation.Poor inter-agency coordination and disregard to forestry legislation by other government agencies is an important factor causing forest loss and degradation. In some cases, misdirected and conflicting policies have resulted unintended deforestations.In other cases, preventable deforestations have not been precluded due to the failure of government institutions to function effectively. Lack of political will and capacity are also considered to be significant underlying causes of poor forestry governance. Laws may exist, but are not implemented because of a lack of political will and financial resources dedicated to their implementation. Enforcement of forest law is especially weak when there are large-scale projects at stake. The long political instability has exacerbated the situation. Maintaining law and order has been difficult, particularly in the Tarai, in the face of ongoing political transition and conflicts.Lack of or poor infrastructural facility (field offices)is a major problem in most districts. Absence of transparent system of reward and punishment for government staff and forest user groups, bribery and corruption, and feudalistic top-down structure of the state are also considered to have contributed to weak governance of the forestry sector. As a result, the existing regulatory mechanisms are unable to deal with rampant violations by politicians and forest mafia. A porous international border both in the north and south, very high price of wildlife parts and products international markets and general lack of knowledge of the legal consequences of poaching are considered as the major underlying causes of poaching and illegal wildlife trade. Lack of a uniform policy and guidelines regarding harvest and sales of forest products from community forests, lack of a uniform reporting system or format, lack of financial transparency, and weak monitoring by district forest office and FECOFUN has led to financial irregularities by some forest user groups. The imbalance in power and influence among different government ministries may be one of the reasons behind disregard to forestry legislation by other government agencies. Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation and Ministry of Environment are considered less influential in government’s decision making than, for example, the Ministry of Energy or Ministry of Physical Planning and Works, whichoften results to inappropriate land use decisions. Weak institutional mechanism has also affected conservation of agrobiodiversity. The state is currently undergoing through a difficult restructuring process, which will largely determine the structure of future forestry sector governance and the sector’s contribution to social and economic transformations. (iv) Ignorance to Biodiversity Values in Government and Corporate Accounting Systems The current government and corporate accounting systems tend to ignore environmental costs of forest and biodiversity loss and degradation and look mainly at the short-term economic benefits of development. This gap has provided incentive for being indifference to the environment and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page70 biodiversity at the best and maximum exploitation of natural resources for short-term benefit at the worst, while pursuing economic goals. (v) Unclear Resource Tenure and Administrative Jurisdictions Blurred tenure and forest use rights have contributed to perceived open accessness and degradation of government-managed forests. This perception is often the result of conflict between traditional tenure systems and contemporary forestry legislations (e.g. Kipat system in the eastern mountains). Perceived open accessesnessof government-managed forests has encouraged stakeholders to adopt a short-term economic horizon. Failure to apprehend and punish many of those who violate regulations isa possible underlying cause of the perception of an open-access resource. In some cases, corruption by officials tasked with preventing offences could be the major reason. Unclear responsibilities and overlapping jurisdictions between the Department of Forests and Department of Livestock Services have negatively affected management of rangelands outside protected areas. The problem is even more serious in case of wetlands. (vi) Unsustainable Agricultural Practices Use of lands for higher production and thinking for only short-term benefits has made agriculture production practices unsustainable. Over use of pesticides, chemical fertilizer and improved seeds with adoption of mono-cropping have posed challenge to conserve agro-biodiversity. (vii) Inadequate Awareness and Motivation to ConserveBiodiversity Public awareness is critical in gaining support for biodiversity conservation. In Nepal, inadequate information on genetic resources, inadequate awareness of communities on the importance of biodiversity conservation, and inadequate incentives for meaningful participation of local forest user groups and farmers for conservation of economically less valuable species is a threat for sustaining the past achievements and improving management of biodiversity in future. Lack of incentives for conservation of less productive agriculture crop varieties (native landraces) and livestock breeds is a major underlying cause of agro-biodiversity loss. (viii) Other Factors Lack of scientific forest management has caused low productivity of forests, imbalance in supply of products and less optimal income from the forestry sector. This coupled with inefficient forest products distribution and marketing systems has contributed to illegal and unsustainable harvest of forest products. Inequality based on gender, caste and ethnicity; cultural factors, such as continuation of inherited modes of resource use and farming practices (e.g. shifting cultivation), increasing levels of demands and aspirations, and general disregard of the sacredness of nature are some of the underlying causes of loss of forest biodiversity. Lack of an integrated approach to planning at the national and district levels has resulted damage to the environment and biodiversity. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page71 4 EFFORTS TO MANAGE BIODIVERSITY AND OUTCOMES 4.1 Enabling Policies, Strategies and Regulatory Framework Nepal has been systematically adopting the concept of conservation-friendly economic growth since it was firstintroduced by the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002). The concept was further refined and internalized by the Tenth Plan (2002-2007). Since then, various enabling plans, policies, strategies and legislations have been developed and implemented to facilitate sustainable growth with participation of local communities. Policies and legislations relating to community based forest and protected area management are examples of such enabling policies and successful conservation models. Biodiversity has been featured prominently in the Approach Paper to the Thirteenth Plan that has been recently developed by the National Planning Commission.Some of the main biodiversity related policies, strategies and legislations developed since 2002 are listed in Table 4.1, and the same are briefly described in Annex 4.1 and Annex 4.2. Table 4.1: Biodiversity related polices, strategies and legislations developed since 2002 Cross-sectoral 1 The Tenth Plan (2002-2007) 2 Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities Act (2002) Sustainable Development Agenda for Nepal (2003) Science and Technology Policy (2005) Sectoral 1 Water Resource Strategy (2002) 2 Mountaineering Expedition Regulations (2002) 3 Leasehold Forest Policy (2002) 4 National Agricultural Policy (2004) 5 Biosafety Guidelines (2005) Biotechnology Policy (2006) Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006) National Bio-safety Framework Policy (2007) Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007) Three-year Interim Plan (2007-2010) National Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol (2007) Genetic Resources (access, use and sharing of benefits) Bill (draft; 2008) Churia Area Programme Strategy (draft; 2008) Three-year Plan (2010-2013) Climate Change Policy (2011) 6 7 8 Herbs and Non- Timber Forest Products Policy (2006) Rural Energy Policy (2006) Agro-biodiversity Policy (2007) Plant Protection Act (2007) 9 10 11 12 Tourism Policy (2009) Plant Protection Rules (2010) Forest Fire Management Strategy (2010) Industrial Policy (2011) 13 Rangeland Policy (2012) 14 15 16 National Land Use Policy (2012) National Intellectual Property Policy (draft; 2012) Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework (2013) 17 18 National Wetlands Policy (2012) Forest Encroachment Control Strategy (2012) Agriculture Development Strategy (draft; 2013) Irrigation Policy (2013) National Seed Vision (2013-2025) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page72 The existing polices, strategies and legislations have the following major gaps with regard to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of biological resources and equitable sharing of benefits accrued. (i) Inadequate importance to biodiversity by some policies Many of therelevant policies, such as those related to environment, industry, roads and local governance sectors do not have clearly stated objectives relating to biological diversity. Even the recently drafted Agriculture Development Strategy (2013)has not assigned due priority to conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity. The emphasis given by the strategy to commercialization and competitive agriculture may undermineconservation of agrobiodiversity. (ii) Poor integration and harmonization of policies and laws The policies of different sectors are not well connected and coordinated. Similarly, some of the existing laws are inconsistent, overlapping or contradictory, and constricted by sectoral biases. For example, provisions in the Forest Act (1993) and several other environment-related Acts contradict with the Local Self-Governance Act (1999). The extent of the rights allocated by different laws to various local user groups differs substantially(Belbase and Thapa, 2007). There are also some legislative ambiguities, which have created confusion over the statutory responsibilities of government ministries and departments. (iii) Policy and legislative gaps Nepal does not have any legislation related to: (i) access to genetic resources and benefit sharing, (ii) implementation of the National Biosafety Framework (2007), and (iii) Intellectual Property Rights. The draft Genetic Resources (access, use and sharing of benefits) Bill is yet to be finalized and promulgated. The long political instability has made it difficult to address such legislative gaps. (iv) Lack of umbrella legislation for conservation of biological diversity Although Nepal became a Party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) in 1994, it is yet to enact a comprehensive legislation for conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of its components. This legislative gap has negatively affected functioning of the National Biodiversity Coordination Committee and overall conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of biological resources. Most of the existing legislations of relevant sectors present biodiversity conservation as an extension of other activities and do not give it due importance. (iv) Lack of legislation to support functioning of the high level institutional mechanisms Lack of legal support has hampered effective functioning of the National Biodiversity Coordination Committee. In other cases, there is legislative ambiguity. For example, the Environmental Protection Act (1997) and Environmental Protection Rules (1997) are silent on the composition, functions and powers of the Environment Protection Council chaired by the Prime Minister. (v) Gaps in implementation of policies Nepal has many good policies and strategies for conservation of biodiversity and natural resources, but implementation of the policies and strategies is generally poor. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page73 4.2 Nepal’s Participation in International Conventions Nepal has committed itself to conservation of biodiversity before the international community by signing or becoming a party to a number of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). So far, the government has ratified or acceded to 19 conventions and some of their protocols and/or annexes, and signed four additional conventions related to nature and environmental conservation (CBS, 2008).By becoming a party to these MEAs, the state has agreed to fulfill different obligations under each of these MEAs. The MEAs provide important opportunities as well as bring obligations to the country. They provide opportunity to securing international financial and technical assistance and networking with other countries and relevant international agencies and institutions. For example, Article 20 of the CBD gives special consideration to developing countries in funding the implementation of the CBD. The Article clearly states that such financial resources and transfer of technology will take fully into account the fact that economic and social development and eradication of poverty are the first and overriding priorities of the developing country Parties. Under Decision 27.7 of the COP-7, Nepal is entitled to get financial support from developed countries for effective implementation of the programme of work on mountain biological diversity. Decision 27.15 of the COP-7 provides opportunity to further enhance the provision of additional financial resources and transfer of technology. Nepal could also immensely benefit from proper implementation of the CBD Article 15, which asserts that a given country must have the right of disposal over its own biological diversity.MEAs can also help improve environmental governance within the country and improve and harmonize relevant policies and legislations. More importantly, however, they can help enhance national capacity for setting conservation agenda and its implementation. The government has made considerable efforts and achieved successes in the implementation of many of its international commitments, including those related to the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973), Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention; 1971), World Heritage Convention (1972), and International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (2001). Some of the main biodiversity related MEAs that Nepal has signed and the progress made in their implementation are summarized in Annex 4.3. There are, however, some gaps in implementation of international conventions. For example, Nepal is yet to become a party to the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing (2010). The progress on meeting the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) of environmental sustainability has remained relatively poor. Lack of mainstreaming of environmental issues in the policies of nonenvironmental sectors such as infrastructure, energy and education is one of the reasons behind the poor progress. Conflicting legal provisions, centralized decision making, duplication of responsibility and the lack of an integrated framework for coordination among responsible agencies are other important gaps (NPC/UNDP, 2005; NPC/UNDP, 2010). Lack of synergy among biodiversity related MEAs is a major issue in smooth implementation of the MEAs. For example, lack of synergy amongthe CBD, CITES, Ramsar, World Heritage Convention National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page74 and ITPGRFA has created confusion and complexity. There is a need to generate a set of coherent guidelines to bring synergy among the relevant MEAs. This can be useful in a number of ways, including: (i) enhancing the science-policy interface, (ii) promoting cooperation at the international level in the implementation of national biodiversity strategies and action plans, (iii)simplifying the national reporting, (iv) improvinginformation management and public awareness, and (v) capacity building (UNEP-WCMC, 2012). 4.3 Institutional Development Nepal has made a number of efforts to strengthen national institutional mechanism for improved management of biodiversity. The following were some of the main national level institutional entities that made contributions to biodiversity conservation and sustainable management of natural resources in the last decade. (1) Government Ministries and Departments A number of government ministries and departments are responsible and making their efforts to management biodiversity under their respective jurisdictions. The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation is the national focal point for implementing the CBD, Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, National Clearing House Mechanism for CBD, and National Biosafety Clearing House for Cartagena Protocol. The ministry is thus the main agency with an overall responsibility of formulating and implementing policies and programmes related to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity in the country, keeping records of relevant activities, and communicating with the CBD Secretariat and other conventions related to biodiversity. The Ministry implements its plans and programmes through five departments, five regional directorates, 74district forest offices, 56 soil conservation offices and several projects under the ministry. The Ministry of Agriculture Development, with its four central departments, two councils (Nepal Agriculture Research Council and Nepal Veterinary Council), three national boards, five regional directorates, the district offices and hundreds of agricultural centers scattered all over the country, is responsible and making efforts to manage agrobiodiversity. The Ministry is one of the largest government organizations in the country. The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment has been promoting environmentally sustainable economic development of the country. Other objectives of the Ministry are: (i) preserving natural and cultural environment, (ii) protecting the life supporting systems, (iii) developing and promoting traditional indigenous technologies, and (iv) encouraging the intellectual groups working in the field of environment, science and technology by creating appropriate opportunities. In addition, a number of other ministries, departments and projects made direct or indirect contributions to conservation of biodiversity. (2) National Planning Commission The National Planning Commission (NPC) provides advice to the government ministries and central departments on matters related to: (i) preparing periodic plans, programmes, and projects, (ii) conducting feasibility studies and initiation of master plans of large projects, and (iii) accepting National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page75 foreign aids. The Central Bureau of Statistics, under the NPC compiles and shares biodiversity and environment related information on periodic basis. (3) National Biodiversity Coordination Committee A National Biodiversity Coordination Committee (NBCC) has been established under the Minister of Forests and Soil Conservation with the objective of mainstreaming all biodiversity programmes in the country. High level representatives from relevant government ministries, private sectors, and donors are members of the committee (Table 4.2). Table 4.2: Organizational Structure of National Biodiversity Coordination Committee Designation Minister Joint Secretary Joint Secretary Joint Secretary Representative Country Representative Chairperson Five Chairpersons Secretary Institution Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Ministry of Finance National Planning Commission UNDP Nepal IUCN Nepal Industry and Environment Committee, Federation of Nepalese Chamber of Commerce and Industries Thematic Sub-Committees on Forest and Protected Areas; Agricultural Biodiversity; Genetic Resources; Sustainable Use of Biodiversity; and Biosecurity Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation Position in NBCC Chairperson Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Member-Secretary Five thematic sub-committees, one each on Forests and Protected Areas, Agro-biodiversity, Biosecurity, Genetic Resources, and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity have been formed under the NBCC to provide scientific and technical inputs to the committee. The formation of the NBCCwas one of the key efforts of the government towards implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) and fulfilling its national obligations under the CBD. However, it has not become so effective as so far it has met only four times since it was constituted on February 8, 2004. (4) Parliamentary Committees The Natural Resources Committee and Environment Communication and Technology Committee of the Nepali Legislature Parliament play important roles in law-making process related to environment and biodiversity. Natural resource and environment related bills introduced in the house are normally referred to these committees for deliberations. There is a general practice of reaching most of the decisions in the committees through consensus. The last Natural Resources Committee, which looked after the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, Ministry of Water Resources, Ministry of Land Reform and Management, and Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, remained active throughout its tenure. The committee members made several field visits, provided necessary directives to different government agencies and submitted reports to the Parliament. These parliamentary committees were dissolved along with dissolution of the Constituent Assembly and Legislative Parliament on 28 May 2012. (5) National Tiger Conservation Committee National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page76 The Committee formed on 16 May 2010 is chaired by the Prime Minister. Minister for Forests and Soil Conservation is the Member Secretary. The other members of the eleven-member committee include the Ministers of Home, Finance, Environment, Defense, and Law and Justice; Chief Secretary, two tiger experts nominated by the Committee and a high level representative of national and international organizations contributing to tiger conservation in Nepal nominated by the Committee. (6)National Biotechnology Coordination Committee Thisis a 20-member advisory committee formed under the chairmanship of the Minister of Science, Technology and Environment with representation from the National Planning Commission, government ministries, universities, National Agricultural Research Council, and user groups. The Committee makes decision on biosafety proposals related to Genetically Modified Organisms (MOFSC, 2006b). (7) Climate Change Council The Council, which was formed in 2009, is the highest level coordination structure chaired by the Prime Minister to guide and direct formulation and implementation of climate change-related policies; take necessary measures to make climate change a national development agenda; initiate and coordinate activities related to additional financial and technical support to climate changerelated programme and projects; and initiate and coordinate for additional benefit from climate change-related international negotiations and decisions. (8) Climate Change Initiatives Coordination Committee The Committee, which is chaired by the Secretary of MOSTE, has representation from various stakeholders including relevant ministries, I/NGOs, academia, private sector, and donors.The committee is expected to serve as the key national platform for ensuring regular dialogues and consultations on climate change related policies, plans, financing and programmes and projects, in order to foster synergy and avoid duplication. (9) REDD Forestry and Climate Change Cell MFSC has established the REDD Forestry and Climate Change Cell for further strengthening of the climate change related activities through abatement of deforestation and forest degradation and sustainable forest management. The aim for Nepal’s REDD strategy is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions resulting from deforestation and forest degradation by forest conservation and enhancement, by addressing the livelihoods concerns of poor and socially marginalized forest dependent people, and by establishing effective policy, regulatory and institutional structures for sustainable development of Nepal’s forests under the forthcoming new constitutional framework. (10) Academic and Research Institutions The Central Departments of Botany, Zoology and Environmental Science, and Institute of Forestry under the Tribhuvan University (TU); Nepal Academy of Science and Technology;and Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) are playing important roles in human resource development as well as development and management of biodiversity related knowledge through research activities.The Animal Breeding Division under NARC is responsible for providing technical support to the Directorate of Animal Production (the focal point for animal genetic resources) related works in the country. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page77 (11) Non-government Agencies The National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), IUCN Nepal, WWF Nepal, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), and Federation of Community Forest Users in Nepal (FECOFUN) are some of the main national level non-government agencies that are making substantial contributions to biodiversity conservation and natural resource management in Nepal. (12) Local User Groups Al the local level, the forest user groups formed under the community forestry, leasehold forestry, collaborative forestry, and soil and water conservation programmes are playing crucial roles in the management of local biodiversity. The Conservation Area Committees and Buffer Zone Councils, committees and user groups are other key local institutions involved in management of forest biodiversity. Several types of community based groups are involved in the implementation of agrobiodiversity related programmes under the Ministry of Agriculture Development. The number and coverage of such local user groups is continuously increasing. (13) Other Agencies and Institutions There are a number of other NGOs, volunteer and professional society organizations working, directly or indirectly, to build capacity at various levels for effective conservation and management of biodiversity in the country. Nepal Foresters’ Association, Ecological Society, Women in Environment Nepal, Save the Environment Foundation, and Wetland Friends of Nepal are some examples of such institutions operational at the national level. Gaps in Institutional Arrangement Poor inter-agency coordination and cooperationis one of the major institutional gaps affecting biodiversity management in Nepal.A number of agencies and institutions are involved in biodiversity conservation but cooperation and complement among them is very poor. The problem is more severe with the government agencies. Every ministry or department usually wants to expand its own scope of functions or domain of authority, instead of offering mutual support, and attaches importance only to those policies, plans and programmes constituted under its own leadership. Absence of any particular agency with the responsibility of monitoring the implementation and enforcement of various policies, plans, and legislations could be one of the reasons behind this problem. The National Biodiversity Coordination Committee, which is supposed to take this responsibility, has not been able to fulfill its responsibilities effectively, due mainly to: (i) lack of legally assigned roles and responsibilities, and (ii) weak secretariat. Inadequate education, awareness, and participation areother major gaps. The countryhas made substantialprogress in environmental education and awareness in recent years. The increased awareness and media support can be taken as an example. However, the understanding of biodiversity and environmental issues is mostly limited to urban areas and particularly in younger masses. A vast majority of the rural population, particularly in remote rural areas, is still unaware of the concept and rationale for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page78 4.4 Establishment and Management of Protected Areas In Nepal, protected area has remained the dominant approach to biodiversity conservation. The government has so far established 20 protected areas, covering a total area of 34,185.62 sq. km or 23.23 percent of the country’s total area. The protected area network of the country includes 10 national parks, three wildlife reserves, one hunting reserve,six conservation areas, and 5602.67sq. km. buffer zone areas established around nine national parks (except Shivpuri-Nagarjun) and three wildlife reserves (DNPWC, 2012). The protected areas spread over all the physiographic zones(Figure 4.1; Figure 4.2; Annex 4.4). Figure 4.1: Protected Areas in Nepal There has been substantial expansion of protected area in recent years (Figure 4.3).A total of 6,120.6 sq. km. protected area was added just in between 2002 and 2010. Moreover, buffer zones were declared around six protected areas during the period. These actions put Nepal in the top 20 countries in the world and second in Asia for the percentage of its surface area that is protected (USAID, 2012). The protected areasare being managed under threemain types of management modalities. The national parks, wildlife reserves and the hunting reserve are exclusively managed by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC). The protection responsibility of these areas is given to the Nepal Army.The main focus of the national parks and wildlife reserves National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page79 is conservation of flagship wild fauna, such as the tiger, rhinoceros, Asian elephant, snow leopard and red panda. Several national and international development agencieshave partnered or cooperated with the DNPWC in the management of these protected areas. Figure 4.2: Percent coverage by different categories of protected areas Figure 4.3: Growth of protected area Among the six conservation areas, two (i.e. Api Nampa and Khairapur) are directly managed by the DNPWC. The Annapurna, Manaslu and Gaurishankar conservation areas are managed by the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) under a multiple use policy. NTNC has established local committees to promote economically viable and ecologically sustainable activities in the conservation areas. Kanchenjungha Conservation Area is being managed by a local management council since 2006, with supports from the DNPWC and WWF Nepal. The buffer zones are managed by local buffer zone councils established under the provisions of Buffer Zone Management Regulations (1996) and Buffer Zone Management Guidelines (1999). The council receives 30-50 percent of the income from respective protected area for implementing conservation, community development, capacity building, and conservation education related projects through buffer zone user groups established under the council. The local warden acts as the member secretary to the buffer zone council. In general, the Buffer Zone Regulations are much more restrictive than community forestry regulations in terms of providing use rights and autonomy to the local user groups.The following were some of the key efforts and achievements of protected areas in biodiversity conservation during the last decade. (i) Preparation and implementation of species conservation plans Species conservation action plans for tiger, rhino, wild elephant, snow leopard, and vulture have been prepared and implemented. Similar conservation plans for red panda, gharial crocodile, and blackbuck are being prepared at the moment. (ii) Curbing illegal trade in wild animal parts Effective implementation of anti-poaching plans and activities and setting up of Wildlife Crime Control Bureau in Nepal Police are some of the steps the government together with its conservation National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page80 partners took to control poaching and illegal trade of wildlife parts.The government also took initiatives to enhance international cooperation to curb illegal trade in animal parts and enhance conservation initiatives. The signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on environment and biodiversity conservation with People’s Republic of China on 3 June 2010 and signing of a joint resolution with the Government of Indiaon 19 July 2010 are examples. The MOU with China is aimed at strengthening and enhancing cooperation and coordination in the fields of forest management, wildlife conservation, and sharing knowledge, experiences and practices. Similarly, the resolution signed with India aims at conserving biodiversity including tigers, and strengthening ecological security in the trans-boundary regions. Formation of South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Networkon 19 May 2010 for a coordinated regional response to combat illegal wildlife poaching and trafficking is yet another initiative (Karki et al., 2011). (iii) Increase in populations of important wildlife species The efforts described in the preceding paragraphs helped increase populations of some mega wildlife species during the past few years. Available estimates show that the population of the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) increased continuously since 2009 (Figure 4.4; Acharya and Dhakal, 2012; WWF, 2012).Nepal has made a commitment to double its tiger population by 2022. Figure 4.4: Changes population of tiger in Nepal Similarly, the population of rhino (Rhinocerus unicornis) in its main habitat, the Chitwan National Park,recovered from its lowest (i.e. 354) in 2006 to 503 in 2011 (Figure 4.5; DNPWC, 2000; DNPWC, 2005; DNPWC, 2009; DNPWC, 2011). In total, there were 534 rhinos in the country in 2011 (DNPWC, 2011). Figure 4.5: Changes in population of rhino in Chitwan National Park National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page81 Rhinos in Chitwan National Park Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam (iv) Broadening of wildlife species’ habitat through translocation of individuals to new areas The process of translocation, which started with translocation of rhino from Chitwan to Bardia National Park in 1986, has gained momentum in recent years. The DNPWC has identified nine additional species for translocation to suitable habitats. These actions are expected to substantially contribute to conservation of the species. (v) Decline in number of vulnerable and regionally extinct bird species Number of vulnerable and regionally extinct bird species has declined in between 2004 and 2010, even though the number of endangered species and the number of critical species increased. The 27 Important Bird Areas (IBAs), many of which fall within protected area, have contributed to achieving this outcome (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). (vi) Monitoring of wildlife populations Systematic monitoring of populations of some other wildlife species, including snow leopard (Uncia uncia), gharial (Gavialis gangeticus), blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), guar (Bos gaurus) and swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelii) has been started since 2008 (WWF, 2012). Similarly, there have been several surveys of globally threatened bird species which have provided much useful information on their population sizes, key sites, threats and conservation needs. These efforts have contributed towards saving species from extinction (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). (vii) Increased revenue fromprotected area tourism The expansion and management of protected areas has made substantial contribution to not only conservation of forest biodiversity but also conservation of cultural diversity and development of tourism in the country. The number of tourists visiting protected areas and revenue collection increased continuously since 2005. In 2004/2005, a total of 154,716 tourists visited different protected areas. This number increased to 349,195 in 2008/2009 and 502,092 in 2011/2012. Accordingly, the revenue from protected area based tourism increased by 364 percent during the period (Figure 4.6; DNPWC, 2012). This has provided incentives to conserve biodiversity through foreign exchange to the government, necessary fund to conservation agencies (e.g. NTNC), and economic opportunities for local communities. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Figure 4.6: Annual revenue generated from tourism in protected areas Page82 (viii)Linking communities to benefits of protected areas Involvement of local people in the management of protected area was further promoted during the last decade. In 2012, there are 12 buffer zone declared areas that cover 5602.7 sq. km. in 27 districts and 83 VDCs, which are being managed by 143 buffer zone user committees and 4,088 buffer zone user groups, involving around 700,000 local people (Acharya and Dhakal, 2012).The government handed over management responsibility of Kangchenjunga Conservation Area to the local conservation area management council in 2006 thereby making it the first protected area managed by local communities. Local people are also involved in the management of Annapurna, Manaslu and Gaurishankar conservation areas through local conservation committees. Theseinitiatives have put Nepal at the forefront in linking communities to benefits of protected areas. (ix) Promotion of alternative energy Promotion of improved cooking stoves, bioenergy, solar energy, hydropower development and rural electrification are integral components of conservation area management. These initiatives are expected to have reduced pressure on forests. 4.5 Management of Forest Biodiversity outside Protected Area The following were the key efforts and achievements. (i) Implementation of participatory forest management programmes The government has been implementing participatory forest management programmes, which have made substantial contribution to forest conservation, enhancement of local livelihoods and strengthening biodiversity-livelihood linkages. The programmes also became socially more inclusive in recent years. The local forest user groups are helping in inculcating spirit of democracy among the people, gender balance, social justice, societal empowerment and transformation (Kanel and Kandel, 2006; USAID, 2012; MFSC, 2013b). (a) Community Forestry Forest degradation and loss has declined substantially and even reversed in many areas,particularly the Middle Mountains, after implementation of the community forestry programme(see e.g. Gautam, 2006; Niraula et al., 2013).The programme is being continuously expanded.Currently (i.e. as of June 2013), 18,133 community forest user groups involving 2.24 million households are managing 1.7 million hectares of forestland under the community forestry programme (Figure 4.7; DOF, 2013a). Number of CFUGs 1,700,048 854,389 2,237,195 1,208,943 18,133 11,095 Figure 4.7: Changes in status of community forestry in between 2002 and 2013 2002 (May) 2013 (June) Number of Households National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Area (ha.) Page83 Community forests might be directly contributing to conservation of biodiversity. Although, the planning and design of community forest managements have not specifically considered biodiversity assessment and conservation, improvement in forest conditions after communities’ involvement in forest management can be believed to have positively contributed to biodiversity. The improvement in forest condition has created habitat corridors and development of successive stages of forests, which might have played crucial role in preventing local extinction of species (Gautam, 2009). Local people’s reporting of increased wildlife sightings and depredation of livestock by wild animals in recent years, support this speculation. (b) Collaborative Forest Management The Department of Forests has established 19 collaborative forests, covering a total area of 54,072 ha., in nine Tarai districts (Bara, Parsa, Rautahat, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Kapilvastu, Rupandehi, Nawalparasi and Kailali) since 2004. Forest management plans have been prepared and approved for all of those forests and scientific forest management has been initiated in some of the sites (e.g. Tilaurakot, Kapilvastu). Eight other Tarai forests, covering a total area of 26,608 ha., are planned to be added in the list of collaborative forests in 2013. Biodiversity conservation is one of the objectives of collaborative forest management. (c)Leasehold Forestry The propoor leasehold forestry programme implemented in 52 districts across Nepal has played an important role in restoration of degraded forestlands thereby contributing to biodiversity conservation alongside poverty alleviation.Currently (i.e. July 2013), a total 7,413 households living below the poverty line were engaged in the management of 42,773 ha.leasehold forests (Figure 4.8). Figure 4.8: Changes in status of pro-poor leasehold forestry in between 2002 and 2013 (Background photo: a leasehold forest at Hupsekot, Nawalparasi, © Ambika P. Gautam) 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 74,950 42,773 1,655 7,413 Number of Leasholder Groups National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 11,253 Number of Households 7,011 2002 2013 Area (ha.) Page84 (ii) Establishment of Protected Forests Eight forests covering a total area of 133,754.8 hectares have been declared as protected forests since 2002. Some of these forests are important wildlife corridors, and the rest are rich in biodiversity (Figure 4.9; Table 4.3). Eight other forests, covering a total area of 223,107 ha., are in the process of being declared as protected forests in near future. Enhancing biodiversity through rehabilitation of habitats of rare and important species, biological corridors, and wetlands, and enhancing local livelihoods through implementation of income generating activities are the main objectives of protected forest management. Promotion alternative energy, such as improved cooking stoves, bioenergy, has been recently initiated in some protected forest sites (e.g. Madhane). Biobriquettes are becoming popular in some areas(DOF, 2013b). Figure 4.9: Protected Forests in Nepal Table 4.3: Protected Forests in Nepal Forest Kankre Bihar Madhane Barandabhar Year Esta. 2002 2010 2011 Size (ha.) 175.5 13,761 10,466 Location Surkhet Gulmi Chitwan Panchase 2011 5,775.7 LaljhadiMohana Basanta Khata Dhanushadham 2011 29,641.7 2011 2011 2012 69,001.2 4503.7 430 Kaski, Parbat, Syangja Kailai, Kanchanpur Kailai Bardia Dhanusha National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Conservation Significance Historical; archeological and biodiversity Biodiversity; eco-tourism Biological corridor; wetland; habitat for several endangered species. Biodiversity; eco-tourism; religious Biological corridor; wetland Wildlife habitat and corridor Wildlife habitat and corridor Historical; religious; biodiversity Page85 (iii) Implementation of Rastrapati Chure Conservation Programme The Programme has been implemented by the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation in 26 districts. The key achievements of the programme (by February 2013) include: (i) protection of regeneration in 1,047 ha. highly critical forest areas, (ii) establishment of plantation in 292 ha. critical areas, and (iii) protection of 79 km riverside through bamboo plantation (DOF, 2013b). However, most of the stakeholders consulted during the NBSAP process perceived that the programme has not been successful in achieving its objectives due mainly to poor planning,low levels of funding, and weak institutional mechanism of government agencies implementing the programme. Those perceptions are supported by occasional media reporting (see e.g. the Kathmandu Post dated 17 Feb. 2013). (iv) Afforestation and Reforestation Reforestation of deforested sites and enrichment plantation in degraded forest patches are regular activities implemented by most of the district forest offices and community forest user groups. For example, 2,986 ha.new plantation was established, and 814 ha. encroached forestland was reclaimed and reforested in the year 2011/12 (DOF, 2013c).Most district forests distribute seedlings for institutional and private plantations during the monsoon season. (v)Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources The Tree Improvement and Silviculture Unit under the Department of Forests has established seed stands for 38 socially and economically important tree species various eco-regions to conserve the genetic resources of these species. (vi) Reclamation of Encroached Forest Areas In spite of several limitations, the Department of Forests has been making efforts to controldeforestation and forest degradation and conserveforest resources under its jurisdiction by enforcing existing legislations through the 74 district forest offices under it. The records at the Department show that a total of 1,462 ha. encroached forestland was reclaimed and reforested in the last two fiscal years. The achievements, however, are negligible in comparison to the extent of forest encroachment. (vii) Establishment and Management of Publicland Agroforestry In some Tarai districts (especially in central Nepal), many small agro-forestry plots have been established on public common lands. The plots, which are managed by local landless or poor people, usually possess a wide range of agriculture, horticulture and forest tree species. The initiative is led by the concerned district forest offices and, in some cases, supported by environmental NGOs. It is difficult to assess the exact scale of this initiative due to absence of records at the national level. The Department of Forests has recently drafted Directives to regulate the public land agroforestry. If properly managed, these initiatives could substantially contribute to conservation of local biodiversity. (viii) Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Medicinal and aromatic plants development programmehas been implemented in 42 districts with the objective of commercial cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants, includingtheir processing at the local level (DOF, 2013b). Some CFUGs have also started cultivation of medicinal plants and other NTFP species.The record of the Department of Forests shows that trend in the production of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page86 seedlings of medicinal and aromatic plants increased continuously over the last three years (Figure 4.10). Figure 4.10: Number of medicinal and aromatic plants seedlings produced by district forest offices 1400 1699 1580 1600 1200 943 1000 800 889 Number of MAPs Seedlings in "000" 1800 Target Progr… 634 487 600 400 2010/11 2011/12 Fiscal Year 2012/13 (ix) Initiatives to implementing REDD+and PES The government has been promoting REDD+ as a mechanism to control forest loss and degradation since 2008 (Table 4.3). The Readiness Preparation Proposal(R-PP) has identified five activities for payment under REDD+ schemes: (i) reducing deforestation, (ii) reducing forest degradation, (iii) sustainable forest management, (iv) conservation of forest carbon, and (v) enhancement of forest carbon stock (MFSC, 2010). Table 4.4: Evolution of REDD+Readiness in Nepal Year 2008 2009 2010 2012 Activity REDD Readiness process started with financial support of the World Bank Establishment of an Apex Body, REDD Working Group, and REDD Forestry and Climate Change Cell in the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation REDD R-PP developed and approved National REDD+ Strategy development process started; the work is expected to be completed in 2014 There have been some initiatives towards implemention of REDD+ in the field. The NORADfunded REDD+ pilot project (2009-2013) is being implemented byICIMOD, with FECOFUN and ANSAB, in community forests of three watersheds, namely the Kayarkhola in Chitwan, Ludikhola in Gorkha, and Charnawati in Dolakha districts. This project has prepared a subnational level REDD Strategy and Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) system by using a combination of remote sensing analysis and field measurements by community forest user groups. A fewPES schemeshave also been implemented. The Kulekhani Hydropower Project in Hetauda District and Rupa Lake in Kaski District are examples. These PES projects have established mechanisms for compensating upstream forest user groups for their efforts to conserve forest and soil in the catchments, and local benefit-sharing. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page87 (x) Increase in Private Forests Private forest has increased in the Tarai as well as mountains.Currently (i.e. by 18 Aug. 2013), there are 2,458 registered private forests in the country with a total of 3,329,885 trees grown in 2,361 ha. private land (Figure 4.10; DOF, 2013c). Number of Private Forests 2,361 2,091 2,248 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 1900 2,458 Figure 4.11: Changes in area ofregistered private forests in between 2000 and 2013 2000 (January) 2013 (June) Area (ha.) Although there has been no any comprehensive study to assess their roles, it is expected that private forests havehelped alleviate pressure from national forests and made substantial positive contribution in biodiversity conservation. 4.6 Other Efforts toIn-situand Ex-situConservation of Forest Biodiversity In addition to the efforts discussed in the preceding sections, the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, local governments and a number of NGOs, CBOs are engaged in the conservation of forest biodiversity across the country. The following are some examples. (A) Red Panda Network in Eastern Nepal Red Panda Network in Nepal is a Kathmandu-based NGO supported by many donors. The Network has been active in conservation of endangered red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in Ilam, Panchthar, Taplejung and Sankhuwasabha districs, which comprise one of 11 red panda sub-population areas in Nepal. Community based monitoring, capacity building, community development to reduce forest dependency, and raising awareness about red panda among local people and schoolchildren are some of the activities implemented by the Netwrok in red panda areas in these districts. Red panda based ecotourism is being promoted as an alternative means for biodiversity conservation and livelihoods enhancement. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan A board displayed at Deurali, Taplejung, appealing for conservation of endangered red panda(Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam) Page88 (C) Elephant Breeding Center An elephant breeding center is in operation near Sauraha inside the Chitwan National Park since 1989. (Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam) (ii) A community-managed Vulture Safe Feeding Site has been established by the Bird Conservation Nepal at Pithauli inNawalparasi district in 2007. Within the area, safe and diclofenac-free carrion is provided at feeding stations known as ‘vulture restaurants’(BCN and DNPWC, 2011). Elephant Breeding Center in Chitwan (B) Vulture Conservation Centers (i) Department of National Parks and wildlife Conservation, with the support of National Trust for Nature Conservation, Bird Conservation Nepal, Zoological Society of London and Royal Society for Protection of Birds, has established a Vulture Conservation and Breeding Center at Kasara inside the Chitwan National Parkin 2008. The objective of the center is to ensure long term survival of two vulture species: (i) slender billed vulture (Gyps tenuirortris),and (ii) oriental white-rumped vulture (G. bengalensis). The center had 59 Gyps vultures in 2012 (DNPWC, 2012). (D)Botanical Gardensand National Herbarium The Department of Plant Resources has established a national botanical garden and a national herbarium and plant laboratory in Godavari, Lalitpur, and a natural products research laboratory in Thapathali, Kathmandu. In addition to Godavari, there are 10other botanical gardens including in Ilam, Dhanusha, Makwanpur, Banke, Salyan, Jumla and Kailali districts, covering a total area of 642.2 ha. The elevation of the gardens ranges from 110 m and 2,500 m (CBS, 2012). (D) The Central Zoo The Central Zoo located at Jawalkhel in Lalitpur Sub-metropolitan area is an important center for ex-situ conservation of animals. The zoo had housed 854 individual animals, including 34 species of mammals, 58 species of birds, 10 species of reptiles and 10 species of fishes in 2011. The list included several endangered species such as one-horned rhinoceros, royal Bengal tiger, sloth bear, Himalayan black bear, elephant, black buck and mugger crocodile (CBS, 2012). The zoo has also been delivering educational and recreational services to thousands of peopleevery year. (E) Breeding Seedlings Orchards Forest genetic resources are also being conserved ex-situ through establishment and management of breeding seedlings orchards. The Tree Improvement and Silviculture Unit under the Department of Forests has established 27 such orchards (Annex 4.5). The Unit also has a plan for in-situ gene pool conservation of Bijayasal (Pterocarpus marsupium) as its population in natural habitats (western Tarai and Siwalik mixed hardwood forests) is continuously declining. In addition to these efforts by government agencies, farmers are also conserving considerable number of species, including threatened species such as Acacia catechu, Butea monosperma, Choerospondias axillaris, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page89 Elaeocarpus spharicus and Michelia champaca, on their farm as a part of their subsistence farming (MFSC, 2013a). (F) In-vitro Conservation of Plant Germplasm The Biotechnology Section of the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratory under the Department of Plant Resources has been carrying out tissue culture of some plants species thereby contributing to in-vitro conservation of plant germplasm in the country. So far, the section has carried out invitro propagation of around 115 species of plants, including 22 tree species, orchids, fruits, vegetables, medicinal and aromatic plants and bamboo species (MFSC, 2013a). (G) Identification and Mapping of Flora The Department of Plant Resources, Tribhuvan University Department of Botany, and the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology in collaboration with the Edinburgh Botanical Garden, U.K. and Tokyo University, Japan are jointly implementing the Flora of Nepal Project. The project, which is funded by the British Government's Darwin Initiative, aims at helping Nepal develop a detailed catalogue of its extraordinarily diverse but threatened flora. Specifically the project will assist Nepal in its implementation of the CBD by: (i) enhancing national coordination and capacity building, through human resources, research and international cooperation, (ii) increasing support for biodiversity research, (iii) reflecting the state of biodiversity knowledge through identification and monitoring, (iv) strengthening the national biodiversity database network and facilitating information exchange, and (v) endorsing indigenous people's knowledge and innovations. High-tech methods are being used to document a twenty-first century flora of Nepal (Williams, 2005; DPR, 1997). (H) Documentation and Registration of Traditional Knowledge The Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation in cooperation with IUCN-Nepal implemented this as a pilot project in selected VDCs. The objective was to strengthen the capacity of the government and other local institutions for biodiversity conservation and protection of traditional knowledge through documentation and registration (IUCN, 2005). (I) Biodiversity Monitoring by Forest User Groups and NGOs In many places, NGOs-affiliated conservationists are training members of local forest user groups in biodiversity monitoring techniques, which can be considered as a good approach towards combining indigenous knowledge and modern scientific techniques to help build and sustain conservation capacity of local communities. The pilot programmeParticipatory Assessment, Monitoring and Evaluation of Biodiversity, which was designed and implemented by the BCN and FECOFUN with technical support of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, is an example of such initiative. Under the initiative, members of local FUGs are trained in biodiversity assessment techniques, including transect walks, focus group discussions, participatory resource mapping and fixed point photography to assess and record changes in vegetation structure overtime (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). (J) Civil Society Networks for Conservation Civil Society networks, such as Nepal Bird Conservation Network, have been useful in sharing biodiversity related information and coordinating conservation actions. The main aim of these National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page90 networks is to unite all the local user groups and institutional network to promote, implement and address conservation related issues within their working areas. (K) Global Taxonomic Initiative: Nepal The GTI Nepal has been established with the objective of developing national taxonomic capacity on flora and fauna and developing network of national institutions working in this sector. The activities are to be carried out by an eleven-member steering committee coordinated by the Department of Plant Resources with representation from various institutions (DPR, 2007). 4.7 Key Gaps, Issues and Challenges in Management of Forest Biodiversity (1) Poor Representation of the Middle Mountainsin Country’s Protected Area System The representation of the physiographic zones in the country’s protected areasisvery uneven and inequitable (Table 4.5).The Middle Mountains in general and the zone between 400-2,800 m in particular is significantly underrepresented, while the representation of the areas above 2,800 m is comparatively high (Shrestha et al., 2010). This remains the scenario despite the fact that the mountainshave the largest number of ecosystems among all the physiographic zones. Table 4.5: Representation of ecosystems in Nepal’s protected area system Physiographic Zone High Himal High Mountains Middle Mountains Siwaliks Tarai Total Protected Areas Number 10 2 1 4 3 20 Ecosystems 5 Coverage (sq. km.) 20293.9 (71) 3430.0 (12) 285.8 (1) 2858.3 (10) 1715.0 (6) 28583.0 (100) Total 43 (36.4) 52 (44.1) Covered by thePA 32 (27.1) 33 (28.0) 13 (11.0) 10 (8.5) 118 (100) 5 (4.2) 10 (8.5) 80 (67.8) Source: Adapted from MFSC (2013a) and other sources. Figures in the parentheses refer to percentages. (2) Gaps in Species Conservation While most of the threatened animal species are well protected, a large number of threatened plant species are not represented by the current protected area system. Among the threatened animals, the population of ghariyal crocodile has been declining, and sighting of fresh water dolphin in the Narayani River in Chitwan has reportedly become rare (NPC, 2011). (3) Gaps in Conservation of Biodiversity Rich Natural Forest Ecosystems and Corridors Some natural forest ecosystems that have high conservation value remain without effective conservation system in place.Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale rhododendron area, located in Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung and Terahthum districts, is rich in biodiversity consisting of 25 species of rhododendrons. Realizing its high significance for conservation, the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006-2010) identified the area as one of the priority sites. The Phulchoki-Chandragiri was another priority area identified in the Plan. However, these provisions of the plan were not 5 (i) Most of protected areas extend over more than one physiographic zone. The allocation of number in the table is based on inclusion of the major part, (ii) the coverage is excluding the buffer zones. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page91 implemented. Findings of past studies (e.g. Dinerstein, 1998) and consultations made during the NBSAP development process show that some biodiversity-rich forest areasand strategic corridors that deserve priority but remainwithout effective conservation arrangement include: (i) Sapta Koshi Gorge, (ii) Morang-Ilam Broadleaf Forests, (iii) Makalu-Barun southern extension, (iv) Rolwaling Valley,(v) Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale rhododendron area, (vi) Daman-Palung-Phulchoki-Chandragiri, (vii) Gaighat-Seti River-Panchase stretch. If conserved effectively, some of these areas will also serve as important climate refugia(Figure 4.12). (4) Lack of Scientific Forest Management Lack of scientific management of production forests is a major reason behind low productivity of forests, which has caused imbalance in supply of products, less optimal income from the forestry sector, and overall degradation of the forests. Lack of political will, weak central forestry administration, insufficient technical inputs, inadequate financial and material resources,inadequate trained human resource are found to be the major barriers in implementing scientific forest management. (5) InadequateHuman Resources and Technical Capacities Most of thedistrict forest offices are currently understaffed. This has direct negative impacts on implementation of community forestry as well as enforcement of the law to control illegal activities. Lack of technical capacity for forest inventory and other technical aspects makes most CFUGs dependent on the concerned district forest office for such services, but inadequacy of staff makes it difficult for these offices to assist CFUGs in times of need. This has hampered timely preparation or renewal of community forest operational plans in many cases. Understaffing has a direct implication for forest protection and implementing scientific forestmanagement in the Tarai and Siwalik districts. Lack of fire-fighting equipment and training has been a major barrier for local communities as well as agencies in controlling forest fires.Inadequate technical capacity of district forestry staff and forest user groups, such as for MRV systems related to REDD and lack or inadequate knowledge of the mode of propagation and control of invasive alien species are some other major gaps. (6) Financial Constraints Financial constraint remains a major challenge for abating deforestation and forest degradation, and controlling wildlife poaching. Inadequate budget in districts for day-to-day operations (including DSA for field staff, staff transportation, collection and transportation of seized timber etc.) has severely hampered efforts to contain illegal logging and forest encroachments in the Tarai and Siwalik districts. This has also negatively affected technical support to CFUGs, and has been a bottleneck in expanding good forestry practices (e.g. successful leasehold forestry models) to wider areas. (7)Inadequate attention to Conservation of Biodiversity in Community Forests Not enough attention is being given to biodiversity and NTFPs while developing operational plans of community forests. This remains the situation despite the fact that both the government and the international community have put biodiversity conservation high on their agendas and community forestry is a prioritized forest management programmes in the country. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page92 Figure 4.12: Some biodiversity-rich areas and strategic corridors proposed for effective conservation arrangement National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page93 (8) Wide Variations in the Success of Community Forestry Programme There are wide variations in the success of community forestry programme among the physiographic zones. The programme has been generally successful in controlling or reversing the trends of deforestation and forest degradation in the Middle Mountains where 66.5 percent of community forests and 53.5 percent of community forest area exist, and less successful in the Tarai and High Mountains regions (Table 4.6). Table 4.6: Distribution of community forests among the physiographic zones (as of June 2013) Physiographic Zone Number of Districts User Groups Households Coverage High Mountains 15 Number 2,875 % 15.9 Number 294,532 % 13.2 Area (ha.) 270,370 % 15.9 Middle Mountains 36 12,056 66.5 1,295,421 57.9 910,379 53.5 Siwaliks (including Inner-Tarai) Tarai 5 1,619 8.9 278,784 12.4 321,089 18.9 18 1,583 8.7 368,458 16.5 198,210 11.7 Total 74 18,133 100 2,237,195 100 1,700,048 100 The success of the community forestry programme in the Middle Mountains can partly be attributed to many successful indigenous systems of forest management that were in existence before the forests were nationalized in 1957.In contrast, the Tarai hardly had any indigenous systems of forest management (except for patches of religious forests at some locations). This was probably because of better accessibility, more favorable market condition and high value of the Tarai forests that provided incentives for illegal harvesting and opportunistic behavior by individuals, thereby weakening the possibilities of local institutional development for collective action. Illegal logging activities in the Taraiare a serious concern in both the government-managed and communitymanaged forests. (9) Poor linkage of Community Forestry with Livelihoods and Poverty Alleviation So far, the community forestry programme has been able to bring about positive changes in forest cover but the economic benefits of the programme to the poor have been limited. Passive approach adopted by most user groups in the management of community forests is one of the reasons behind the sub-optimal economic contributions of community forestry. This has particularly affected the poorer households who do not have alternative sources to meet their forestry-related subsistence needs (10)Poor Relationships among Stakeholders Poor levels of trust between government and nongovernment stakeholders, and lack of coordination and cooperation among different government agencies is a major challenge in controlling deforestation and forest degradation. Efforts of district forest offices to control forestencroachment in the Tarai and Siwaliks have received little or no cooperation from other government agencies. Instead, some public agencies themselves have been encroaching forestland by ignoring the provisions of forestry legislation. Poor level of trust between the MFSC and FECOFUN is another major issue. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page159 In some cases, local communities were not consulted before declaration of protected area (e.g. the Gaurishankar CA), which has invited conflicts between the government and local people. Similarly, many existing community forests and leasehold forests were suddenly brought under protected area management regime due to declaration of those areas as buffer zones. This sudden change in the management regime, without properly informing and counseling the user group members, has caused strong disenchantment among the group members. These events and activities of the government have led to increasing contention between the protected area approach and participatory approach to conservation of forest biodiversity. (11) Limited Participation of Women and Other Disadvantaged Social Groups Participation of women and other disadvantaged social groups in decision-making process of FUGs has increased over the years but it is still less than satisfactory. (12) Challenge in Managing Human-Wildlife Conflict The conflict relates to crop and livestock depredation by wild animals is common in all protected areas. The government’s effort to reducing the conflicts through compensation measures has not been effective, and as a result, managing the conflicts remains major challenge. There is a need for a serious review and possible revision in the current compensation policy and institutional mechanism to resolve this problem. (13) Challenge in Controlling Forest Encroachment and Illegal Logging Forest area encroachment and illegal logging are the key challenges in the Tarai and Siwaliks regions. The limited efforts by local forest officials and community user groups are not enough to solve the chronic problem of forest encroachment. Addressing the problem needs political commitment as well as stronger determination, coherent support and monitoring from the central level government agencies.In recent years, a few initiatives were taken by the Parliamentary Committee on Natural Resources and Means and Commission on Investigation of Abuse of Authority to monitor illegal logging through field visits in some districts where large-scale deforestation were reported by the media. Such random activities from high-level institutions only helped highlight the problem. Excessive political interference in day-to-day activities of forestry administration has caused demoralization of staff at all levels in general and the district and field levels in particular. Extended political transition and instability have aggravated the situation in recent years. (14) Challenges in Implementation of REDD+ Poor forest governance, unclear or overlapping forest tenure, and lack of or inadequate capacity for measurement, reporting and verification are some of the challenges to REDD+ implementation.Despite existence of these and other challenges, the findings of some recent studies (e.g. Paudel et al., 2013) indicate towards a good prospect for REDD+ implementation in Nepal. (15) Inadequate Knowledge and Capacity to Control Invasive Alien Species There is a gap in knowledge required to control invasive alien species. The gap relates to the mode of propagation, extent, and suitable control measures. Absence of separatelegislation, strategy and action plan for controland management; and inadequate quarantineand detecting capacity of the customs andquarantine departments are some of the majorgaps that pose challenges in controlling invasion and spread of alien species. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page160 4.8Management of Rangeland Biodiversity There have been very limited efforts to assess, monitor and manage rangeland biodiversity in Nepal. Formulation of the Rangeland Policy in 2012 was a major milestone towards sustainable management of rangelands. Nepal Agriculture Research Council, in cooperation with the Department of Livestock Services and Ministry of Agriculture Development has been conducting some research on forage development in high altitude pastures, including introduction and evaluation of several legume species (NARC, 2011). Graduate students and faculty members at the Central Department of Environmental Sciences, TU also conducted a few research studies on different aspects of rangeland ecology in recent years (see e.g. Limbu et al., 2012). One of the major issues in management of rangeland biodiversity relates to unclear management responsibility for rangelands. In Nepal, rangelands are legally owned by the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation while their utilisation by local communities implicitly associates them with the Ministry of Agriculture Development through pasture development and livestock improvement services. Lack of identification of clear administrative jurisdiction and management responsibilities of these two ministries coupled with poor level of coordination and cooperation between them has created confusion and complexity in the management of rangelands located outside protected areas. 4.9Management of Wetland Biodiversity Wetlands in Nepal remained one of the neglected resources until recently. More recently, however, there have been some concrete efforts towards conservation and sustainable use of the country’s wetlands. Formulation of National Wetlands Policy in 2003 and again in 2012, and implementation of “Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands in Nepal” project by the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation were some of the major initiatives taken by the government for management of wetland biodiversity. There have also been a few other efforts for in-situ and ex-situ conservation of wetland biodiversity. (i) Conservation and Sustainable Use of Wetlands Project The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation carried out wetland management activities in Koshitappu Wildlife Reserve and Ghodaghodi lake complex under this UNDP/GEF-funded five year (2008-2013) project. The overall objective of the project was to ensure maintenance and enhancement of the national wetland biodiversity, environmental goods and services for improved livelihoods in Nepal. The project also made importantcontributions to building capacity and improving the legal and policy frameworks for an ecosystem approach to the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands in Nepal (GON/UNDP-GEF, 2007; MFSC, 2013d). (ii) Restoration and Biodiversity Conservation in Rupa Lake Recently, Rupa Lake Rehabilitation Fisheries Cooperative Ltd. has started a community based conservation of lake resources and its wise use programme with the objective of lake restoration and biodiversity conservation. The main activities include: (i) cleaning the aquatic vegetation from the lake and stocking it with alien/exotic herbivorous carp fingerlings, (ii) harvesting the exotic fishes without destroying the juveniles of native species, and (iii) restricting illegal fishing in the lake. The benefit from the fish harvest is shared among the beneficiaries on equitable basis. Certain percent of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page161 the net benefits are paid to the upland communities through a PES system (Regmi et al., 2009; Pradhan et al., 2010). (iii) Gharial Breeding The DNPWC, with the external support, has established a gharial breeding center in Chitwan. By 2010, around 761 individual gharials were released indifferent rivers, of which 102 reportedly survived (Acharya and Dhakal, 2012). (iv) Dolphin Conservation in Western Nepal An NGO named Dolfin Conservation Centre located at Thapapur in Kailali district has remained active in community based conservation of endangered species of dolphin (Platannista gangetica) in Nepalside of the Karnali, Mohana, Patharia, Kanada and Kanda rivers, since 2001. The centre implements its activities through14 Dolfin Conservation Sub-centres and nine Dolfin Conservation Clubs located at different places nearby the rivers. Awareness raising, pollution control, restriction on large mesh-size gill nets, enhancing the natural food of dolphin (aquatic insects and fish) are some of the activities being implemented by the Center. The effort has reportedly shown positive impact on dolphin population. In spite of the above efforts, wetland ecosystems have been subjected to growing degradation. This has direct negative impact on biodiversity and over 20 ethnic and caste groups that are traditionally dependent on wetlands for their livelihoods.Only a limited number of wetlands located inside protected areas and Ramsar sites are in relatively better conditions; the rest are facing high human pressure and degradation. Some of the wetlands that need priority attention of the government include: (i) Ajingara lake in Kapilvastu, (ii) Syarpu lake in Rukum, and (iii) Ramarason lakes in Achham districts.Poor integration of wetland biodiversity values into sectoral, legal and policy frameworks; poor inter-agencycoordination; and inadequate technical, financial and institutional capacity, information base, and awareness are other gaps related to conservation of wetland biodiversity(IUCN, 2004; World Bank, 2008). 4.10Management of Mountain Biodiversity Efforts to manage mountain biodiversity overlap with other thematic efforts, particularly with those related to protected areas, landscape management, and community based forest management. Of the 20 protected areas that exist in Nepal, 13 are located in the mountains, which cover 84 percent of the total protected area in the country. Similarly, two biodiversity-rich mountain sites, namely Madhane and Panchase, have recently been declared as protected forests by the government. The community forestry programme has been extensively implemented in the Middle Mountains where it has been generally successful in controlling or reversing the trends of deforestation and forest degradation. In 2012, a total of 12,056 (66%) community forest user groups were managing 910,379 ha. (53.5%) community forest area in the Middle Mountains.Another 270,370 ha.community forests existed in the High Mountains, although the programme has been less successful in this zone as compared to the Middle Mountains. The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, with technical and financial supports from several donors, has been currently implementing landscape-specific programmes in two important mountain National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page162 landscapes, namely the the Sacred Himalayan Landscape, and Kailash Sacred Landscape.A consortium of four I/NGOs led by WWF Nepal is implementing another landscape project in the Chitwan-Annapurna landscape since 2011. A couple of other initiatives are exclusively designed and implemented to conserve mountain biodiversity and ecosystems.These include: (i) promulgation of long-term policies and programmes, and (ii) integrated water resource management intwo sub-basins in the Koshi River. Following the Global Mountain Summit held during 29 October to 01 November 2002 in Bishkek, theMinistry of Forests and Soil Conservation has increased its efforts to management of mountain biodiversity. WWF Nepal in partnership with Water and Energy Commission Secretariat has started implementation of Integrated Water Resource Management in priority catchments of two sub-basins in the Koshi River. The programme has three main pillars, namely environmental and ecological sustainability, economic efficiency in water use, and social equity. Institutional building at all levels is an enabling element in the programme (WWF, 2012). Insufficient knowledge and understanding of mountain ecosystems, lack of long-term vision, and inadequate financial resources and technical capacity are some of the major gaps and constraints in sustainable management of Nepal’s mountain ecosystems.In-depth understanding and incorporation of the value of mountain ecosystem services in national development planning, GDP accounting, and decision-making is one of requirements for sustainable management of mountain ecosystems (NPC, 2011). 4.11Management of Agro-biodiversity The following were the main efforts and outcomes related to in-situ and ex-situ conservation of agrobiodiversity. (i) Community Based Biodiversity Management Community based biodiversity management has been established as a successful approach for conservation and use of agro-genetic resources. Several good practices, such as community biodiversity registration (CBR), biodiversity fair, participatory plant breeding (PPB), participatory variety selection (PVS), and community seed bank are components of this approach, which were developedthrough several years of on-farm research carried out in Bara (Tarai), Kaski (Middle Mountains) and Jumla (High Mountains) by NARC, Bioversity (then IPGRI) and LI-BIRD scientists in collaboration with local farmers. Currently, local farmers in these and some other districts are managing plant genetic resources on their own initiatives and resources. An excellent example is Kachorba community in Bara district where more than 100 local accession of rice is preserved at the local community gene bank managed by a local cooperative. So far (i.e. June 2013), 115 community seed banks across the country have been established of which 15 are focused on conserving local genetic resources and providing seeds to the community (Upadhyay and Subedi, 1999; Rijal et al., 2003; Subedi et al., 2011; Joshi , 2013; Shrestha et al., 2013). (ii) Establishment and Management of National Agriculture Genetic Resource Centre The National Agriculture Genetic Resource Centre (the Gene Bank) was established in 2010 at Khumaltar, Lalitpur under the management of Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) to National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page163 conserve agricultural genetic resources in ex-situ conditions. The Gene Bank has also established tissue bank and laboratories for in-vitro culture, molecular research, seeds testing, and has created its links with the community seed banks available in the country. The centre envisions of creating access to the gene bank two way; centre to community and community to the centre. The gene bank is also a focal point for access and exchange of genetic resources from international and national sources (Bhatta et al., 2012). (iii) Tissue Culture Programme NARC, through its National Potato Research Programme at Khumaltar, is carrying out a separate tissue culture programme since last two decades to produce and supply pre-basic seeds of potato to farmers across the country (NPRP, 2011). (iv) Identification and Characterization of Local Livestock Breeds This has been made based on mostly phenotypic level of characterization though few of them are made on bio-chemical and DNA levels. DNA level semen characterization of 26 local breeds of seven domestic animal species (cattle, buffalo, goats, sheep, pigs, poultry and horse) has been established. Lulu cattle have been evaluated at mitochondrial DNA level in collaboration with Japan (Takeda et al., 2004; Neopane, 2006). More recently, molecular characterization of some species of goat and sheep has begun. (v) Production and Use of Cattle and Buffaloes Semen The Animal Breeding Division, NARC and the National Livestock Breeding Centre, DLS have been producing semen of cattle and buffaloes for improving dairy animals and their contribution to the economy. At both places, cryo-preservation as a part of ex-situ conservation is being done. The programme at the moment has been focused on transboundary (exotic) breeds; Jersey and HF in cattle and Murrah in buffalo. It is recommended that semen production for local breeds be initiated with priority so that the farmers can have access to good quality semen of the local breeds. (vi) Development of National Level Global Plan of Action A national level global plan of actionhas been developed, which will help develop specific measures to reverse the ongoing trends of erosion and underutilization of animal genetic resources. The implementation of the strategic priorities for action is expected to make a significant contribution to international efforts to promote food security and sustainable development, and alleviate poverty. (vii) Awareness and Capacity Development Awareness raising on the importance of local animal genetic resourcesis being carried out at different level. The recently established Agriculture and Forestry University in Chitwan has started doctoral programme in animal sciences. 4.12 Key Gaps and Issues in Management of Agro-biodiversity Poorimplementation of the National Agriculture Policy (2004) and National Agro-biodiversity Policy (2007) is a major gap. For example, the agenda of the Agriculture Policy related to biodiversity conservation was only partly implemented. There were little efforts made in conservation of biodiversity through eco-parks and management of natural resources and environment through sustainable and eco-friendly agriculture as envisaged in the policy statement. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page164 Poor knowledge of existing strategies and policiesrelated to biodiversity, particularly at the community level, is another gap. Absence of land use classification system and relevant legislation has resulted increasedconversion of agricultural land to residential use thereby reducing the availability of productive agricultural lands, and has created unplanned urban enclaves in rural areas. The newly formulated National Land Use Policy (2012) is expected to address this problem to some extent. Lack of incentives for conservation of native landraces and animal genetic resources; weak quarantinecapacity; weak capacity in bio-prospecting; and limited efforts on ex-situ conservation of local livestock breeds are some other major gaps.Increased abandonment of farmlands due mainly to outmigration of youths from rural areas to urban areas and abroad and decreased productivity of marginal farmlands is an emerging issue. 4.13 Cross-cutting Efforts and Outcomes 4.13.1 Landscapes Management The Tenth Five Year Plan (2003-2008) incorporated landscape approach as a new strategic and operational direction to conservation and sustainable use of biological resources. Accordingly, the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation (MFSC) in collaboration with its development partners has been implementing landscape-specific programmes in the Terai Arc Landscape, Sacred Himalayan Landscape, and the Kailash Sacred Landscape. Another landscape programme has been initiated by a consortium of INGOs and NGOs in the Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape since 2011, under USAID funding (Figure 4.13). The landscape approach to conservation has been adopted to enhance ecologicalprocesses and conservation of endangered species, as many of the protected areas are likeislands and too small to support viable population of endangered species and ecological processes. Some notable achievements have been reported in restoration of forest, grassland and wetland habitats and increase in population of several important wildlife species, including tiger, swamp deer and blackbuck, and conservation of local varieties of crops in the Western Tarai Landscape Complex (Acharya et al., 2010). The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation has developed and implemented a ten-year (20062016) strategic plan for long-term sustainable management of biodiversity, local culture and water resources in the Nepal side of the Sacred Himalayan Landscape that extends eastward from Langtang National Park in central Nepal through the Kanchenjunga region in India to Toorsa Strict Nature Reserve in western Bhutan, covering 39,021 sq.km. (MFSC, 2006b). The Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative (KSLCDI) is another trans-boundary collaborative programme between Nepal, China, and India. The five-year (20122016) programme is funded by the DFID and the GIZ through ICIMOD. Mainstreaming sustainable ecosystem management approaches and practices in national policies and plans at all levels, and capacity building of key institutions for long-term environmental monitoring and socioeconomic research are some of the objectives of KSLCDI (ICIMOD, 2013). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page165 Figure 4.13: Landscapes under management in Nepal An USAID-funded landscape management programme (the Hariyo Ban) has been implemented in the Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape by WWF Nepal and its consortium partners CARE Nepal, FECOFUN, and NTNC, since 2011. The landscape includes whole or part of 19 districts and covers an area of 32,057 sq. km. of the Gandaki river basin in western Nepal. The programme aimsto reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and threats to biodiversity in Nepal, through three integrated objectives: (i) reducing threats to biodiversity in targeted landscapes; (ii) building the structures, capacity and operations necessary for an effective sustainable landscape management, especially REDD+ readiness; and (iii) increasing the ability of target ecological and human communities to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change. Livelihoods, governance, and gender and social inclusion are three crosscutting themes to be integrated in all programme activities (USAID, 2010). 4.13.2 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation The following were some of the key efforts and outcomes. Nepal is among the few pioneer countries to promote a clean and renewable energy path for low carbon emissions (MOE, 2010). Mountain Initiative has been launched to make the global community aware of the impacts for ensuring increased attention and concrete adaptation and mitigation actions for alleviating the risks and vulnerability of mountain ecosystems. Nepal has agreed to the Cancun Adaptation Framework and advocates a country-led process in instruments such as REDD+ and CDM. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page166 The MFSCor its development partners have started implementation of some programmes, which directly or indirectly support biodiversity conservation in the changing climatic conditions. REDD+ piloting project, Hariyo Ban Programme, Ecosystems Based Adaptation project implemented in Panchase,herbs development programme, watershed management programme, forest fire control programmes and integrated churia conservation programme are some examples. NARC is engaged in breeding drought-tolerant varieties of the crops (such as Hardinath-1, Radha-4 varieties of rice, Gautam varieties of wheat). A rice variety (IR 64) has been released for submerged conditions. As a part of the commitment to UNFCCC to share information with other members, Nepal has submitted first national communication in 2004 and the second national communication is in the process of finalization. These communications showed very less per capita GHGs from Nepal and highlighted the need for adaptation. The Government has assigned a separate, dedicated budget code for climate change and started allocating substantial amount of fund (about 5% of annual budget) for climate change related activities from the current fiscal year. This can be considered as a good sign of reflecting Nepal’s concerns on internal adaptation financing. The government has establishedNepal Climate Change Knowledge Management Centre at the NAST, which has helped to document climate change related knowledge and share among stakeholders. The government has also published many knowledge products related to climate change adaptation and mitigation. The MOSTE is currently engaged in preparing a Technology Need Assessment. Climate resilience has become an important aspect of community forest management planning since 2010. According to unpublished records available at the Department of Forests, so far 1359 community forest operational plans have been prepared or revised with provisions for enhancing climate change resilience. Controlling forest fire and invasive species, and silviculture treatment in favour of fire-hardy species and promoting mixed forests are example of such provisions. The following are the main gaps, issues and challenges in climate change mitigation and adaptation. (1) Knowledge Gap There is a huge gap in climate change and biodiversity research. As a result, there is a poor understanding of climate change impact on biodiversity; identification and development of adaptation strategies for existing ecological sites; understanding and predicting climate change impacts; and development of adaptation strategies at regional and national scales - working with other sectors such as agriculture, forestry, water, and energy. Understanding and knowledge of ecosystems based adaptation is poor in the country.There is also a weak understanding how biodiversity and ecosystems would response to climate change. There are some studies carried out that showed some phonological changes and altitudinal shift of species but there is a gap how impact on biodiversity would affect on releasing ecosystems services. How these changes can be understood to link with people’s livelihoods and development context. (2) Weak Assessment and Learning Loop Some major policies and strategies have time-bound targets. Programmes and project have their own specific targets and assessment and learning mechanisms are also developed. But, there is lack National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page167 of proper and systematic review processes adopted that can be used for learning and decision making process at national level. (3) Inadequate Capacity Inadequate institutional capacity and frameworks is hindering successful climate adaptation in biodiversity conservation and management. The existing mechanisms are in sufficient to address systemic approach and integrating adaptive management. Maintenance of environmental flows and landscape approach, for example,can be vital for resilience oriented adaptation measures but they are not fully operationalized although they are already recongnized as important strategies for managing biodiversity. Efforts to REDD+ implementation have been affected by inadequate capacity to develop the safequard standards set in REDD+, weak cross-sectoral coordination, data gaps, high transaction costs, complexity of benefit sharing and high investment cost (Dangi, 2012). (4) Complicated Administrative Process Implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) has been slow in Nepal, partly due to lengthy approval process. So far (i.e. October 2013), only five projects related to micro-hydro and biogas have been registered with the CDM-Executive Board. 4.13.3 Gender and Social Inclusion The government’s commitment to addressing gender discrimination has been clearly reflected in all the national development plans, policies and strategies developed after 2002. The Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002–2006), which was also Nepal’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, was the first and most comprehensive statement about the social inclusion. It identified social exclusion as a fundamental development challenge and acknowledged that exclusion and the lack of voice and political representation were major reasons for the deprivation experienced by women and certain caste and ethnic groups and one of the factors fueling the conflict. The Plan emphasized linking forest conservation with poverty alleviation and social inclusion by encouraging participatory system in which poor; women and members of the poorer section of society get employment.The Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007) includes provisions that support gender equality and social inclusion. The Three-Year Interim Plan (2008–2011), the current Three Year Plan (2011-2013) have pursued gender equality and women’s empowerment through a gender mainstreaming strategy. All sectoral polices and legislations have emphasized for involving women’s participation in decision making and benefit sharing mechanisms. The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation has adopted a strategy to address gender and social inclusion issues with the vision of making the Ministry as a gender and social equity sensitive and socially inclusive organization. The Ministry has identified the following four change areas in order to attain the institutional vision: (i) gender and equity sensitive policy and strategy, (ii) equitable governance, (iii) gender and equity sensitive organizational development and programming, and (iv) equitable access to resources and benefits(MFSC,2007).Community Accordingly, Community Forest User Committees are required to have women in certain proportion and also representation of dalits and indigenous community members. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page168 TheNational Agricultural Policy (2004) has target to make 50 percent representation of women in farmers groups and community based programmes. The Climate Change Policy (2011) has provision for women’s participation in the implementation of climate adaptation programmes. Section 8.4.2 of the Policy calls for ensuring the participation of poor people, dalits, marginalised indigenous communities, women, children and youth in the implementation of climate adaptation and climate change related programmes. The Gender Equality and Environment Division within the Social Development Division of NPC are responsible for addressing gender and social inclusion in national plans and policies. The Ministry of Local Development and Federal Affairs has a dalitand adivasijanajati (indigenous people) Coordination Committee.Most of other government and non-government agencies also have gender and social inclusion policies. FECOFUN, for example, has established rules to include women in the decision-making arena and it supports local groups to include women and disadvantaged groups. The subject of gender and social inclusion has been gaining increasingly prominence in recent years. Institutions, such as the National Dalit Commission, National Women’s Commission, and National Foundation for the Development of Indigenous Nationalities are active at the national level. Similarly, watchdog committees such as the District Coordination Committee for Indigenous People and Dalits exist in the districts with representation from political parties. The following are some of the gaps, issues and challenges in addressing gender and social inclusion issues: (i) gender equality and social inclusion policies are not well implemented, (ii) institutional structure and capacity is weak, (iv) gender and social inclusion criteria are not included in monitoring and evaluation or in budgeting programmes, (vi) inadequacy of gender disaggregated data, and (vii) inadequate awareness. 4.13.4 Addressing Concerns of Indigenous and Local Communities Nepal’s ratification of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention (ILO Convention No. 169) shows the country’s commitment to the rights of indigenous nationalities. The organizational activism and rights assertions of aadibasi janajatis, which have increased substantially after the restoration of democracy in 1990, have contributed positively in addressing the concerns of indigenous and local communities. The Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalitieshas been formed in 1991 with a goal of documenting, preserving and promoting cultures, languages, religion, customs, traditions of the indigenous nationalities of Nepal and to assist them in developing and obtaining equal rights. The progress towards protecting traditional knowledge, innovations and practices, and establishing rights of indigenous communities over their knowledge, innovations and practiceshas remained poor. The Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, IUCN Nepal, South Asia Watch and Trade Economics and Environment (SAWTEE) and LI-BIRD made some efforts to document traditional knowledge, innovations and practices associated with biological resources in few districts but the process has not gained required momentum. 4.13.5 Access and Benefit Sharing, and Intellectual Property Rights National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page169 Little efforts have been made towards achieving the CBD objective of fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources in Nepal. Widespread involvement of local people in the management and use of local biological resources including forests and wetlands can be taken as a mechanism of equitable access and benefit sharing. Article 35 (5) of the Interim Constitution of Nepal makes the government responsible for the protection of forest, vegetation and biodiversity, its sustainable use and for equitable distribution of the benefit derived from it. Similarly, the Constitutional provision requires the state to pursue a policy aimed at identifying and protecting traditional knowledge skills and practices (Article 35 (18)). Both of these provisions are crucial for the state to implement a pro-community access and benefit sharing regime and devise mechanisms to protect the rights of local, indigenous and farming communities over natural resources, biodiversity and traditional knowledge (Adhikari, 2012). The government’s initiative towards meeting these constitutional provisions is limited to drafting of the Genetic Resources (access, use and sharing of benefits) Bill in 2008, which yet to be finalized and enacted. Moreover, Nepal is yet to ratify the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing. Article 8(j) of the CBD requires parties to the convention to “respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities” as part of biodiversity conservation. Graham Dutfield maintains that “even if they (traditional knowledge, innovations and practices) are not capable of being protected by the existing intellectual property right system, there is still an obligation for governments to safeguard these entitlements either through a new IPR law or by other legal or policy measures (Dutfield, 2000: 35). Nepal is yet to take effective legal measures in this regard. Article 18(4) of the CBDstates that indigenous and local communities have legal entitlements over their knowledge, innovations and practice just as companies have over their innovations.This provision necessitates the Contracting Parties to ‘encourage and develop models of cooperation for the development and use of technologies, including traditional and indigenous technologies. There is a need to promote biocultural heritage, which embraces cultural and spiritual context from which traditional knowledge, innovations and practices emerge and are continually renewed and provide intellectual property rights to the indigenous and local communities on whose biocultural heritage a products are based. Geographical indication (GI) and trademarks are capable of recognizing and supporting group rights as opposed to the individual or joint rights of individual persons or businesses (Spence, 2007). The idea of a group right is that a certification trademark or GI is available for a potentially large number of individuals to use (Dutfield, 2011). Intellectual property rights instruments often referred to as “soft IPRs” and include geographical indications, trademarks and design rights have proven to be particularly important and useful in the protection of TK (Argumendo, 2013). In Nepal, legal provision for geographic indication is yet to come into existence. 4.13.6 Mainstreaming Biodiversity Considerations into National Development Plans, Policies, Programmes and Sectors The mainstreaming efforts are limited to incorporation of biodiversity and environmental conservation into national development plans, policies and most of the sectoral policies. For example, Nepal has been systematically adopting the concept of conservation-friendly economic growth since it was firstintroduced by the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002). Biodiversity has also National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page170 been featured prominently in the Approach Paper to the Thirteenth Plan that has been recently developed by the National Planning Commission. The Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) sufficiently emphasized for the need for mainstreaming biodiversity considerations into national development plans, programmes, policies and sectors. Despite these efforts, there has been little effort to mainstreaming biodiversity across sectors primarily because it has not been a priority of any sector.Implementation of the policy provisions is generally weak. There is a need for a more proactive role by the National Planning Commission and the Council of Ministers in mainstreaming biodiversity considerations into national development plans, programmes, and policies and across different sectors. 4.13.7 Education and Research There have been some efforts to improve and strengthen biodiversity related education and research in recent years. The central departments of Botany, Zoology, and Environmental Science under the Tribhuvan University has been playing important roles in promoting biodiversity education by offering graduate and undergraduate level courses in biodiversity and environment. The Central Department of Botany, in collaboration with the University of Bergen, Norway and regional partners, has started a two year master level programme in “Biodiversity and Environmental Management” from 2008.The Central Department of Environment Science has been offering a full course on Biodiversity Conservation and Management. Some other universities, including the Kathmandu University and Agricurtural and Forestry University also offer biodiversity conservation courses in both master and bachelor degree programmes. Faculty members and students in these universities occasionally conduct research in different aspects of biodiversity. The Department of Forest Research and Survey and Department of Plant Resources under the MFSC occasionally conduct research in forest and floral diversity. NAARC has established a number of research centers, including the National Pasture and Grassland Research Centre, Khumaltar, Lalitpur; the Regional Pasture Research Centre, Dhunche, Rasuwa; the National Sheep Research Centre, Jumla; the Agricultural Research Centre, Pakhribas; and the Agricultural Research Centre, Lumle (MFSC, 2002).There are also many other academic institutionsand many I/NGOs that undertake scientific research on different aspects of biodiversity. ICIMOD, WWF Nepal, IUCN, NTNC are some of such organizations that regularly conduct research and disseminate the findings through different means. Empirical research conducted by individual scholars affiliated to different national and international academic institutions is another major dimension of research in biodiversity in Nepal. Some of the majorbiodiversity related knowledge gaps inNepal include: (i) incomplete understanding of the country’s biodiversity, (ii) assigning monetary value to ecosystem services, (iii) poor understanding of climate change impacts on biodiversity and how biodiversity and ecosystems would respond to climate change, and (iv) inadequate research and knowledge of NTFPs. 4.13.8 Awareness Raising The awareness raising efforts can be categorized into two main groups: (i) raising awareness of local communities, and (ii) improving awareness of general public. Many forest user groups are implementing awareness campaigns against forest fire. The Department of Forests and some district National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page171 forest offices are using different media (television, radio) to raise awareness on forest fire, uncontrolled grazing, and afforestation. Training on REDD awareness and forest fire control are important components of protected forest and conservation area management programmes. Some protected forests (e.g. Panchase) have established demonstration plots for important plant species. Many NGOs are working with local communities to change local people’s attitudes towards biodiversity by helping them recognize the importance of conserving biodiversity for their own livelihoods and wellbeing. The efforts of Bird Conservation Nepal is building the capacity of grassroots conservation groups at Important Bird Areas, the conservation education programme of the World Pheasant Association in Pipar in the Annapurna Conservation Area, conservation education programme of the Red Panda Network implemented in eastern mountain districts, and the Bird Education Society’s Green Clubs in local schools are some examples (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). Efforts towards improving awareness of general public include a broad range of activities. Some examples of such activities include: (i) radio programmes implemented by the Nepal Forum of Environmental Journalists (e.g. “Aankhi Jhyal”), Bird Conservation Nepal (“Panchhi Sansar”), and LI-BIRD (“Libird ko Chautari”), (ii) public awareness campaign on International Biodiversity Day, World Environment Day, National Conservation Day, World Wetlands Day, World Migratory Bird Day and International Vulture Awareness Day, (iii) exhibitions, (iv) information boards, and (v) distribution of brochures and newsletters by different agencies. Print media and television programmes are also contributing to raise awareness. Some individuals are also putting substantial efforts. 4.13.9 Economics and Valuation of Biodiversity Understanding the value of biodiversity and embedding these values in decision-making is essential for ensuring more equitable and sustainable policies. Economic value of biodiversity and biodiversity resources can be the basis of a compelling case for conservation activity; can help to integrate with development activities denominated in monitory terms; establish the basis of any benefit sharing discussion; activate appropriate conservation incentive measures and instruments; include the value of biological resources in adjusted national accounting systems and helped to informed policy decision to conserve biodiversity(Dale and Polasky, 2007). Realizing these benefits and need for an urgent action, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) states that ‘… economic valuation of biodiversity and biological resources is an important tool for well-targeted and calibrated economic incentive measures’ and encourages the Parties to ‘take into account economic, social, cultural, and ethical valuation in the development of relevant incentive measures’ (CBD's Conference of the Parties, Decision IV/10). Most of the past researches on valuing biodiversity have focused on the economic benefits where value is generally measured in monetary terms, and ignored non-consumptive social benefits that include mental well-being, ethical, religious, spiritual and cultural values and ecological benefits that include the maintenance of many of the essential life support processes (e.g. soil formation, nutrient cycling) (Farber et al., 2002; Christie et al., 2006).The findings of limited past studies indicate that the costs borne by society of biodiversity loss and ecosystems change are often found to be very high (Millennium Ecosystems Assessment, 2005). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page172 ICIMOD (2011) identified following reasons for economic valuation in the context of Himalaya including in Nepal: (i) creating awareness on importance of ecosystems services among users; (ii) creating a ‘market’ for ecosystems by demonstrating the importance and value of mountain ecosystems; (iii) improving management mechanisms by identifying more efficient and cost effective alternatives, and in designing appropriate institutional and market (and non-market) instruments, including payment for ecosystem services (PES); (iv) providing a framework for decision making offering a trade-off between the resources and their utility values and various options; and (v) extending justice and equity to those who are the main custodians of mountain ecosystems. There have been very few studies to assess the value of biodiversity in Nepal. Baral et al. (2008) assessed the willingness to pay for the conservation, maintenance, and enhancement of biodiversity resources using contingent valuation in Annapurna Conservation Area. In a study to assess value of rice genetic diversity in Nepal, Pant (2009) foundthat the consumers value NPR 11 billion per annum for aromatic trait and rupees two billion for tasty trait. Poudel and Johnsen (2009) used the contingent valuation method to document the economic value of crop genetic resources based on the farmers’ willingness to pay for conservation in Kaski district. Rai and Scarborough (2012b) conducted a study using the choice experiment approach to estimate the social benefits of a Mikania management programme. 4.14 Funding for Biodiversity Management in Key Sectors: Sources and Trends Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) envisioned establishing Nepal Trust Fund for Biodiversityas a long-term funding mechanism involving a number of bilateral, multilateral, private sector and the government agencies, including the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, National Trust for Nature Conservation, The Mountain Institute, and the IUCN (TMI, 2007). The fund, which was supposed to provide financial and technical support to government agencies, NGOs and other institutions involved in biodiversity conservation in Nepal to enable them to undertake appropriate activities and projects both within and outside protected areas, never came to existence. TheNational Consolidated Fundof the governmentcovered park administration and protection costs. The Three-year Interim Plan of the government had allocated NPR 7,678 million for genetic and botanical source development, biodiversity conservation, and research programmes and additional NPR 379 million for implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (NPC, 2007).The Environment Protection Fund has been established in accordance with the Environment Protection Act, 1996 (Section 13) for the protection of environment and national heritages, and prevention and control of pollution. Amount received from the Government of Nepal, foreign governments or international organizations, and other sources is deposited in this fund. A committee under the chairmanship of the Secretary, Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment has been constituted for management of the fund. In addition, a number of other sources also financially contributed to biodiversity conservation programmes. NTNC-collected entry fee from visitors is one of the main sources of funding for implementing biodiversity management programmes in the Annapurna Conservation Area and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page173 Manaslu Conservation Area. In-kind cooperation by local communities, technical assistance by international community, and grants and loans from bilateral and multi-lateral donor agencies were some other sources. 4.14.1 Forest Biodiversity An analysis of the programme budget allocated for the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation shows that it continuously and substantially increased during the last decade. Bulk of the funds (i.e. 84.4%) came from the government or internal source, and remaining from foreign assistance in the form of grant (14.1%) and soft loan (1.5%) (Table 4.7; Figure 4.14). Table 4.7: Sources and trends of funding (NPR 000) for implementation of forestry programmes by Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation Year 2003/04 Government (Internal) Funding* Amount % 328,017 52.4 Foreign Assistance Grant Loan Amount % Amount 286,237 45.7 12,000 % 1.9 Total Budget 626,254 2004/05 1,576,286 82.7 298,818 15.7 30,000 1.6 1,905,104 2005/06 1,696,205 88.6 171,946 9.0 47,250 2.5 1,915,401 2006/07 1,852,859 94.0 67,510 3.4 51,721 2.6 1,972,090 2007/08 2,050,782 89.2 185,936 8.1 61,962 2.7 2,298,680 2008/09 2,311,923 85.7 310,497 11.5 74,879 2.8 2,697,299 2009/10 3,008,159 87.8 332,757 9.7 83,847 2.5 3,424,763 2010/11 4,026,420 90.6 324,355 7.3 95,461 2.2 4,446,236 2011/12 4,378,815 82.8 842,889 15.9 64,623 1.2 5,286,327 2012/13 4,228,210 84.4 743,592 14.9 35,408 0.7 5,007,210 2013/14 6,776,717 78.5 1,824,284 21.1 32,954 0.4 8,633,955 32,234,393 84.4 5,388,821 14.1 590,105 1.5 38,213,319 Total * Includes the programme costs. Source: Red Books (2003 to 2011), Ministry of Finance. 8,634 1,857 5,007 779 5,286 908 4,446 420 3,425 417 2,697 385 2,299 248 1,972 119 219 1,915 329 1,905 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 626 Amount in "000" Nepalese Rupees Figure 4.14: Trendsand sources of funding formanagement of forest biodiversity Public Fund ODA Total Fund Page174 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Fiscal Year 4.14.2 Agro-biodiversity The budget is generally allocated and spent without disaggregating for biodiversity component as the biodiversity has not been awarded with budget code so far. However, in general the budget trend shows that the total budget for agro-biodiversity has increased both in case of plant science (Gene Bank and Botany Division of NARC) and animal science (Animal Breeding Division and Pasture and Fodder Division of NARC, and Department of Livestock Services) (Figure 4.15). Figure 4.15: Trend of funding for management of agrobiodiversity Agrobiodiversity Fund in NPR "000" 89300 90000 80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 54800 56000 49400 19060 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 Fiscal Year The total budget allocated for agriculture research and development in public sector is much higher than what is spent for biodiversity conservation. The fund spent for active conservation is estimated to be lower than 10 percent of total programme budget. The trend of funding presented here relates exclusively to the government funding. It does not include the funding through I/NGOs sources, which is speculated to be substantial. 4.14.3 Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation At the 2010 Cancun Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the international community agreed, in principle, to one of the largest development programmes in history. The developed nations pledged to mobilize USD100 billion per year by the year 2020 to address the needs of developing countries in responding to climate change. The funds, which may apply to adaptation and mitigation, are proposed to flow through multiple channels, including existing development banks, official development assistance, bilateral programmes, international private investment flows (e.g., carbon markets), and other public and private mechanisms. In last few years, Nepal has created various institutional structure (such as climate Change Council, Climate Change Management Division at the MOSTE); has designed climate change related programme and plans (i.e. NAPA, LAPA, PPCR, REDD +, and climate resilient planning). Nepal has received support on climate change programme from various sources such as LDCF, CIF, bilateral and international organizations. The government has also allocated some resources from its regular budget. During the last five years, the annual expenditure in climate change related programmes activities constitutes around 1.3 percent to 2.1 percent of Gross Domestic Product National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page175 (GDP), and 5.7 percent to 7.2 percent of total government expenditure. These indicate that the share of climate change related budget allocations and expenditure as percentage of GDP and government expenditure are both increasing over the period (Nepal, 2012). The climate change budget code has been implemented in the national budget of the fiscal year 2012/2013 to facilitate tracking of climate expenditure in the public finance system. The government has reportedly allocated 10.34 (5.8 % direct and 4.6% indirect) percent of its budget for 2013—2014 to climate funding. The budget for climate change has been increased in the recent years (Figure 4.16; Nepal, 2012). 27628848 2008/09 25631913 2007/08 2009/10 2010/11 Fiscal Year 2011/12 18564035 15128490 30000000 25000000 20000000 15000000 10000000 5000000 0 9684560 Climate Chnge Fund in NPR "000" Figure 4.16: Trend in climate change related fundingin Nepal There are many other funding through bilateral, multi-lateral, NGOs and INGOs sources, which in most cases remain out of the government monitoring system. It is estimated that more than half (55%) of the total government climate change expenditure comes from the donor support (Nepal (2012). Although a large number of non-state actors are involved in climate change related projects and programmes, not all those projects contribute to biodiversity management. Some of the projects programmes such as ecosystems based adaptations, which is being implemented in Panchase (three million USD), PPCR component V ‘conservation of endanger species’ (five million USD) and Hariyo Ban/USAID (30 million USD) are some examples of funding that directly contribute to biodiversity conservation. 4.15 Implementation of Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006): Status, Gaps and Lessons 4.15.1 Overview of the Progress An assessment of the progress made in implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (NBS) and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (NBSIP) was carried out based on the review and analysis of relevant literature and secondary data, consultations, and expert opinions. The findings indicated that NBS was only partially successful in achieving its goal of providing a strategic planning framework for managing biodiversity in the country. A subjective evaluation indicated that implementation of around 30 percent of the NBS strategies related to the six thematic areas was “very good”, 30 percent “good” and 41 percent “poor”. Of the 17 cross-sectoral strategies, four National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page176 were almost fully implemented and two were not implemented. Implementation status of the rest of the strategies remained medium (Table 4.8; Annex 4.6). Table 4.8: Status of implementation of NBS (2002) strategies Sector/Theme Protected Area Forest Biodiversity Rangeland Biodiversity Wetland Biodiversity Agro-biodiversity Mountain Biodiversity Cross-sectoral Number of Strategies 8 9 4 1 3 2 17 Status of Implementation* Very Good Good 2 (25) 3 (37.5) 2 (22.2) 3 (33.3) 1 (25) 1 (100) 2 (66.6) 1 (33.4) 1 (50) 4 (23.5) 6 (35.3) Poor 3 (37.5) 4 (44.4) 3 (75) 1 (50) 5 (29.4) Not Implemented 2 (11.8) * The number in parenthesis refers to the percentage Landscape approach to in-situ conservation with active involvement of local people; expansion of protected area; increased participation of local people, including women and disadvantaged groups, in forest and protected area management; formulation of the National Rangeland Policy in 2012; and integrated management of two wetlands of international importance (i.e. Koshitappu and Ghodaghodi) were some of the strategies that were successfully implemented. The three agrobiodiversity strategies were also successfully implemented. Of the 13 priority projects planned by the NBSIP (2006), three were successfully implemented, and four were partially implemented. The successfully implemented projects include: (i) integrated wetlands management, (ii) landscape level biodiversity conservation, and (iii) conservation and management of pollinators for sustainable agriculture through ecosystem approach. Three of the priority projects, namely Phulchoki-Chandragiri Biodiversity Conservation Programme, Rhododendron Conservation Programme in Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale, and Establishment of the Kanchenjungha Tri-national Peace Park were not implemented. A number of other efforts and achievements made have no direct linkage to the NBS (2002) and NBSIP (2006). Development of enabling plans, policies, strategies and regulatory frameworks; formation of high level committees (e.g. National Tiger Committee, Climate Change Council);and efforts made to control cross-border illegal trade of wildlife parts bystrengthening cooperation with China and India are some examples. Similarly, the declaration of eight natural forests with high conservation significance as protected forests; implementation of the Rastrapati (i.e. President) Chure Conservation Programme in 26 districts (out of 75); implementation of tree improvement programme, and public land agroforestry by the Department of Forests; and tissue culture programme implemented by the Department of Plant Resources, NARC and some private companies; initiative to implement REDD+ and PES are some other efforts, which have no direct linkage with the NBS or NBSIP. 4.15.2 Major Gaps The lack of linkage between the NBSand most of the sectoral and cross-sectoral strategies, plans, policies and programmes that were formulated after 2002 is probably the most important gap in National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page177 implementation of the strategy. One of the main reasons behind this missing link between the NBS and subsequent strategies, plans and policies could be the lack of an effective institutional mechanism to coordinate implementation of the strategy and monitor progress. The National Biodiversity Coordination Committee (NBCC), which was supposed to guide, coordinate and monitor the implementation, could not become so effective. The National Biodiversity Unit (NBU) in the MFSC did not get a National Biodiversity Coordinator, and the unit has not been strengthenedas recommended by the NBS. The National Trust Fund for Biodiversity, which was supposed to be the main source of funding for the NBCC and NBU, was not even established. The long gap between formulation of the NBS and NBSIP also caused the NBS to remain “dormant” for the precious first four years of its formulation (i.e. 2002-2006). Some other gaps that affected implementation of the NBS include: (i) poor inter-and intra-agency coordination and cooperation, (ii) contradictory or conflicting legislations and administrative jurisdictions, (iii) inadequate mainstreaming of biodiversity into national development plans and programmes, (iv) lack of legislation to translate the strategy and policies into actions (e.g. agrobiodiversity policy, tourism policy), (v) inadequate incentives for conservation of less productive agri-crop varieties (native landraces) and livestock breeds, (vi) lack of time-bound targets, in most cases, for implementation of sectoral conservation plans, (vii) poor enforcement of laws, including the Environmental Protection Act (1997) and Local Self-Governance Act (1996), (viii) lack of system for mainstreaming indigenous technical knowledge and innovations into national development programmes, (ix) gap in linking biodiversity registration programme with biodiversity conservation, use and benefit sharing, (x) inadequate technicalcapacity for bio-prospecting, and exsitu conservation of agro-biodiversity, and (xi) unorganized information sharing and dissemination system. The following were some of the major gaps in implementation of the NBSIP: (i) inadequate consultation and cooperation with indigenous and local communities while devising plans for conservation of biodiversity-rich areas (e.g. Phulchoki-Chandragiri, Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale), (ii) poor monitoring, (iii) lack of an effective system of benefiting local communities from protected area tourism (except in conservation areas), (iv) delay in preparation and implementation of conservation plans for many important wildlife species, including water buffalo, dolphin and swamp deer, (v) lack of baseline information on biodiversity, including agro-biodiversity, (vi) lack of vision and plan to use the existing NARC farms for conservation of agro-biodiversity, and (vii) inadequate financial resource to implement the identified priority projects. 4.15.3 Lessons Learned The following are some of the key lessons learned from implementation of the NBS and NBSIP. (i) Meaningful participation of local communities in the management of natural resources is a key to ensuring success and sustainability of programme interventions. The successful management of thousands of community and leasehold forests across the country; Kanchenjungha and Annapurna conservation areas and corridors; and community based conservation of agrobiodiversity are evidences. Ensuring meaningful local participation requires ensured economic incentives, and incorporation of traditional practices, local knowledge and institutions in the design and implementation of the programmes. Promoting cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants such as National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page178 chiraito (Swertia chirayita), lemon grass and other NTFPs (such as broom grass) in communitymanaged forests is one of the proven approaches to benefit communities and achieve success in biodiversity conservation. (ii) Landscape approachcould be an appropriate strategy for addressing multiple drivers of biodiversity loss, enhancing ecologicalprocesses and conserving threatened species. This is particularly true in areas where the protected areas are scattered likeislands and too small to support viable population of species and ecological processes. (iii) Cooperation and collaboration among relevant agencies (government, I/NGOs, local communities) is crucial to achieve success in biodiversity conservation. (iv)International cooperation can be helpful to curb transboundary trade of wildlife parts and strengthening ecological security in transboundary regions. (v) Protected area tourism can be a reliable source to generate necessary fund forimplementing conservation programmes, and to provide economic opportunities for local communities. (vi) Enabling policy is necessary to achieve the intended outcome and appropriate legislation is necessary in order to translate the policy pronouncements into practice. (vii) Positive incentive measures, which promote conservation-friendly behaviors, are necessary to encourage local people in biodiversity conservation. This lesson has been particularly learned from the PES system implemented in the Rupa Lake, Kaski. (viii) Prior consultation and discussion with local communities is necessary before making any important governance and management decision that affects the local communities’ use of the local resources. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page179 5 STRATEGY FOR MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY 5.1 Vision and Principles Underpinning the Strategy 5.1.1 The Vision A prosperous Nepal where biological and cultural treasures are well protected, ecological systems are sound and well-functioning, local and indigenous peoples’legitimate rights over resources are ensured and livelihoods are enhanced and sustained. 5.1.2 Principles 1. Conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is essential for poverty alleviation and long-term sustainable development of the country. 2. The protected area approach is necessary but not enough to stem the tide of biodiversity loss. There is a need to move into bigger scales and greater connectivity by effectively mainstreaming biodiversity conservation into community based forestry, and policies, plans and programmes of other relevant sectors and local governments. 3. Active and meaningful participation of all relevant government line agencies, local communities, indigenous groups, I/NGOs, CBOs, civil society, academia, business community and other stakeholders is necessary for effective management of biodiversity. 4. Putting community benefit and community participation at the centre of conservation interventions is necessary to achieve success, ensure programme sustainability, and demonstrate impacts of the conservation efforts. 5. Effective campaign to inform and educate the rural populations about the importance of biodiversity conservation, and recognition of local and indigenous knowledge and legitimate rights are important dimensions of successful conservation programmes. 6. Conflict between economic development projects having direct negative impacts on biodiversity and conservation needs may be inevitable in some cases. In such cases, the design and implementation of such projects shall incorporate adequate measures to identify and mitigate the potential adverse impacts of the project on biodiversity. 7. Biodiversity related decision making will be based on scientific evidence and result based monitoring and evaluation. 8. Integration of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures into planning and management of biodiversity is necessary to enhance resiliency of ecosystems, species and local livelihoods. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page180 5.2 Goal of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The overall goal is to significantly enhancethe integrity of Nepal’s ecological systems by 2020, thereby contributing to enhanced local livelihoods, human rights and sustainable development of the country.This will be achieved by reducing or managing human pressures on natural resources, reducing climatic threats to ecosystems, species and their habitats, and addressing economic and social concerns of local and indigenous communities through targeted programmes and enabling policy and legislative environment. 5.3Strategic Approaches 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Building on and consolidating the successful past efforts and achievements. Linking biodiversity conservation to food security and livelihoods enhancement. Further promotion and strengthening of local communities’ participations. Multi-stakeholder, multi-sectoral and holistic approach to natural resources management. Evidence and science based decision making. Improvement in forestry sector governance, including strengthening of law enforcement. Effective mainstreaming and integration of biodiversity into relevant sectoral plans, policies and programmes. 8) Enhancing participation of women and other disadvantaged social groups. 9) Ensuring legitimate rights of local and indigenous peoples over natural resources. 10) Enhancing resilience of ecosystems, species and human communities to the impacts of climate change. 11) Discouraging use of forestland for non-forestry purposes. 12) Reducing forest dependency by promoting green energy and other sustainable alternatives to forest products. 13) Broadening the conservation constituencies by effectively involving local governments. 14) Enhancing knowledge and understanding about biodiversity and ecosystems. 15) Further enhancement and strengthening of regional and international cooperation. 5.4 Sectoral Goals, Strategies and Priorities for Actions The sector-specific strategic goals, strategies, and priority actions included in this section are designed to address the key biodiversity threats, issues and gaps discussed in the preceding chapters; the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets6 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 (CBD, 2010; Annex 5.1); and the Millennium Development Goal of ensuring environmental sustainability. The strategies are grouped into the six biodiversity themes and sectors, namely protected area, forest, rangelands, wetlands, agriculture, and mountainand prioritized by taking into account the links between them and by reference to the key biodiversity issues. Cross-sectoral strategies are presented separately (Table 5.1 to Table 5.22). 6 In the COP-10 meeting of the CBD held at Aichi of Nagoya, Japan, the Conference of Parties came up with a new plan and targets to conserve biodiversity and enhance its benefits to the people. Theplan known as the “Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020” includes a set of 20 ambitious yet achievable targets, which are collectively known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page181 5.4.1Management of Protected Area The strategies for protected area aim at enhancing the effectiveness of protected areas in biodiversity conservation. This is to be achieved through improvements in planning, design and implementation of programmes and projects; enhancing knowledge, capacities and awareness; strengthening law enforcement; effective and low cost management of conflicts; and systematic monitoring of the progress (Table 5.1). Table 5.1: Strategies and priority actions for management of protected areas Strategies Priority Actions Strategic Goal A: Improved governance and management of protected areas (Related Aichi Targets: 5, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19) A-1.Enhancement of capacities of DNPWC, conservation area committees, buffer zone councils and user groups A-2. Development and implementation of mechanisms to reduce human-wildlife conflicts A-3. Development and implementation of mechanism for assessing effectiveness of protected area management A-4. Giving due attention and respect for the rights and livelihood needs of the people living in and around protected areas B-1. Bringing stronger commitments and enhancing capacity of front-line staff to stop wildlife crime B-2. A-1-1. Review, and if necessary, revise the organizational structure and staffing of the DNPWC A-1-2. Regularly provide refresher training to DNPWC technical staff, and training to the local communities for enhancing biodiversity conservation and livelihoods A-1-3. Enhance law enforcement capacity of DNPWC field offices by providing adequate budget, and introducing transparent reward and punishment systems for its staff A-1-4. Effectively implement existing protected area management plans and species conservation plans A-1-5. Develop and implement conservation plans for more priority ecosystems and species A-2-1. Review and, if necessary, revise the current policy and administrative procedure related to compensating the loss and damage of human life and property by wildlife A-2-2. Manage and control illegal settlements inside protected areas. A-2-3. Improve awareness of local people about behaviors of different wild animals and locally suitable low cost measures to deal with them A-3-1. Develop and implement criteria and indicators for monitoring and evaluation of the management effectiveness A-3-2. In-depth, evidence based assessments of management effectiveness of individual protected area A-3-3. Develop and implement system for economic valuation of ecological services of protected areas A-4-1. Develop and implement mechanism to incorporate the local knowledge, practices and institutions of indigenous peoples and local communities in the management of Conservation Areas and Buffer Zones A-4-2. Honor and integrate the local cultural and religious practices in the management of sacred natural sites within protected areas B-1-1. Identify and implement incentives measures B-1-2. Orientation training to enhance technical capacity and inculcate the spirit of team work B-1-3. Provide essential field equipment and logistics B-2-1. Review and, if necessary, revise relevant laws (including incentive National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page182 Heighteningcoordinated measures) efforts between law B-2-2. Develop a mechanism for efficient coordinated actions and enforcement agencies implementation of the mechanism B-3. Enhancinglocal B-3-1. Design and implement community based awareness raising awareness programmes B-4. Enhancing regional B-4-1. Further enhance and strengthen cooperation with China and India cooperation Strategic Goal C:Improved protected area habitats and habitats connectivity (Related Aichi Targets: 5, 8, 9, 12, 14) E-1. Controlling of Invasive E-1-1. Carry out detail survey of the coverage and research on modes and Alien Species (IAS) pathways of propagation, ecological and economic damage and loss, control measures, and possible uses of at least five most problematic invasive alien plant species that have posed high threat to native species and habitats E-1-2. Develop and implement programme to raise awareness of local people on identification of IAS, their impacts and control techniques E-1-3. Identify and use biological control agents E-1-4. Provide technical assistance to local people in the control and management of IAS E-2. Improvement in E-2-1. Prepare and implement appropriate plans for sustainable habitats management management of grasslands, savannas and wetlands inside protected areas E-3. Restoration of E-3-1. Identify degraded sites degraded forest, rangeland E-3-2. Plan and implement restoration activities and wetland habitats E-4. Facilitatation of E-4-1. Build “overpass” and/or “underpass” in key locations (e.g. along the wildlife movements highway in Barandabhar corridor) to allow free movement of wildlife between key adjacent species habitats Strategic Goal D: Improved management of protected area tourism (Related Aichi Targets: 14, 15, 20) D-1. Promotion of D-1-1. Promotion of eco-tourism 7 in all the protected areas. This will, conservation-friendly among other, involve: (i) designing and implementing rules and guidelines tourism for sustainable to match the practices and principles of eco-tourism, (ii) training staff, (iii) generation of funds for raising visitor awareness, (iv) strengthening local management capacity, biodiversity conservation and (v) scaling and local development up and expanding successfulinitiatives D-1-2. Review and, if necessary, revise the tourism management system, including the structure of the entry fees D-2. Increasing tourist D-2-1. Exploration and promotion of new areas for eco-tourism destinations Strategic Goal E: Enhanced resilience of ecosystems, species and human communities to climate change impacts(Related Aichi Target: 15) E-1. Improvement in E-1-1. Improve connectivity of protected area systems climate change resiliency of E-1-2. Design and implement programmes to raise awareness and build ecological systems and capacity oflocal FUGs in the corridors and buffer zone user groups for local communities climate responsive management of the forests E-1-3. Improve local livelihoods through promotion of forest-based 7 Eco-tourism is a responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people. It fundamentally differs with the nature or adventure tourism in which the focus is what the tourist is seeking rather than what the tourist does and what impact it has on the environment and the local people. Ecotourism, therefore, involves a different philosophy, a set of practices and principles rather than simply another niche market within the tourism industry (Honey, 2002). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page183 greenenterprises and optimal use of forest resources E-1-4. Implement PES and REDD+ where feasible Strategic Goal F:Enhanced public support in protected area management(Related Aichi Targets: 5, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18) F-1. Minimization of the current contention between protected area and participatory approaches to biodiversity conservation F-2. Improving awareness among the general public about the role and importance of protected areas F-1-1. Review and amend the NPWC Act 1973 (2029 BS) and Buffer Zone Guidelines (1996) to promote effective and meaningful participation of local communities in the management of Buffer Zones and Conservation Areas. F-1-2. Resolve the issues related to inclusion of (former) community forests and leasehold forests in buffer zones. F-1-3. Promote “Community Conserved Areas” F-1-4. Expand protected area, if necessary, based on scientific evidence of the conservation needs, and in consultation with all key stakeholders F-2-1. Developon-site lecturing, demonstration and interpretation infrastructure for selected protected areas. F-2-2. Improve web-based dissemination of information 5.4.2 Management of Forest Biodiversity outside Protected Area The strategies for managing forest biodiversity aim at addressing the drivers of deforestation and forest degradation, promoting scientific management and sustainable use of forests, andeffectively mainstreaming biodiversity conservation into community based forestry programmes. Effective conservation of the Siwalik forests, promotion of scientific management ofproduction forests, and improving biodiversity management in community forests are some of the focuses. Linking biodiversity conservation with economic benefits of local communities will be the top priority in designing, planning and implementation of community based forest management programmes and projects. This is based on the hypothesis that more diverse forests will have higher livelihoods value to the communities as compared to low diversity forests (Table 5.2). Table 5.2: Strategies and priority actions for management of forest biodiversity outside protected area Strategies Priority Actions Strategic Goal A: Significant improvement in forest management by 2020 (Related Aichi Targets: 7, 14, 15) A-1. Promoting scientific management of forests to improve forest productivity, biodiversity conservation, and climate resilience A-2. Supportingand improving community based forest governance and management A-1-1. Strengthen and continuously expand the scientific forest management initiative started by the DOF to all production forests A-2-1. Expand the community based forestry programmes where feasible A-2-2. Increase capacity of local FUGs to address governance issues such as gender and social inclusion and management of funds, and on technical forestry A-2-6. Develop and implement monitoring and evaluation plan with criteria and indicators for assessing quality of community, collaborative and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page184 leasehold forest governance and management A-3. Promoting A-3-1. Develop and implement NTFPs management plan by all district sustainable management forest offices and forest user groups, especially targeting conservation of of NTFPs over-harvested species Strategic Goal B: Significant reduction in the loss and degradation of forest habitats (by at least 75 percent of the current rate) by 2020 (Related Aichi Targets: 5, 7, 14, 18) B-1: Reducing B-1-1. Develop and promote nonconventional dependency on national energy sources (such as biogas, solar energy, and hydropower) forests B-1-2. Design and implement targeted programmes to promote agroforestry and private forestry, particularly on marginal and abandoned farmlands B-1-3. Promote alternatives to construction timber (e.g. bamboo, steel, aluminum) B-1-4. Promote fuel efficienttechnologies (e.g. bio-briquettes, improvedstoves) B-1-5. Clarify the legal status of public land agro-forestry implemented in some central-Tarai districts, and further promote the programme in other suitable areas B-2. Improving law B-2-1. Review and, if necessary, revise the organizational structure of enforcement and overall Department of Forests forestry sector governance B-2-2. Enhance law enforcement capacities of DFO and its field level offices by providing adequate financial and human resources B-2-3. Introduce transparent reward and punishment systems for government staff and forest user groups B-2-4. Enhance coordination and cooperation amongst government law enforcement agencies B-2-5. Identify and implement safeguards against political interference B-2-6. Restructure and improve the mandate of the district Wildlife Crime Control Bureau B-3. Addressing the B-3-1. Where feasible, direct infrastructure expansion into non-forest lands drivers of deforestation B-3-2. Control illegal harvest and trade of timber and other forest products and forest degradation through effective enforcement of the law B-3-3. Promote and enhance alternative livelihoods to reduce demand for agriculture land B-3-4. Effectively implement the EIA provisions for minimizing forest damage by industries, hydropower, mining, and other infrastructure projects, and making sure (through effective monitoring) that sufficient safeguards and mitigation measures are in place B-3-5. Promote bioengineering to control soil erosion and to reclaim landslide-affected areas in the hills and mountains B-3-6. Develop and implement plans to significantly reduce forest fires B-3-7. Control overgrazing through: (i) promotion of fodder production in community-managed forests, waste lands and agricultural lands; (iii) creating offfarm income generation opportunities; (iv) raising awareness of local communities on the environmental consequences of overgrazing andprospects for improving livelihoods throughalternative practices, and (v) promoting stallfeeding B-3-8. Implement measures to slow down population growth B-4. Reclaiming and B-4-1. Identify and address inconsistencies and conflicts between forestry restoringencroached and other sector policies and legislation forestlands and B-4-2. Prepare and implement encroachment management action plan, with National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page185 controlling further encroachment clear mention of the roles and responsibilities ofkey stakeholders (DOF, Police, DAO, political parties etc). The Forest Encroachment Control Strategy (2012) can provide a broad guidance in preparation and implementation of the action plans. B-4-3. Develop and implement a mechanism to improve coordination and cooperation of relevant agencies related to planning and execution of development projects B-4-4. Sensitize political parties, political leaders, policy-makers, and local government authorities to the issue B-4-5. Provide alternative land outside forest boundaries for new settlements and urban expansion. B-4-6. Reforest the reclaimed land, preferably with original native species B-5. Reversing or at least B-5-1. Finalize, approve and effectively implement the draft Chure Forestry controlling the loss and Programme Strategy (2008) degradation of Siwalik B-5-2. Design and implement integrated plans for conservation and forests by making it a development of the Siwaliks by the relevant DDCs, VDCs, and priority of the central and municipalities. Such plans to integrate programmes of DOF, DSCO, DLS local governments (i.e. and other government and non-government agencies. DDCs, VDCs) B-5-3. Adopt “conservation with the people”, “limited harvest” and “zero grazing” approach in the management of Siwalik forests. Revise management plans of existing community forests and collaborative forests accordingly. B-5-4. Identify priority areas, and prepare and implement conservation plan for more effective implementation of Rastrapati Chure programme. B-6. Regulating extraction B-6-1. Review and, if necessary, revise the Forest Act (1993) and Local Self of stone, gravel and sand Governance Act (1999) to address the contradictory provisions in the from rivers, streams and existing legislations with regard to jurisdiction of DFO and LDO in other areas within forest regulation of stone, gravel and sand from rivers and streams within forest boundaries. B-6-2. Prepare and implement effective mechanism to regularize collection and use of stone, gravel and sand from rivers and streams within forest boundaries. B-7. Controlling and B-7-1. Conduct a thorough survey on distribution, spatial extent and damage managing Invasive Alien by IAS Species (IAS) B-7-2. Conduct research on control and possible utilization of invasive alien species, and implementation of the findings B-7-3. Prepare a separate legislation, strategy and action plan for control and management of invasive alien species B-7-4. Enhance quarantine and detecting capacity of custom and quarantine departments through appropriate facilities, training and incentives B-7-5. Set up invasive alien species early warning and monitoring systems B-7-6. Sensitize concerned authorities on their roles and responsibilities to control invasion and spread of invasive alien species Strategic Goal C: Increment in national forest cover to 40 percent of the land surface by 2020(Related Aichi Targets: 7, 12) C-1. Abating deforestation C-1-1. See above (Strategic Goal B). and forest degradation C-2. Planning and C-2-1. Identify of the sites requiring reforestation and afforestation. Recently implementation of cleared forest encroachment sites and degraded forest areas should get reforestation and priority. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page186 afforestation schemes C-2-2. Plan and implement reforestation and afforestation schemes by respective DFOs. C-2-3. Effectively implement the provision of compensatory plantation by development projects, preferably with the same native species. C-3. Implementation of C-3-1. Consider and incorporate non-carbon benefits (e.g. biodiversity, PES and REDD+ where subsistence needs of local communities) in REDD+ strategy feasible C-3-2. Develop and implement safeguards against possible negative effects of REDD+ implementation on biodiversity C-3-3. Implement PES where feasible. This will help not only increasing forest cover, but also provide direct benefits to local communities/households. Strategic Goal D: Improved conservation of biodiversity in community managed forests and religious forests(Related Aichi Targets: 6, 7, 12, 14) D-1. Making biodiversity D-1-1. Include a chapter with specific provisions for conservation and conservation a sustainable use of biodiversity in district forest management plans, requirement in community community forest management plans, collaborative forest management forestry and collaborative plans, and leasehold forest management plans, and implement those forest management provisions D-1-2.Design and implement programmes to raise awareness and enhance capacity of CFUGs, collaborative groups, and LFUGs for conservation friendly management of their forests D-2. Designing and D-2-1. Conduct inventory of religious forests across the country to identify implementation of targeted forests with high conservation values programmes to enhance D-2-2. Based on D-2-1, prioritization of the religious forests for intervention biodiversity in religious D-2-3. Provide technical and financial supports to enhance effectiveness of forests the existing traditional management system of the prioritized religious forests Strategic Goal E: Improved biological connectivity of forest ecosystems, particularly in the Middle Mountains(Related Aichi Targets: 7, 11, 12, 14, 15) E-1. Establishment and E-1-1. Identify important forest corridors, bottlenecks and climate refugia implementation of across the country conservation friendly E-1-2. Developand implement conservation oriented forest management management of ecological plans by FUGslocated in the corridors, bottlenecks and climate refugia corridors, bottlenecks and E-1-3. Design and implement programmes to raise awareness and enhance climate refugia capacity of the local FUGs in the corridors for conservation-friendly management of the forests E-1-4. Expand protected forest where necessary and feasible E-1-5. Plan and implement reforestation and afforestation by respective DFOs Strategic Goal F: Enhanced conservation of species and genetic diversity (Related Aichi Target: 12) F-1.Promoting native plant F-1-1. Government, collaborative and community forests management plans species in management of to include specific provisions to conserve local native species and effectively natural forests, and implement those provisions afforestation and F-1-2. Give priority to native species in all seedlings production and reforestation programmes plantation schemes of the government and user groups of the government and user groups F-2. Ensuring conservation F-2-1. Prepare and implement plans to promote plantation of threatened trees (in-situ and ex-situ) of and NTFP species in reforestation and afforestation schemes threatened plant species F-2-2. Identify species that are under risk of extinction and prepare and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page187 implement plans for ex-situ conservation those species F-2-3.Encourage inclusion of threatened plant species in recovery and restoration programmes by community forest and leasehold forest suer groups, with a mandatory provision of at least five percent of the seedling planted to be of locally threatened species (if any). F-3.Enhancing F-3-1. Ensure that planting materials (seedlings, cuttings) are produced from conservation of genetic seeds collected from the known and reliable source and wide range of diversity, both in-situ and mother trees. ex-situ F-3-2. Establish and maintain seed stands and Breeding Seed Orchards of the prioritized species Strategic Goal G: Enhanced forest-based livelihoods(Related Aichi Targets: 14, 16, 18) G-1.Placing local G-1-1. Promote mixed forests of indigenous plant species in community livelihoods at the center of forests with due consideration to NTFPs and biodiversity communitybased forestry G-1-2. Promote active management of community forests for balancing and biodiversity conservation and optimal use conservation efforts G-1-3. Promote NTFP-based and other green micro-enterprises, and culture and environment based tourism in community managed forest sites to enhance rural livelihoods and income G-1-4. Establish multi-purpose private nurseries (including forest trees, NTFPs, horticulture species) G-1-5. Integrate poverty reduction and livelihoods strategy with forest management strategy G-1-6. Support to CFUGs in the revision of community forest operational plans to make them more livelihood and conservation oriented, and support to implement the revised plans. G-1-7. Promote PES and REDD+ as means of income generation by forestdependent local communities. G-1-8. Review and, if necessary, revise the regulatory system (e.g. regulation on private forestry) G-2. Scaling up the G-2-1. Replicate and expand the successful leasehold impacts of leasehold forestry model in feasible areas forestry Strategic Goal H: Improved knowledge and understanding about forests(Related Aichi Targets: 1, 19) H-1. Enhancing forestry H-1-1. Ensure optimal and sustainable financing for forestry research research and development through: (i) improved coordination amongstthe MFSC, National Planning Commission andMinistry of Finance, and (ii) a more proactiveapproach by DFRS to raise funds from external sources. H-1-2. Conduct a comprehensive assessment of the current state of Nepal’s forests H-1-3. Conduct nationwide survey of NTFPs, particularly MAPs H-1-4. Promote linkages among research, policy, and management planning H-1-5. Lobby to optimally account for forest values during evaluation of contributions from the forestry sector in government planning procedures National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page188 5.4.3 Management of Rangeland Biodiversity Table 5.3: Strategies and priority actionsfor management of rangeland biodiversity Strategies Priority Actions Strategic Goal A: Improved understanding of rangeland ecology and biodiversity (Related Aichi Target: 1, 8,12,13,18 ) A-1. A-1-1. Design and conduct inventories to assess the status and trends of rangeland Development and resources implementation A-1-2. Conduct research on nature and level of rangeland biodiversity-livelihood of inventory and linkages in selected rangelands across all physiographic zones research plans A-1-3. Conduct research on nature and severity of invasion by alien species and their and programmes impacts on native flora, fauna and livelihoods A-1-4. Conduct research on range wildlife ecology and wildlife habitat, wild life livestock interaction and indigenous pastoral management Strategic Goal B: Improved conservation of rangeland biodiversity (Related Aichi Target:1,4, 7, 9,13) B-1. Habitat B-1-1. Control unwanted plants and invasive species restoration and B-1-2. Determining the extent and severity of rangelands degradation and make improvement rehabilitation of overgrazed ranges B-1-3. Establish practical monitoring systems B-1-4.Awareness campaign and environmental education B-2. Conservation of threatened species B-2-1. Monitoring on the trend of biodiversity status B-2-2.Develop and implement conservation plans for threatened plant and animal species B-2-3. Design and implement awareness and capacity building programmes B-2-4. Employ suitable methods of conservation for endanger and threatened flora and fauna B-2-5. Apply holistic and integrated approach (including incentives measures) for conservation of flora and fauna B-3. Managing grazing pressure B-3-1. Promoting effective management practices (e.g. stall feeding where feasible) B-3-2.Development and implementation of appropriate grazing management practices B-3-3. Development and implementation of maintaining appropriate animal herd size B-3-4.Promoting local and indigenous species and introduction and evaluation of suitable exotic improved forage for rangeland areas Strategic Goal C: Sustainable utilization of rangeland resources for enhanced local livelihoods (Related Aichi Target: 4,9,15 ) C-1. Improving C-1-1.Develop and use technologies for improving rangeland productivity production of C-1-2.Identify and promote suitable species and varieties of forage legumes (both rangelands exotic and local) C-1-3.Establish and strengthen local innovation, knowledge and practices C-1-4.Effective control and preventive programme for unwanted weeds and invasive species C-2. Enhancing cooperation among key stakeholders C-2-1.Awareness and capacity building for conservation work C-2-2.Integrated approach for use of rangeland resources (Involving multi-sectors and multi-partners) C-2-3. Establish and promote livelihood options based on rangelands resources National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page189 5.4.4 Management of Wetland Biodiversity Table 5.4: Strategies and priority actions for management of wetland biodiversity Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Effective conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands (Related Aichi Targets: 1, 3,9) A-1. Development and implementation of effective plan and programmes for wetlands management A-1-1. Upgrade inventory of wetlands (including glaciers, lakes, rivers, reservoirs, marches and ponds). A-1-2. Classify wetlands recording to their ownership. A-1-3. Identify more wetlands of international importance and enlist them as Ramsar sites (such as Khaptad, Doti, Shyrpu Daha, Rukum and Ramaraswam, Achham) A-1-4. Identify the cultural, economic and economic value of different wetlands prepare plan for their sustainable use. A-1-5. Prohibit encroachment to wetlands and rehabilitation of silted and polluted and identify the cultural, economic and economic value of different wetlands prepare plan for their sustainable use. A-1-6. Design and conduct research on wetland resources including a) limnological parameters, b) Water fowl, c) potential eco-tourism, d) cultural heritage, e) indigenous /traditional knowledge and skill on sustainable use of water and biological resources, f) socio-economics status of local communities, g) potential of generating livelihoods for native especially women, dalit and indigenous peoples. Strategic Goal B: Promote conservation of species diversity (Related Aichi Targets: 1,12, 13, 18) B-1. B-1-1. Design and conduct national survey on aquatic life (fish, amphibians, Development and planktons, aquatic vegetation reptiles, mollusks, dolphin etc). implementation B-1-2.Identify the status of aquatic flora and fauna and develop conservation of strategy for programme (in-situ and ex-situ plan and implement). aquatic B-1-3. Develop and implement multipurpose regional conservation plan for dolphin, biodiversity crocodile, fish in far-west development region jointly with the cooperation of southern conservation neighbors India and Bangladesh. B-1-4. Design and implement pilot projects on the propagation of native fish species. Make an inventory of indigenous knowledge, skills and practices and Conserve ITK and scale them up. B-1-5. Awareness campaign and environmental education Strategic Goal C: Effective Conservation of Protected Areas and Buffer Zones (Related Aichi Targets: 2,9,14,19) C-1. C-1-1. Design and study of wetlands and categories them according to their physical Development and condition. implementation C-1-2. Rehabilitation the wetland to provide better habitat for aquatic life of plans for C-1-3. Prohibit introduction of invasive fish species. wetland C-1-4. Asses the productivity and carry1ing capacity of wetland develop their rehabilitation and implementation plan for livelihoods. enhancement of local livelihoods Strategic Goal D: Biodiversity Conservation and Livelihoods Outsides the Protected Area and buffer zone(Related Aichi Targets: 1,19,20) D-1.Development D-1-1. Categories wetlands as per their limnological condition and ownership. of national D-1-2. Develop guidelines for their utilization. programme for D-1-3. Update and improve existing directory and database on the basis of research on conservation and wetland resources. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page190 wise use of wetlands D-1-4. Encouraging participation of user group and community based organization and co-management of the resources. D-1-5. Plan and implement comprehensive capacity building activities. D-1-6. Develop strong information base. D-1-7. Raise awareness wetland conservation. Strategic Goal E: Strengthening Institutions for Wetland Management(Related Aichi Targets: 3, 4) E-1. E-1-1. Review existing institution for wetland conservation Development of E-1-2. Review role and responsibility of different line agencies such as National an effective Ramsar Authority, DNPWC, DOF and Directorate of Fisheries Development and institution for proposed a accountable institution wetland management. Strategic Goal F: Reformation of policy and legislative support (Related Aichi Targets: 3, 16) F-1. Reviewing F-1-1. Review the existing wetland policy and aquatic life protection act. the policy and F-1-2. Harmonize contradictory policies and guidelines and formulated workable legislation policy, act and regulations for integrated wetland management. 5.4.5 Management of Mountain Biodiversity Mountain biodiversity overlaps with other themes (such as protected areas, rangelands). Moreover, the way mountain resources are managed will have implications for the downstream communities. The strategy for management of mountain biodiversity, therefore, is designed to benefit the entire landscape or river basin. The strategy and actions focus on conserving critical ecosystems and species and ensuring the continued supply of mountain ecosystem goods and services that are critical to both upstream and downstream human and other biological communities (Table 5.5). Table 5.5: Strategies and priority actionsfor management of mountain biodiversity Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Enhanced understanding of mountain biodiversity and ecosystem services(Related Aichi Targets: 18, 19) A-1. Generating and A-1-1. Design and conduct research focusing on biological richness of strengthening knowledge mountain ecosystems, and diversity driven ecosystem services on the ecology of A-1-2. Research to explore management scenarios, which serve both the mountain ecosystems sustained integrity of diverse mountain biota and human needs Strategic Goal B: Environment-friendly economic development(Related Aichi Targets: 14, 20) B-1.Promoting alternative B-1-1. Local forest and agriculture based enterprise dev. livelihoods opportunities B-1-2. Promote eco-friendly tourism, with particularfocus on communitybased ecotourism B-2.Building B-2-1. Design and implement green projects (water, biodiversity, forests, infrastructure for green clean energy) development B-2-2. Reform policies to provide incentives to sectors that offer opportunities for sustainable green growth B-3.Enhancing B-3-1. Reorganize marginal mountain communities’ role in environmental environmental stewardship governance to drive green B-3-2. Involve local communities in accounting for the full value of economy ecosystem goods and services B-3-3. Promote social equity B-4.Improvement in B-4-1. Reform NRM policies to provide incentives to use natural resources National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page191 policy B-5.Strengthening implementation mechanisms B-6. Promoting public– private partnerships B-7. Consolidating diverse funding mechanisms for biodiversity management, climate change, and sustainable development B-8. Promoting regional cooperation sustainably; to allocate environmental costs and benefits equitably; and to promote equity and justice B-5-1. Enhance national and local institutions’ capacities B-6-1. Provide incentives to private sector for undertaking green initiatives B-6-2. Promote the culture of corporate social responsibility B-7-1. Develop and implement fund generation and mobilization plan B-8-1. Design and implement a regional cooperation plan to develop a green economy and to enhance access to markets, finance and technology transfer 5.4.6 Management of Agro-biodiversity Table 5.6: Strategies and priority actions for management of agro-biodiversity Strategies Priority Actions Strategic Goal A: Effective management of agro-biodiversity for its conservation and utilization (Related Aichi Target: 4) A-1. A-1-1. Strenghtening partnership with CBOs and I/NGOs for on farm conservation Improvement and and sustainable use of agricultural genetic resources expansion of A-1-2. Empowering farming communities to ensure their continued roles in existing on farm conservation, use and management of genetic resources, right to participate in conservation and decision making, rights to protect traditional knowledge and right to use on farm use of saved seeds, exchange and sale of unbranded seed. agricultural A-1-3. Incorporate gender, socio cultural and agro ecological factors in R& D genetic resources agenda/programmes of the government A-1-4. Link National Agriculture Genetic Resources Center (Gene Bank) with community based seed/gene bank for implementing complementarities between ex situ and in situ conservation initiatives A-1-5. Protect and reward custodian farmers’ genetic resources, knowledge and technologies. A-1-6. Continue community based biodiversity management approaches at national level for conservation and use of genetic resources A-2. Building strong national programme on ex situ conservation of agricultural genetic resources A-2-1. Strengthening existing collection, conservation, rejuvenation, characterization and documentation facilities and human resources capacity of NAGRC (Gene bank) A-2-2. Establish field gene bank and in vitro conservation of recalcitrant seeds. A-2-3.Undertake exchange of information on all kinds of agricultural genetic resources and implement multilateral system of exchange of PGRFA A-2-4. Coordinate and collaborate with CBOs, NGOs, breeders and farmers in implementing activities of ex situ conservation and policy advocacy and formulation. A-2-5. Establish strong networks with regional networks and international centers A-3. Mainstreamingco A-3-1. Develop and implement conservation programmes fitting well with development programmes National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page192 nservation with development A-3-2. Integrate biodiversity conservation and their sustainable use with related sectors A-3-3. Mainstream biodiversity in sectoral and cross-sectoral programmes A-4. Linking conservation with development A-4-1.Reorient both research and development plans and programmes in a way conservation and use of local genetic resources (PGR and AnGR) become a priority agenda A-4-2. Conserve through use of local genetic resources with community based biodiversity management A-4-3. Establish the positive attributes of local breeds/varieties and promote their use by value addition (through both breeding and non-breeding approach) A-5-1.Create the awareness on the importance and value of genetic resources A-5-2. Biodiversity awareness campaigning A-5-3. Include the importance and contribution of genetic resources in the curricula (school, college level) A-5-4. Develop and implement policy and guidelines for involving mass media in effective dissemination of information related to biodiversity conservation and their use A-5.5 Expand IPM and IPNM activities at local level A-6-1.Make an inventory of indigenous knowledge, skills and practices A-6-2. Based on inventory, promote use of indigenous technologies, knowledge and skills for conservation and sustainable use of agrobiodiversity A-6-3. Awareness programmes on documentation, use and promotion of ITK for conservation and use of agrobiodiversity A-5. Enhancing communication, education and public awareness on agrobiodiversity A-6. Promotion of indigenous traditional knowledge, skills and practices for conservation and use of agro biodiversity A-7. Enhancing access to seed of local varieties/breeds A-7-1. Enhance research capacity for producing quality seeds of both local and improved varieties/breeds (PGR and AnGR) A-7-2. Build public private partnership more stronger for seed business A-7-3. Capacity enhancement for seed production and certification A-7-4. Capacity enhancement for producing seed/semen of local breeds of livestock A-7-5. Establishing/strengthening resource centres for producing quality inputs of local breeds of livestock A-8. Making research and A-8-1. Enhance research capacity on conservation within the country and make technology relevant research on the promotion of local genetic resources generation a A-8-2. Improve public private partnership for research work for conservation priority agenda A-8-3. Improve research capacity for policy works Strategic Goal B: Prevent the extinction of threatened and endangered species and maintain the genetic diversity of crops and animals (Related Aichi Targets: 7, 12, 13) B-1.Improvement B-1-1. Monitoring on the trend of biodiversity status and sustenance of B-1-2. Employ suitable methods of conservation for endanger and threatened the status of species/breeds biodiversity, B-1-3. Apply holistic and integrated approach (including incentives measures) for including conservation endangered B-1-4. Awareness and capacity building for conservation work species Strategic Goal C: Promote the initiatives in managing invasive and alien species for conservation and use of agro biodiversity (Related Aichi Target: 9) C-1. Conducting C-1-1. Inventory of invasive and alien species and control strategy research on C-1-2. Study on the invasive alien species and develop strategies for their National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page193 identification and control/prevention management of C-1-3. Develop strategies for management of invasive and alien species (those which invasive and have uses e.g. banmara) alien species Strategic Goal D: Development of effective policies and legislations for linking conservation with development (Related Aichi Target: 1) D-1. Formulation D-1-1. Make the ABS draft approved ensuring fair and equitable sharing of benefits of specific from genetic resources policies D-1-2. Formulate and implement farmers’ rights legislation D-1-3. Formulate the appropriate policies and reformulate the existing policies suited for conservation and use of local genetic resources D-1-4. Formulate/reformulate national policies with intention of harmonizing with international treaties D-1-5. Establish and strengthen incentives and incentive measures for eliminating perverse incentive and promoting positive incentives 5.5 Cross-sectoral Strategies and Priorities for Action 5.5.1 Landscape Management Table 5.7: Strategies and priority actionsfor landscapes management Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Improved landscape management that promotes and strengthens community-led actions in the management of landscapes (Related Aichi Targets: 5, 7, 11, 12) A-1. Designing and A-1-1 Formulate and implement necessary policy and legislations implementation of an integrated for implementing landscape approach to conservation and rural landscape management strategy development that focuses on local, communityA-1-2. Raise awareness of poverty environmentlinkages led actions to solve resource A-1-3. Integrate pro-poor sustainable natural resources management management, biodiversity into the budgetary process at the central level conservation, and climate change A-1-4. Take a more programmatic and integratedapproach in local challenges level development planning A-2. Identify and promote A-2-1. Improve and expand participatory soil andwater conservation appropriate land use (e.g. initiatives, with emphasison bio-engineering and based on agroforestry, private forestry in principlesand approaches of integrated watershedmanagement marginal lands) and land A-2-2. Support implementation of national land use policy, and management systems (e.g. SALT) promote participatory land evaluation, land use planning at the local to improve biodiversity level conservation, control watersheds A-2-3. Identify and promote appropriate land use practices degradation andreduce pressure on forests 5.5.2 Institutional Strengthening Table 5.8: Strategies and priority actionsfor strengthening institutions for improved management of biodiversity Strategies Priorities for Action National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page194 Strategic Goal A: Effective and efficient institutional arrangements are operational at different levels(Related Aichi Targets: 1-20) A-1. Establishing and A-1-1. Provide legal recognition to National Biodiversity Coordination strengthening Committee by incorporating its composition, powers and functions in the institutions for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use legislation to be developed in the conservation and near future sustainable use of A-1-2. Incorporate provisions related to the establishment, composition, powers components of and functions of Environment Friendly Governance District Coordination biodiversity at Committee (EFGDCC) in the biodiversity conservation and sustainable use different levels legislation A-1-3. Establish Environment Friendly Local Governance Village Coordination Committee (EFLGVCC) in selected VDCs and incorporate its composition, powers and functions in the biodiversity conservation and sustainable use legislation A-1-4. Establish Biodiversity Conservation Division at the MFSC and strengthen it A-1-5. Make the establishment of the EPC mandatory and also spell out the powers and functions of the EPC by amending the Environment Protection Act and Environment Protection Regulations A-1-6. Develop and implement inter-agencycoordination mechanisms to mitigate negativeenvironmental effects of development projects and enhance cooperation for effective enforcement of environmental policies and legislations 5.5.3 Enhancement of National Capacity for Improved Management of Biodiversity Table 5.9: Strategies and priority actions for Enhancement of National Capacity for Improved Management of Biodiversity Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity values across government and society (Related Aichi Targets: 1,2,16,17,18) A-1. Improving A-1-1. Conduct training needs assessment of central and local government officials, National representatives of CSOs and media persons on different aspect of conservation of Capacity on biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and access and benefit sharing biodiversity A-1-2. Develop curricula and training manuals based on the findings of training needs conservation assessment report on conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and sustainable and access and benefit sharing use A-1-3. Organize series training programmes for central and district level government officials, members of CSOs and media persons on different aspect of conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and access and benefit sharing access A-1-4. Organize series training programmes for officials of DDCs, members of CSOs and media persons on different aspect of conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and access and benefit sharing access A-1-5. Prepare and distribute IEC materials, and support local and national radio and televisions for developing and broadcasting different programmes relating to importance of biodiversity, causes for the loss of biodiversity and degradation of ecosystems, conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and access and benefit sharing access. A-1-6. Organize series training programmes for district level government officials of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page195 District Agriculture Development office and District Forest Office and members of district level CSOs and media persons access to genetic resources and materials and equitable sharing including prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms A-1-7. Organize training programmes for district level government officials and CSOs on documentation of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge for selected participants at district level A-1-8. Organize Training of Trainers from the for the selected participants of the capacity development training programmes 5.5.4 Knowledge Generation and Management Table 5.10: Strategies and priority actions for biodiversity relevant knowledge generation and management Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Reducing the knowledge gap on biodiversity(Related Aichi Targets: 1, 19) A-1. Comprehensive inventory A-1-1. Update the existing information on Nepalese ecosystems of ecosystems and species will A-1-2. Conduct country-wide baseline survey of NTFPs for better be gradually undertaken understandingand management throughout the country A-1-3. Plan, design and implement exploratory surveys of areas with possible existence of endangered wildlife species (e.g. Lime in upper Humla) A-1-4. Extend necessary administrative and other supports to complete the Flora of Nepal project within the stipulated time A-2. Enhancement of national A-2-1. Ensure optimal and sustainable financing for forestry and capacity for biodiversity agriculture research through: (i) improved coordination amongstthe research relevant ministry, National Planning Commission andMinistry of Finance, and (ii)taking a more proactiveapproach by DFRS, DPR and NARC to raise funds from external sources. A-2-2. Enhance government’s and civil societies’ ability to gather and synthesize information necessary for informed decision-making A-2-2. Financially support TU central departments of Botany, Zoology, and Environmental Science, and Institute of Forestry to establish and sustain themselves as center of excellence in relevant research A-2-3. Promote linkages among research, policy, and management planning A-2-4. Enhance capacity of local communities especially deprived groups such as women, dalit, janajatis and indigenous groups to support their livelihoods and conserve biodiversity Strategic Goal B: Establishment and sustenance of a National Biodiversity Information Management System(Related Aichi Targets: 17, 19) B-1. A central location for data B-1-1. Design and implement a plan for establishment and management collection and dissemination of NBIMS will be established with clear B-1-2. Develop and implement data collection and sharing policy protocols for data sharing B-2. All donor projects will be B-2-1. Develop and implement data sharing plan by all donor projects required to lay out a plan for how they will make the data collected publicly accessible National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page196 Strategic Goal C: Strengthened national knowledge and understanding for controlling invasive alien species (Related Aichi Targets: 9, 19) C-1. Identification, prevention, C-1-1. Department of Plant Resources, NARC and TU Central early detection and Department of Botany will work closely and in cooperation with management of invasive alien international organizations such as the CBD and international invasive plant species species network or Global Invasive Species Programme to develop Invasive Plant Atlas for identification, early detection, prevention and management of invasive plants. 5.5.5 Mainstreaming Biodiversity across the Government, Society and Economy Table 5.11: Strategies and priority actions for Mainstreaming Biodiversity across the Government, Society and Economy Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity values across government and society (Related Aichi Targets: 1, 2, 4, 7, 14) A-1-1. Incorporate conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and prevention and control of loss of biodiversity in the mandate of Council of Ministers by amending the Government of Nepal (Work Division) Regulations 2012 A-1-2. Incorporate conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its A-1. Integration of components and prevention and control of loss of biodiversity in the mandate biodiversity values and scope of work of the Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Federal Affairs and into national and local Local Development, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Irrigation, Ministry of policies, strategies Industry, Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport , and Ministry of plans and programmes Tourism, Culture and Civil Aviation A-1-3. Development and implementation of programmes for conservation of biodiversity by District Development Committees in accordance with section 189 (1) (G) of the Local Self-governance Act 1999 (LSGA) A-1-4. Development and implementation of programmes for conservation of biodiversity by Village Development Committees in accordance with section 28 (1) (H) of the LSGA A-2-1. Launch communication, education and outreach programmes to promote conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity A-2. Educating A-2-2. Develop and implement programmes to demonstrate that conservation of society and business biodiversity and ecosystem services results into economic benefits to the importance of communities and industries and upscale such programmes biodiversity A-2-3. Develop and implement programmes for revising operational plans of conservation and CFUG to include provisions relating to conservation of biodiversity ecosystem services A-2-4. Develop a system for strategic environmental assessment and ensure effective implementation of strategic environmental assessment 5.5.6 Addressing the Policy and Legislative Gaps Table 5.12: Strategies and priority actions for addressing policies and legislative gaps Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Enhanced mainstreaming of biodiversity values across government and society National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page197 (Related Aichi Targets: 2,3,5,8,9,11,12,14) A-1. Improving A-1-1. Incorporate conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its biodiversity components and prevention and control of loss of biodiversity in the energy, governance and industry, irrigation, and road sector's policy and plan management A-2-1. Amend energy, industrial enterprises, irrigation, public roads , tourism related legislation in order to incorporate provisions relating to biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of biodiversity and prevention and control of loss of biodiversity A-2. Improving A-2-2. Review and amend contradictory provisions among different pieces of relevant legislation for legislations such as the Forest Act, Environment Protection Act, Electricity Act, conservation and Local Self -governance Act, Mines and Minerals Act, National Parks and sustainable use of Wildlife Conservation Act, Public Roads Act biodiversity A-2-3. Enact a separate legislation for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity A-2-4. Amend existing legislation in order to provide legal base to policy pronouncements mentioned in policies such as Agro biodiversity Policy, Rangeland Policy A-3. Effective A-3-1. Ensure effective implementation of environmental related provisions of implementation of different legislation in particularly environmental impact assessment environment related A-3-2. Ensure implementation of mitigation plan included in the EIA report of provisions of different hydropower, industries, irrigation, mining, roads, and other infrastructure policies, strategies, projects and legislation Strategic Goal C: Improved status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity (Related Aichi Targets: 11,12,14) C-1. Establishment of C-1-1. Develop and implement a policy for payment for ecosystem services a system for protection C-1-2. Finalize and enact endangered species legislation of ecosystems and C-1-3. Amend the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act to address the species changed ecological, social and political context C-1-4.Update the list of protected wildlife species included in Schedule 1 of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act by delisting some of the species whose population has drastically increased and also listing some species which are threatened and vulnerable C-1-5. Develop and issue scientific list of protected flora including herbs under the Forest Act C-1-6. Provide legal recognition to Wildlife Farming Policy by incorporating relevant provisions in the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act Strategic Goal E: Enhanced implementation through participatory planning, knowledge, management and capacity building (Related Aichi Targets: 1-4, 18) E-1. Promotion of E-1-1. Respect right to information of individuals and communities by transparency disseminating and providing information relating to biodiversity and accountability and environment participation at E-1-2. Ensure involvement of citizens and citizen groups in the decision making different levels related to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable benefit sharing at different stages including needs identification, development of policies, strategies, plans and programmes and implementation and monitoring and evaluation. Greater public participation should not be reduced to the discretion of decision makers. It is a fundamental right that in the past has received inadequate recognition (NBS, 2002). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page198 5.5.7 Harmonization of Biodiversity related International Conventions Table 5.13: Strategies and priority actions for harmonizing biodiversity related international conventions Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Underlying causes of biodiversity loss are addressed through effective mainstreaming of biodiversity values across government and society (Related Aichi Targets: 5,7,14) A-1-1 Set up a committee under NBCC on harmonizing biodiversity related conventions and treaties A-1-2. MFSC to initiate harmonization of national reporting of the three A-1. Promoting biodiversity related conventions -CITES, Ramsar, and CBD - for which the synergies among MFSC has been in charge biodiversity related A-1-3. MFSC to take lead in initiating discussion with the MoAD and the international Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Civil Aviation and developing synergies conventions between ITPGRFA and World Heritage Convention and other biodiversity related conventions A-1-4. MFSC to develop and implement joint capacity development programmes with the focal points of biodiversity related MEAs A -2 Attaining MDG 7 A-2-1. Collection of required data for the indicators on proportion of fish stocks Target 7 B in biological limits; and proportion of species threatened with extinction, for which there is lack of data, by the end of 2015 A-2-2. Inform the decision makers that achieving most of the MDGs depend directly on ecosystem services including the targets on poverty, hunger, gender equality, child mortality, and sustainable development A-2-3. Make arrangement for providing necessary financial resources needed for attaining MDG 7 A-2-4. Include reduce biodiversity loss, achieving a significant reduction in the rate of loss as one of the targets in the Post- 2015 MDGs A-2-5.Include additional targets related to biodiversity: (a) improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity, and (b) ensure poor’s access to environmental resources and decision making as one of the targets in the Post -2015 MDGs 5.5.8 Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Designing and implementing monitoring and evaluation (M & E) systems and their reporting on the state of biodiversity and the success of conservation actions are crucial to ensure that national efforts are making a difference to biodiversity management. Monitoring of change in the status, trend and threats of biodiversity and environment overtime helps to know the effectiveness of intervention and understand how to intervene in future. The M & E system prescribed here is based on the theory of change approach and result based monitoring and evaluation systems. This entails, among others, setting targets, assessment of baseline situation, identification of performance indicators and means of verification. The M&E systems will be considered as a living document to respond to any changes in drivers of biodiversity loss and development priorities. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page199 The overarching objectives of M&E are to: (a) improve performance and knowledge; (b) promote accountability for achieving the NBSAP objectives through the assessment of results, effectiveness, processes, and performance of the partners involved in biodiversity management activities; and (c) promote learning, feedback, and knowledge sharing on results and lessons learned among the stakeholders in order to influence decision-making on policies, strategies, and management of programmes and projects.The M&E processes underwrite the independence of the evaluation process. The M&E systems identifies clear roles and responsibilities of concern stakeholders to meet minimum quality standards as prescribed by national M&E guidelines and development plan result framework developed by the National Planning Commission in 2013. In order to effectively manage the M&E functions, a National M & E Committee will be established within the NBCC. A member of NBCC will head the M&E committee, which will be represented by different stakeholders. Regular administration of M&E functions will be managed by NBCC secretariat. The M&E committee will develop a result oriented monitoring and evaluation systems and ensure effective learning from M&E. The M&E systems provide mechanisms for regular monitoring, formative and summative evaluation at project and programme level. The system will be managed by respective projects and programmes. The findings of M&E will be regularly submitted to the M&E Committee which will help to assess progress made by the projects and programmes on various set targets. For outcome level performance assessment, the M&E committee will carry out summative evaluation of selected programmes and commission at least two meta-evaluations during mid and final year of the strategic period at national level. The M&E committee will meet at least twice annually and review its progress and submit report annually to NBCC. The indicators proposed in Table 5.14 can be used as the basis for performance assessment of the thematic objectives. Table 5.14: Important biodiversity indicators Thematic Performance Indicators Targets for 2020 Protected Area Biodiversity Significant Change in capacity of improvement in DNPWC (organizational protected area structure, staffing, funding, governance and and staff trained in modern management techniques) Number of protected area management plans and species conservation plans developed and implemented Changes in number of human-wildlife conflicts Significant improvement in protected area habitats and Means of Verification M&E Schedule Monitoring Responsibility Correspond ing Aichi Targets Office records 2014 and 2019 Biodiversity Division, MFSC (BD MFSC) 4, Office records; field verification 2014 and 2019 BD MFSC 2, 17, 14 Office records; media reporting 2014 and 2019 12, 13, 1, 2 Changes in population of threatened wildlife species Population surveys 2015 and 2020 BD MFSC through Independent researcher DNPWC Type and number of measures taken to control invasive alien species Area of grasslands and Office records; field validation 2020 BD MFSC 9 Office records; 2015 and BD MFSC 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Page200 connectivity field validation 2020 Office records; field validation 2020 BD MFSC 5, 7, 11, 13 Office records; media reporting Office records; field validation Office records 2014 and 2019 BD MFSC 12, 13 2020 BD MFSC 14, 16 2014 and 2019 DNPWC 16, 20 Changes in connectivity of protected area systems Changes in number and type of forest-based green enterprises operational in buffer zones and conservation areas Number of PES and REDD+ schemes implemented Number of climate resilient plans developed and implemented in climate vulnerable watersheds/areas Significant Degree of management of the increase of current contention between public support DNPWC, FECOFUN and in PA members of forest user management groups Change in people’s perception on protected area Forest Biodiversity outside Protected Area Significant Change in law enforcement improvement capacity of DOF in forest (organizational structure, governance staffing, funding, equipments) and Change in forest area/ management landscape under scientific management Change in area under community based forest management (CBFM) Change in participation of women and disadvantaged social groups in CBFM Number of NTFP species management plan developed and implemented by DFOs Change in forest revenue Office records; field validation Office records; field validation 2015 and 2020 2014 and 2020 DNPWC 5, 7,10, 15 DNPWC 7, 14 Office records; field validation Office records; field validation 2020 DNPWC 5, 15 2020 DNPWC 10, 7, 2, 1 Opinion surveys, 2014 and 2019 BD MFSC through Independent researcher 2, 5, 7, 14, 15 Perception survey 2015 and 2020 DNPWC 1 Office records 2014 and 2019 BD MFSC 2, 3,4 Office records 2014 and 2019 Department of Forests (DOF) 5, 11, 7 Office records 2014 and 2019 DOF 5,11, 7, 2, 4 Office records and sample surveys Office records 2014 and 2019 DOF 1, 18 2020 DOF 2, 4 Office records DOF 14, 15 Existence of effective and well-functioning reward Office records; Opinion 2014 and 2019 2020 Significant reduction in poaching Significant improvement in management of protected area tourism Enhancement in resilience of ecosystems, species and human communities to climate change impacts wetlands under sustainable management Number of corridors (“overpass” and/or “underpass” ) to facilitate wildlife movements Changes in number of poaching events / Number of PAs implementing ecotourism Revenue generated through tourists (PA entrance) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan BD through MFSC 5, 1, 2, 7 Page201 Significant reduction in loss and degradation of forest habitats Increment in national forest cover to 40 percent of the land surface Significant improvement in conservation of biodiversity in community managed forests Significant improvement in biological connectivity of forest ecosystems, particularly in the Middle Mountains, Enhanced conservation threatened plant species Significant enhancement in forest-based systems for DOF staff and forest user groups Change in forest area under encroachment Level of integration of climate change risks in forest management / landscape management Area reforested/afforested Type and number of measures taken to control invasive alien species Number of PES and REDD+ schemes implemented and area covered Change in forest area Number of forest management plans (district, community, collaborative, leasehold) having specific provision (a separate chapter) for biodiversity conservation, and their implementation status Number of events organized to raise awareness and enhance capacity of FUGs for improved conservation of biodiversity Number and area of important forest corridors, bottlenecks and climate refugia identified and recorded Number and area of forests in these corridors where conservation oriented forest management plans are developed and implemented Proportion of DFOs and FUGs giving priority to native and threatened species in seedlings production and plantation schemes Number and proportion of threatened species under ex situ conservation Proportion of CFUGs and Collaborative groups implementing specific National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan surveys Independent researcher DOF 5, 11, 7, 2, 4 Office records, and field verification Forest management plans / strategy 2014 and 2019 2014 and 2020 DOF/DFRS 10, 15, 7 Office records and filed validation Office records; field validation 2014 and 2020 DOF 5, 11, 7, 1 2020 BD MFSC 9, 7, 12 Office records; field validation 2020 DOF 5, 15, 7, 2 Forest surveys 2014 and 2020 DFRS 11, 7, 2, 4 Study and analysis of the plans; sample field visits/surveys 2014 and 2020 BD MFSC, through independent researcher 2, 4, 5, 11, 12, 13 Office records; sample field visits/surveys 2014 and 2020 BD MFSC, through independent researcher 1 Office records 2015 BD MFSC 1, 5, 10, 7, 2 Office records; sample field visits/surveys 2019 BD MFSC, through independent researcher 7, 11, 12, 13, 2 Office records; sample field visits/surveys 2019 BD MFSC, through independent researcher 1, 2 3, Office records and validation 2019 BD MFSC 2, 12, 13 Office records and field validation 2019 BD MFSC, through independent 14, 2, 7, 1, Page202 livelihoods livelihood enhancement programmes Changes in number and quality of NTFP-based and other green micro-enterprises operational at the local level Changes in number and type of research based publications (books, journal articles, scientific reports, proceedings of conferences etc) Significant improvement in knowledge and understanding about forests Wetland Biodiversity Significant Wetland inventory classified improvement according to their nature and in wetland ownership. conservation No of new wetlands enlisted and as Ramsar sites. management Change in the physical and biological conditions of the wetlands in mid hill, Sewalic and Tarai area.l Effective Status (in published form) of conservation aquatic flora and fauna of aquatic biodiversity Ex-situ conservation status of fish, mollusks and herpectofauna Status of trans-boundary initiatives in situ conservation area for selected species Type and number of measures taken to control invasive alien species Participation of local communities including women, dalits and indigenous peoples in wetland based income generating activities Revision of existing wetland policy and aquatic life protection act. Creation of effective and responsible central institution for promotion of wetland conservation and utilization. Sustainable use of wetlands through comanagement Significant improvement in policy and legislation with effective institution for wetland management Rangelands Biodiversity Effective Legislation and working management guidelines for effective of rangelands implementation of rangeland for their policy (2012) conservation and No of integrated rangeland National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan researcher Office records and field validation 2015 and 2020 Literature review and office records 2015 and 2020 Office records 2014 and 2017 Official and global records; Official records, publication, media Office records; Scientific publication Existence of the aquarium 2014 and 2017 2014 and 2018 BD MFSC, through independent researcher DFRS, through independent researcher 14, 2, 1, 16 19, Biodiversity 19, 6, 1 Division, MFSC (BD MFSC) BD MFSC 6, 7 BD MFSC 7, 8, 6 2014 and 2025 BD MFSC 19, 6, 1 2014 and 2020 BD, MFSC, 6, 7, 12, 13, 2 NARC, DOA, Initiation of joint conservation project Office record and field validation Official records/public audits /field validation 2014 and 2025 BD MFSC 6,7, 2, 2014 and 2020 BD, DOF, MFSC 9, 6,7 2014 and 2020 BD, MFSC, DOF 2, 14, 18 Office records; field validation 2015 BD MFSC 2, 3, 13 Existence of a dynamic central nstitute for wetland management 2016 BD, MFSC, DOF 2 Nepal Gazette 2015 MOAD/MFSC NARC / 2, 3, 4, 13 Office records; 2016 MOAD/MFSC / 2, 3, Page203 sustainable use Conservation of rangeland biodiversity Pastoral development and management for conservation and sustainable use of rangeland biodiversity Promote the initiatives in managing IAS management plan for high altitude areas and their implementation Implementation status of rangeland policy Level of use of knowledge (scientific and indigenous) in managing rangeland No of integrated rangeland management plan for high altitude areas and their implementation A pressure on rangelands released by at least 50% by 20120 Appropriate knowledge products availability on rangeland management Strategy for management of invasive and alien species developed and its implementation Prevent the Status of threatened extinction of species/breeds/varieties threatened and Joint approach / plan by endangered MOAD and MOFSC to flora and fauna conserve threatened and at rangelands endangered flora and fauna at rangelands Agrobiodiversity Effective Existing in situ on farm management conservation for of agrobiodiversity strengthened; agrobiodiversit contribution of genetic y for improved resources, particularly local conservation and indigenous ones and utilization enhanced Public-privatepartnershipfor conservation and use of GRs strengthened Ex situ conservation status for GRs (PGR and AnGR) strengthened; Number of threatened and endangered crops and animals decreased Prevent the Change of threatened species extinction of and breeds/varieties threatened and Level of implementation of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan field validation NARC Office records; field validation, monitoring reports Office records; field validation 2020 Office records; field validation 2015 2020 NBCC MOAD/MFSC NARC / 19, 1 2016 MOAD/MFSC NARC / 2, 13 Study reports (by research institutions) 2020 MOAD/MFSC NARC / 12, 13 Knowledge products published Office record Ministries progress records, 2016 Ministries stakeholders 2016 MOAD/MFSC NARC Office records; field validation Ministries records, meeting notes, directives 2020 NBCC/Ministries 12,7 and stakeholders MOAD/MFSC / 2, 3, 4 NARC MOAD records/ Nepal Gazette 2016 MOAD/NARC/ DOA/DLS 12, 2, 13 Office records; field validation 2016 MOAD/NARC/I/ NGOs 4, 2, 12 Office records; field validation 2015/ 2020 MOAD/NARC/D 12, 13, 2 OA/DLS/ Office records; studies Office records; 2020 MOAD/NARC 12, 7 2015 MOAD/NARC 2, 3, 4,7 2016 / 13, 12, 11 and 19, 1 / 9, 13, 2 Page204 endangered species and maintain the genetic diversity of crops and animals Promote initiatives in managing invasive and alien species for conservation and use of agro biodiversity Development of effective policies and legislations for linking conservation with development appropriate conservation methods (single or combination) Trend of Number and proportion of threatened species and varieties/breeds under ex situ conservation No of conserved local animal breeds Appropriate knowledge products availability on rangeland management Strategy for management of invasive and alien species developed and its implementation field validation Office records; Knowledge products published Office record Ministries progress records, 2016 MOAD/NARC 12, 13 2020 MOAD/NARC 12, 13 2016 MOAD/MFSC/ NARC 19, 1 2016 MOAD/MFSC 9, 13 Policies and legislation MOAD 2016 MOAD formulated/revised for records Nepal conservation and development Gazette of agrobiodiversity Resources allocation trend for MOF budget 2015 MOAD agrobidiversity conservation at record/red district level (DADO and book DLSO office) Change in income from agro- Office records, 2020 MOAD biodiversity based enterprises studies /reports Institutional Strengthening Effective and Creation of legal framework Nepal Gazette 2018 Council of efficient of NBCC Ministers /MFSC institutional arrangements Amendments of the Nepal Gazette 2016 Council of are operational Environment Protection Act or Ministers at different Environment Protection /MOSTE levels Regulations including statutory recognition to NBCC by 2018) Enhancement of National Capacity for Improved Management of Biodiversity Improving No of capacity development Capacity 2015/ NBCC National programmes on biological development 2019 capacity on resources and associated training biodiversity traditional knowledge completion conservation report(s) and sustainable use Number of national Office records 2015/ NBCC assessments (proramme and 2019 meta-evaluation) of NBSAP implementation and status of use of assessment findings National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2, 3, 4, 13 20, 1 14, 18 2, 3, 17, 18 2, 3, 17 1, 1 Page205 Mainstreaming Biodiversity across the Government, Society and Economy Integration of Amendment of GON ( work Council of 2018 biodiversity division) Regulations / no of Ministers’ values into bills passed on ABS record/Nepal national and Gazette local policies, Number of districts establish Project profile/ 2019 strategies EFLGCC and integer NBCC records plans and biodiversity strategies and programmes action plans by 2016 Educating No of CEPA materials on NBCC records 2019 society and biodiversity conservation business on the Change in knowledge on and Perception 2019 importance of attitude towards biodiversity survey biodiversity conservation and ecosystem conservation services and ecosystem services MFSC/NBCC 2, 3, 17 MFSC/NBCC 2, 3, 4 MOFSC/NBCC 1, 19 MOFSC/NBCC 1, 19 Table 5.15: Strategies and priority actions for monitoring and evaluation of biodiversity programmes and projects Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Develop result oriented monitoring and evaluation systems (Related Aichi Targets: 17 A-1. Monitoring and A-1-1. Stock taking of M & E systems,review/revise for a comprehensive evaluation systems in monitoring and evaluation systems (for project/programme form government place and non government) with a set of performance indicators for all important themes and sectors A-1-2. Harmonize M&E for institutional level (inter ministry and NPC)/ NBS monitoring (NBSM) team A-1-3. Set up inter-ministry Monitoring task team with clear TORs Strategic Goal B: Ensure effective learning from the M&E process and use in decision making(Related Aichi Targets: 10, 15) B-1. Ensure regular B-1-1. Regular review of progress through (NBSM) team monitoirnng and B-1-2. Commission summative evaluations of selected projects/programmes and periodic evaluation meta-evaluation at national level and use for decision B-1-3. Share/publish (evidence based) learning from M&E to stakeholders making process B-1-4. Ensure proper use in decision making process 5.5.9 Mitigation and Adaptation to the Effects of Climate Change The strategies for mitigation and adaptation to the effect of climate change aim at integrating climate change adaptation and mitigation options in biodiversity management and contributing to longer term climate compatible development process. Impacts of climate change on biodiversity can be profound and there is a need to integrate adaptation measures to moderate the negative impacts, and to prioritize biodiversity services as a means for adaptation to reduce climate change impacts on people’s livelihoods. In addition, proper biodiversity management also contributes to carbon sink and reduces emission of Green House Gases. These objectives can be achieved by developing new knowledge on climate risks, integrating climate change adaption measures in designing and National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page206 implementation of biodiversity management programmes and projects, adoption of innovative adaptation measures such as translocation of species, implementation of PES and REDD+, promotion of renewable energy, development of climate compatible development process (integrating development, adaptation and mitigation together), and enhancing capacity of stakeholders on managing these uncertainties and climate risks. Table 5.16: Strategies and priority actions for mitigation and adaptation to the effects of climate change Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Adaptation and Mitigation to the impacts of climate change on biodiversity(Related Aichi Targets: 9, 10, 15) A-1. Development of A-1-1. Identify research priorities knowledge base to A-1-2. Allocate enough budget for conducting the research on identified priority broaden temporal and areas, including ecological modeling and monitoring spatial perspectives A-1-3. Develop and adopt climate risk assessment for biodiversity and possible risks of A-1-4. Develop appropriate tools and methods for climate change climate change on risks/vulnerability/impact assessment biodiversity A-2. Incorporation of A-2-1. Develop climate smart biodiversity plans climate change A-2-2. Develop and implement long-term monitoring programmes by adaptation measures in considering climate change impacts the design and A-2-3. Revise or develop guidelines for biodiversity adaptation, such as refugia, implementation of functional connectivity of ecosystems/ landscapes, climatic gradients, biodiversity translocation of species and water security management A-2-4. Identify conservation targets (gene, species and ecosystems), their programmes vulnerability to climate change and adopt measures to conserve them. A-2-5. Support establishment and management of community seed banks A-2-6. Promote environment-friendly farming systems(organic agriculture, decreased use of chemical fertilizer and pesticides and insecticides; minimum tillage etc) A-4. Envisioning and A-4-1. Identify the species needing possible translocations planning for possible A-4-2. Identify and protect possible climate refugia for the species translocation of species that are restricted to confined habitat types or have low reproductive rates A-5. Implementation A-5-1. Identify suitable sites for implementation of REDD+ and PES of REDD+ and PES A-5-2. Devise mechanism for sharing the benefits where feasible A-5-3. Include stakeholders that depend on biodiversity and forest ecosystems services in REDD+ decision making process A-5-4. Define the goal of biodiversity conservation in the REDD+ strategy and identify role of stakeholders A-5-5. Devise mechanism to assess of changes in biodiversity following REDD+ implementation A-5-6. Develop monitoring and evaluation mechanism to assess the performance of the REDD+ and PES projects A-6. Enhancement A-6-1. Adopt adaptive management approach to design execute and result National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page207 ofcapacity of actors to manage and learn oriented approach for monitoring and evaluation A-6-2. Awareness raising, and capacity building of the local FUGs in the corridors and buffer zone CFUGs for conservation-friendly management of the forests A-7-1: Feasibility study of potential renewable energy sources A-7-2: Pilot in selected areas A-7-3: capacity building and sharing learning A-7. Promotion of non-conventional energy sources, such as biogas, solar energy, and small hydropower, where feasible. Strategic Goal B: Building or enhancing ecosystems’ and communities’ resilience to climate change impacts(Related Aichi Targets: 9, 10, 15) B-1. Adoption of B-1-1. Promote/adopt no regret strategy to ensure ecosystems functioning climate resilient based B-1-2. Reveiw institutions and mechanisms to integrate adaptation and planning approach and mitigation measures in effective way promote climate B-1-3. Develop/revise policy measures to ensure climate compatible compatible development in biodiversity sector development B-2. Improvement in B-2-1: Feasibility study of potential areas connectivity of B-2-2: Pilot in selected areas protected area systems B-2-3: Capacity building and sharing learning 5.5.10. Integrating Gender and Social Inclusion Perspectives Integrating the gender and social inclusion perspective into biodiversity planning can allow for a more efficient and effective implementation of the CBD. It can also ensure that biodiversity objectives are not pitted, needlessly, against human well-being – a scenario which has often been seen in conservation practice and which, in the long run, can undermine progress on the biodiversity front. Involving women and other disadvantaged social groups in biodiversity management is necessary for: (i) avoiding the risk of further engraining or worsening existing gender inequalities through biodiversity policies, programmes and projects and maximizing the positive impact of conservation policies and programmes and to minimize negative impacts, (ii) gaining the buy-in, support and engagement of women, who form approximately 50 percent of the population, and (iii) benefiting from women’s specific knowledge regarding components of biodiversity, their uses and their conservation. The added value of gender mainstreaming to NBSAP include: (i) it highlights the decisive sociopolitical, economic and cultural aspects of conservation; (ii) increases efficiency and make it meaningful; (iii) ensures the incorporation of important knowledge, skills and experiences; (iv) enhances sustainability; (iv) improves credibility and accountability; (v) contributes to fighting poverty; (vii) guarantees compliance with human rights standards; (viii) promotes social justice; (ix) prevents increasing gender inequality. The gender and social inclusion strategies aim to achieve the following: (a) gender and equity sensitive policy and strategy, (b) equitable governance, (c) gender and equity sensitive organizational development and programming, and (d) equitable access to resources and benefits. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page208 Table 5.17: Strategies and priority actions for addressing gender and social inclusion issues Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A- to develop and implement gender and equity sensitive policy and strategy by all the government and non government agencies(Related Aichi Targets: 1, 2, 4) A-1. Promotion of favourable A-1-1. Strengthening links to advocacynetworks and platforms institutional and policy (including media and women-focused civil organisations) is critical for environment for mainstreaming raising awareness of gender-related issues gender equality and social inclusion agenda in bio-diversity and climate change A-2. Integration of GESI A-2-1. Implement all the GESI strategy from central to local level dimensions in all thematic and cross-cutting components Ministry to community level plannings and programme Stragegic Goal B- to promote equitable participation and governance(Related Aichi Targets: 1, 2, 4) B-1. Promotion of balanced B-1-1. Have 50% of representation of gender and social inclusion in representation of men and the national level steering committees of the government and local women in senior management level networks level B-2. Equitable participation in B-2-1. Gender analysis for and ability to influence decision understanding the underlying makingprocesses enhanced factors B-3. Institutions or individuals B-3-1. Empowering women Xthrough micro-project activities(under involved have an organizational GOAL 6: To contribute mandate or personal to the fulfilment of theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) on responsibility for gender poverty alleviation, food security and gender empowerment in mainstreaming biodiversity by 2015). Strategic Goal C- To enhance capacity of all the stakeholders for better understanding and integrating GESI policy(Related Aichi Targets: 1, 2, 4) C-1. Enhancement of capacity of C-1-1 Workshops conducted for beneficiaries. partners, local bodies and different stakeholders for C-1-2 Handbooks produced enabling women and socially excluded groups to claim their rights on NRM C-2. Monitoring and evaluation C-2-1 Long term and short term plans to be reviewed to verify the to be gender sensitive monitoring and evaluation criterias based on gender and social inclusion C-3. Budgeting in the C-3-1 Government and respective other organizations budgets to be programmes gender responsive and follow the guidelines of MOF 2008 Strategic Goal D- To ensure the equitable access to resources and benefits (Related Aichi Targets: 1, 2, 4) D-1. Promotion of women’s D-1-1 Evaluate gender access and ownership of naturalresources with economic rights and regards to the current institutionaland policy environment, with the independence, including access to aim of addressing gaps or inequalities in national policy. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page209 employment, appropriate working conditions and control over economic resources D-1-2 Improve women’s access to credit facilities in order to utilize natural resources such as veld products and medicinal plants 5.5.11 Conservation of and Respect to Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices of Indigenous and Local Communities Table 5.18: Strategies and priority actions for Conservation of and Respect to Traditional Knowledge, Innovations and Practices of Indigenous and Local Communities Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services(Related Aichi Targets: 16, 18) A-1. Development of A-1-1. Finalize and enact Genetic Resources (access, use and sharing of legal base for access to benefits) Bill in order to promote legal base for access to genetic resources on genetic resources and the basis of prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms and the fair and fair and equitable equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources sharing of the benefits and associated traditional knowledge utilization Target: Legislation for A-1-2. Ratify and implement the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic access to genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their resources and fair and Utilization equitable sharing of A-1-3. Recognize biocultural heritage and products based on biocultural heritage the benefits and through geographical indication and trademarks and provide intellectual property providing IPRs to the rights to the group of indigenous and local communities on whose biocultural communities for their heritage such products are based bio-cultural heritage A-1-4. Finalize, endorse and implement the National Intellectual Property Policy products will be A-1-5. Develop and implement programmes for protection and promotion of enacted by 2018 traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local Indicators: community relevant to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Genetic Resources A-1-6. Provide continuity to documenting traditional knowledge, innovations (access, use and and practices associated to biological resources sharing of benefits) Act Effective implementation of Intellectual Property Policy Strategic Goal B: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge, management and capacity building (Related Aichi Target: 18) B-1. Protection of traditional B-1-1. Support National Foundation for Development of Indigenous knowledge, innovations and Nationalities to protect and promote traditional knowledge, practices of indigenous and local innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities communities relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources B-2. Conservation and B-2-1. Document and disseminate traditional knowledge and practices dissemination of local and traditional knowledge to be respected and Rights and practices of B-2-2. Information for knowledge management indigenous knowledge practices National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page210 conserved 5.5.12 Enhancing the Benefits from Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services to All Table 5.19: Strategies and priority actions for Enhancing Benefits from Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services to All Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services (Related Aichi Targets: 14, 16, 18, 20) A-1. Development of legal base A-1-1. Ensure access to components of biodiversity and ecosystem for access to genetic resources goods to poor, women, indigenous and local communities. and fair and equitable sharing of A-1-2. Develop sui generis legislation for protection of plant varieties the benefits with the aim to provide legal ownership to farmers for their varieties Target: A system for access to and knowledge and also substantive rights provided to the farmers by biodiversity, ecosystem goods the Agro-biodiversity Policy 2007 and sharing of benefits with A-1-3. Develop and enact intellectual property rights legislation which poor, women and local and should provide legislative measures for prior art, geographical indigenous communities will be indication and also adequate protection for indigenous and local in place by 2018 communities’ rights by patenting the products developed by utilizing their bio-cultural heritage including knowledge, innovations and practices A-2. Development and A-2-1. Develop and institutionalize a system for the payment for institutionalization of a system ecosystem services of payment for ecosystem services A-2-2. Develop pilot programmes on PES in different part of the country and upscale them 5.5.13 Funding Successful implementation of the NBSAP requires significantly higher level of funding. This will be met by further enhancing the existing internal and external funding sources and exploring and effecting new sources of funds. Funding from internal sources are to be mobilized for implementing regular programmes such as abating loss and degradation of forests, increasing the forest cover, formulating or improving enabling policies, and managing human-wildlife conflicts. Funding from external sources are to be mobilized for new programmes, research, scaling up of successful community based conservation models (e.g. leasehold forestry), knowledge generation and management including development and implementation of national biodiversity information management system, strengthening institutional set up, and strengthening ex-situ conservation infrastructure. Table 5.20: Strategies and priority actions for fund generation and mobilization Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Improved status ofpublic funding for biodiversity (Related Aichi Target: 20) A-1. Significantly increasing A-1-1. Enhance the existing sources of funding and explore new sources public funding for NBSAP A-1-2. Develop and implement a mechanism for accounting ecosystem implementation by 2020 services while assessing the contribution of forestry sector National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page211 A-2 Increasing private sector funding for biodiversity management A-2-1. Develop a fair mechanism for all private forest products based industries requiring to investment in promoting the proportionate forest resources consumption capacity. The provisions of adhoc plantation requirements in the earlier agreements with rosin and turpentine industries need to be reviewed and modify it at the time of renewing the agreement. A-2-2. Ensure proper and timely use of the compensatory mitigation funds of the infrastructure development projects with special consideration to restoring endangered and rare species through effective compliance monitoring. Strategic Goal B: MFSC’s initiatives of generating new financial resources for biodiversity conservation are strengthened (Related Aichi Target: 20) B-1. Legalising MFSC’s B-1-1. Amend the Forest Act and NPWLC Act to strengthen the initiatives for generating new MFSC’s initiatives on charging to hydropower companies and creation financial resources of forest development fund by charging additional amount on commercial sale of timber from government managed forests, collaborative forests, community forests and private forests or trees on farm. Strategic Goal C: Local funds effectively mobilized(Related Aichi Target: 20) C-1.Ensuring mobilization of C -1-1. Make aware the importance of local biodiversity and traditional certain percent of local knowledge to local government bodies, local NGOs and district level development funds (VDC, industrial and business organization for their financial inputs in DDC) for conserving local implementing LBSAP. biodiversity and traditional knowledge. C-2. Ensuring that a minimum C-2-1. By 2020 at least 50% of the CFUGs in each districts use their of 25% of CFUGs’ fund is fund in forest development programmes conducive to forest biodiversity. used for promotion biodiverse forests Strategic Goal D: External funding for development of forestry sector increased(Related Aichi Target: 20) D-1. Increasing fund C-1-1. Dialogue with donors for their aid on forestry sector. generation from external C-1-2. Highlights the success of LHF in improving the condition of prosources poor people and the environment of the degraded forest land and need of scaling up the programme to cover the remained both the larger mass of the pro-poor people and the vast degraded forest area in donors’ meeting. Strategic Goal E: MEAs’ fund for synergy programmes effectively mibilized(Related Aichi Target: 20) E-1. Mobilizing funds from E-1-1 Consult with NPC, Mo MoF and MoEST and for ensuring the relevant MEAs for development of synergy programmes for using MEAs (UNFCC, development and UNCCDD) funds. implementation synergy E-1-2. Seek fund from GEF in accordance to the provisions of the article programmes that contribute to 20 and 21 of the CBD achieving the objectives of the CBD National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page212 5.5.14 Communication, Extension and Outreach Biodiversity degradation is a major environmental and socio-economic problem. It affects water balance, oxygen, nutrients, natural productivity, population structure and livelihoods. There is however limited knowledge and awareness on its impact. A serious effort is required to develop communication tools that can be applied to raise awareness among all stakeholders and users of the natural resources. It will involve reviewing information to show the importance of biodiversity, threats to biodiversity and how biodiversity deterioration affects the livelihoods of the people. Goal and Action Plan: A system to increase awareness among technical, administrative staff and the general public including women, dalits and indigenous peoples to increase understanding and commitment to address the threats to the biodiversity. The specific objectives are to: (a) advocate for mainstreaming biodiversity in policies and regulations governing utilization of natural resources, (b) enhance knowledge in biodiversity conservation including training programmes in academic institutions, (c) increase awareness of the implementation of biodiversity conservation among related target audiences including those responsible for formulation of policies and management of resources, and (d) engaging the different stakeholders to take action. Strategic Plan and Focus: The expected outcome is to increase resilience and reduce the threats biodiversity reduction. The specific outputs are: (i) biodiversity mainstreamed in resource management, (ii) enhanced monitoring of changes in biodiversity, (iii) enhanced capacity to generate knowledge (iv) policies, legislation and governance systems relating to biodiversity changes, and (v) increased awareness in biodiversity conservation and utilization issues. The plan outlines the aims and objectives of the strategy, defines the target audience, the message to be communicated. Partnership: Partnership will include direct engagement with specific institutions dealing with leading institutions, policy, media houses, NGOs and CBOs. The partnership will include the following: a) Training programmes: This will involve development of a training curriculum and manual and other outreach materials that will be used to pass information to academic institutions and community groups. Main points of trainings for communities will include field visits and workshops. Different levels of technicality will be used for different levels of training to ensure the messages reach the target audience. b) Policy developer and implementers: The work will be linked to institutions and government officials tasked with drafting policy papers. c) Media: Popular version of technical publications will develop and engage publishers, radio, and TV stations and printing companies. Firms that print posters and magazines will access and use the information. d) On line Collaborations: The internet provides an effective tool of distribution both textual and multimedia messages. This will be done through collaborations with blogs and websites. The communities in the project area regularly use mobile phones. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page213 Direct Conversation: The Biodiversity Focal Authority will directly reach out to people within the communities during the field visits. The impact of the knowledge disseminated to communities involved will be assessed through regular interaction. There will direct engagement with the target audience through workshops, field visits and face to face talks with farmers, line agencies, students and community leaders. Direct conversation will include: (a) engagements with educational institutions, policy makers and other research organizations, (b) conversation with leaders and government officials, and (c)sharing of information with farmers and user groups. Mass media: Mass media will be used to distribute simplified version of the information on the large scale. Efforts will be made to ensure that the information distributed is informative, interesting and entertaining enough to attract and sustain the attention of the largest audiences. Key formats of the communication will be TV clip, interview, radio shows, press release, posters, broachers and social media channels. Outreach activities: Workshops, exhibitions, field visits and training will be used to disseminate research findings. Through these meetings, the project will have a more engaging interaction with user groups, community leaders and general public. Online Engagement: The internet provides an unlimited access to global audiences who are educated and perform as advisory role to the greater local population due to their academic qualification and age. Feedback Mechanisms: Communication is two way process. The biodiversity focal authority will not only distribute the share knowledge with the communities but also get feedback from the users of the information. The following platforms will be used to collect and receive feedback: (a) workshops: asking questions, group discussions, (b) social media- posting of comments; (c) websites-posting of comments and filling the feedback forms, (d) e-mail-sending direct e-mails; (e) radio shows-calling in, (f) sending SMS on mobile phones and responses, (g) face-to-face talks and dialogues, (h) lecture theatre-giving talks and getting feedbacks, (i)field training- asking questions, group discussions, filling feedback forms, (j) exhibitions- asking questions and getting feed backs, and (k) farmer groups- group discussions, asking questions giving feedback forms. 5.5.15 Technology Development, Acquisition and Use Table 5.21: Strategies and priorities actions for technology development, acquisition and use Strategies Priorities for Action Strategic Goal A: Knowledge, innovations and technologies relating to biodiversityconservation and utilization, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied(Related Aichi targets: 9, 10, 15, 18,19) Strategy A-1. Increasing A-1-1. Strengthening public private partnership for biodiversity research support for biodiversity and conservation work research and conservation A-1-2. Establish the link between conservation and food security for National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page214 Strategy A-2. Enhancing national capacity for biological research and conservation Strategy A-3. Strengthen multi stakeholders networks for biodiversity conservation and development integration Strategy A-4. Identify and strengthen “no regret” strategies (synergies, adaptation and mitigation) for climate change seeking more resources for biodiversity conservation work (particularly for external source of funding) A-1-3. Internal (state) resources mobilization for biodiversity research and conservation A-1-4. Mainstreaming biodiversity research and conservation work into sectoral programmes and thereby increase the resources for research work A-2-1. Enhance national and local institutions’ capacities for biological research and conservation A-2-2. Facilitate/coordinate for engaging multiple actors and stakeholders (including private sectors, I/NGOs, companies, academic institutions etc) for research and conservation A-2-3. Promote the inclusion and awarding of academic degrees and courses on biodiversity (problem and context based) for the academic institutions (both public and private university and college) A-3-1. Apply science and technology to improve biodiversity conservation and development outcomes A-3-2. Improve public private partnership for conservation work A-3-3. Establish and strengthen evidence base research for biodiversity conservation and utilization (particularly CMB base approach for on-farm conservation of agro-biodiversity) A-3-4. Promote use of local innovations and knowledge for biodiversity conservation and utilization A-4-1. Identify barriers for technology transfer and exposure and document techniques, knowledge and skills A-4-2. Prioritise the most appropriate technologies according to the country’s needs A-4-3. Address policy barriers, pilot new technologies for demonstration and work in partnership National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page215 6 ARRANGEMENTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STRATEGY 6.1 Institutional Arrangements 6.1.1 National Level Coordination and Monitoring The National Biodiversity Coordination Committee (NBCC) will be the main national institutional entity for coordiniation and monitoting of biodiversity related programmes at the national level. The NBCC will be strengthened by: (i) revising its composition, (ii) providing statutory authority to it through development and enactment of a separate legislation for management of biodiversity, and (ii) upgrading and strengthening its secretaraiat (i.e. MFSC). The NBCC will be a 20 member national committee chaired by the Minister for Forest and Soil Conservation. The membership in the committee will include: (i) two members of the National Planning Commission (NPC),(ii) secretaries of the MOAD, MOSTE, MOFALD, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Irrigation, Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport, and NPC, (iii) two faculty members from TU, (iv) FNCCI President, and (v) fiveexpert representativesfromrelevant non-governmental organizations. The Secretary, MFSC will serve as the member secretary. The NBCC will meet at least once in every six months. The powers and functions of NBCC will be, among others, to: Advise the GON on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources. Develop and implement policies, plans and programmes for improving conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits. Coordinate the implementation of biodiversity related policies, plans and programmes by different ministries, local governments, and other agencies. Coordinate with different ministries and DDCs and provide directives, through Council of Ministers, to different ministries for effective conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Coordinate with different sectors, projects and donors related with biodiversity. Arrange for facilitating access to genetic resources and materials and associated traditional knowledge with prior informed consent and on mutually agreed terms. Arrange for providing intellectual property rights to indigenous and local communities through patent, trademark, or geographical indication of the products developed by utilizing their biocultural heritage including knowledge, innovations and practices. Prevent and control obtaining of intellectual property right, by whatever name called, in or outside Nepal for any invention based on any research or information on a biological resource obtained from Nepal without obtaining the prior approval of the GON. Coordinate with different ministries and DDCs and provide directives, through Council of Ministers, to different ministries for effective conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Supervise the works of the Environment Friendly Governance District Coordination Committee (EFGDCC). National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page216 Provide political and institutional guidance for the implementation of the NBSAP. Ensure that biodiversity related projects are in line with goal and objectives of the NBSAP. Coordinate with different sectors, projects and donors related with biodiversity. Set up different sub-committees as necessary, including a separate sub-committee on promoting synergies among biodiversity related MEAs, and monitoring and evauation. Ensure that biodiversity related projects and annual programmes of the concerned line agencies are in line with goal, objectives and stratgeis of the NBSAP. Ensures that regular monitoring of the implementation of the NBSAP takes place. Perform any other functions as may be necessary for the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits as per the provisions of the Biodiversity Conservation Act (to be enacted). A separate Biodiversty Management Division headed by a technical joint secretary will be set up at the MFSC to manage day-to-day operations, including implementation of the NBCC’s and CBD COP’s decisions, and preparation of required reports. The division will serve as the secretariat of the NBCC, and National Focal Agency for the CBD, and manages the national Clearing House Mechanism. The division will be provided with adequate human and financial resources. In addition to the MFSC staff, the division will also pull technical staff from some other ministries (such as MOAD, MOSTE) on deputation. Some of the specific responsibilities of the Biodiversty Management Division will be to: assist the Chairperson and member secretary of the NBCC in discharging the powers and functions of the NBCC effectively and efficiently; arrange for and service meetings of the NBCC and Sub-committees established by the NBCC; follow up and liaise with different ministries and departments, CSOs and development partners for the implementation of the decisions of the NBCC; coordinate with other relevant sectoral ministries, international organizations as may be required for the effective discharge of powers and functions of NBCC; assist NBCC to coordinate and supervise the work of EFGDCCs; prepare and submit report to the NBCC on the status of implementation of the decisions of the NBCC; prepare and submit report to the NBCC on the status of implementation of the decisions of the NBCC; and the periodic national report to the CBD; Ramsar Connvention and CITES; acts as biodiversity related information clearing house in the district; prepare reports on the execution of its functions as the secretariat to the NBCC and present them to the NBCC; and perform such other functions as may be determined by the NBCC. 6.1.2District Level Coordination and Monitoring District level coordination and monitoring of biodiversity related programmes, projects and activities would be the responsibility of the Environment Friendly Governance District Coordination Committee(EFGDCC) to be constituted as per the provisions of the recently developed Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework (2013) of the government. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page217 The composition of the EFGDCCwill be as mentioned in the Envrionment Friendly Local Governance Framework (2013). Besides, one representative each of NGOs working to promote the interests of women; adivasi janajati; farmers; and dalits will be included as members of the EFGDCC. In addition to the powers, functions and responsibilities of the EFGDCC provided to it by the Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework (2013), its terms of reference or powers and functions of EFGDCC shall be inter alia to: Advise the DDC on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources. Assist DDC to develop and implement policies, plans and programmes related to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits Coordinate with different sectors, projects and donors related with biodiversity at district level. Coordinate the implementation of biodiversity related policies, plans and programmes with different district level line agencies and CSOs. Make arrangements for facilitating access to genetic resources and materials and associated traditional knowledge with prior informed consent and on mutually agreed terms. Arrange for documentation of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge. Facilitate in regulating granting of approvals or otherwise requests for commercial utilization or bio-survey and bio-utilisation of any biological resource. Implement the decisions of NBCC and comply with the directives of the NBCC. Report to the NBCC on quarterly basis. Perform such other functions as may be required by NBCC, and/or DDC or necessary to carry out the provisions of Biodiversity Conservation Act. The office of the District Development Committee will provide secretariat to the EFGDCC. The powers and functions of the secretariat (i.e. DDC) will be to: (i) assist the Chairperson and member secretary of the EFGDCC in discharging the powers and functions of the EFGDCC effectively and efficiently; (ii) arrange for and service meetings of the EFGDCC; (iii) follow up and liaise with district level line agencies, CSOs and development partners for the implementation of the decisions of the NBCC and EFGDCC; (iv) coordinate with other relevant district level line agencies, international organizations and CSOs as may be required for the effective discharge of powers and functions of EFGDCC; (v) prepare and submit report to the NBCC on the status of implementation of the decisions of the NBCC at the district level; (vi) act as information clearing house at the district level; (vii) prepare reports on the execution of its functions as the secretariat to the EFGDCC and present them to the EFGDCC; and (viii) perform such other functions as may be determined by the DDC and EFGDCC. 6.1.3Local (VDC/Municipality) Level Coordination and Monitoring An Environment Friendly Governance Village/Municipal Coordination Committee(EFGVCC), which will be constituted as per the provisions of the recently developed Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework (2013), will be responsible for coordination and monitoting of biodiversity related programmes, projects and activities in respective VDCs and municipalities. The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page218 composition of the EFLGVCC will be as mentioned in the Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework (2013). Besides the powers, functions and responsibilities provided to it by the Framework, terms of reference or powers and functions of the EFGVCCwill include the following: Advising the VDC on matters relating to the conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of biological resources. Developing and implementing policies, plans and programmes related to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits at VDC level; coordinating the implementation of biodiversity related policies, plans and programmes with VDC level line agencies, CSOs and user groups. Assisting in facilitating access to genetic resources and materials and associated traditional knowledge with prior informed consent and on mutually agreed terms. Making arrangement for documentation of biological resources and associated traditional knowledge. Implementing the decisions of EFGDCC and comply with the directives of the NBCC and EFGDCC. Reporting to the EFGDCC once every six months. Performing such other functions as may be required by NBCC, and/or DDC or the Biodiversity Conservation Act. The office of the Village Development Committee will serve as the secretariat of the EFGVCC. The main functions of the secrateriat will be to: (i) assist the Chairperson in discharging the powers and functions of the EFGVCCeffectively and efficiently; (ii) arrange for and service meetings of the VBCC; (iii) follow up and liaise with district level line agencies, CSOs and user groups for the implementation of the decisions of the DBCC and EFLGVCC; (iv) prepare and submit report to the EFGDCC on the status of implementation of the decisions of the EFGDCC and EFLGVCC; and (v) perform such other functions as may be determined by the VDC and EFGVCC. 6.1.4 Role of Implementing Agencies The implementation of biodiversity related policies, plans, programmes, and legislation and the decisions of the NBCC, EFGDCC and EFGVCC will be effective only if due support is provided by the different sectoral ministries, their departments and district and VDC level line agencies. It is apparent that the MFSC alone cannot ensure conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its components when the drivers of loss of biodiversity are diverse. All the sectoral ministries, their departments and district level line agencies whose policies, plans, and programmes have direct or indirect impact on biodiversity, should take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity and prevention and control the loss of biodiversity and degradation of and ecosystems and implementation the decisions of NBCC, EFGDCC and EFGVCC, respectively. The relevant government line agencieswill be directly responsible and fully accountable for ensuring that their policies, programmes, and budgets support development that is biologically as well as economically sustainable. Besides they should respectively comply with the decisions of the NBCC, EFGDCC and EFLGVCC. While carrying out their sectoral mandates, they should ensure that fulfillment of their sectoral mandates do not cause any adverse impact on biodiversity and ecosystems. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page219 6.1.5 Role of Development Partners Coordinate with NBCC and EFGDCC for biodiversity conservation related initiatives and programmes; Support implementation of NBSAP; Respect and support the decisions and initiatives taken by NBCC and EFGDCC respectively; Mainstream conservation, and sustainable use of components of biodiversity and prevention and control of loss of biodiversity and degradation of ecosystems in the decision making process of donor coordination committees; Integrate biodiversity considerations into different development programmes and projects supported by individual donor; Refrain from supporting any policy, plan, programme or project and even legislation which is likely to have significant adverse impact on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity; and Provide technical and financial support in furtherance of conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and equitable benefit sharing. 6.2 Capacity Enhancement There is an urgent need for assessment of the current capacity building activities implemented by different agencies at different levels before preparing a national capacity building strategy and action plan. A tentative list of national strengths, and gaps or constraints compiled from review of literature and consultations are presented in Table 6.1; needs for priority actions are highlighted in Table 6.2; and illustrative example of capacity building activities and their potential effects are presented in Table 6.3. Table 6.1: Strengths and gaps in national capacity for biodiversity management Strengths 1 Supportive national sustainable development framework 2 Nepal is one of the most progressive developing countries in terms of formulating environmental policy and legislations 3 Models of good forest and protected area management exist in the country 4 Possibility of impleneting REDD+ in community-managed forests if contribution of these forests on carbon sequestration can be highlighted 5 Increased interest and involvement of I/NGOs and donors in biodiversity conservation 6 Increased awareness and media support for conservation 7 Biodiversity is being increasingly incorporated in academic curricula at all levels 8 Increased exposure of policy-makers and professionals to new technologies and exchange of information with international stakeholders through participation in international conferences Gaps/Constraints 1 Lack of coherent strategy to effectively communicate the value of biodiversity and impact of its loss 2 Lack of clarity on the linkage between biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation 3 Lack of strategy to activate local bodies for biodiversity conservation 4 Lack of harmony and connection among biodiversity related policies and legislations 5 Policy and legislative gaps National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page220 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Conflicting policies and legislations Poor implementation of polices, plans and strategies Lack of effective monitoring and evaluation system Inadequate inter-agency cooperation and complement Inadequate law-enforcing capacity Inadeqaute capacity of MFSC (CBD Focal Agency) to coordinate and monitor biodiversity related plans, policies and programmes across sectors Inadequate research funds, monitoring programmes, equipment and facilities Lack of comprehensive guides on floral and faunal species Lack of time-series data/information on biodiversity No system of using biodiversity indicators Inadequate funds, technology and human resources for forest and protected area management Lack of clear strategy and programme for sustainable management of rangelands Inadequate quarantine and detecting capacity to control introduction of IAS Lack of a national vision, goal and programme for ex-situ conservation Inadequate capacity for biosafety research and inspection of GMOs Inadequate capacity for investigation and cataloguing of traditional knowledge Incomplete knowledge of genetic resources The term “biodiversity” is generally unfamiliar among the general public High level policy and decision makers are not so familiar with the concept of biodiversity Lack of a comprehensive database on biodiversity Weak data/information sharing platform Incomplete institutional framework at the local level Local governments lack initiatives in biodiversity conservation Lack of coordination in NGOs activities CBOs lack technical and financial capacity Awareness in the civil society is generally high (and increasing) for the right but low with regard to accountability and responsibility Table 6.2: Capacity Needs for successful implementation of the NBSAP SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Needs Main Responsibility Development of a coherent strategy and mechanism to effectively MFSC communicate the value of biodiversity and impact of its loss Linking biodiversity with poverty reduction NPC, MFLD MFSC, MOAD Involving local governments in biodiversity conservation MFSC, MFLDMOAD Filling the policy and legislative gaps, including formulation of MFSC, MOAD access to genetic resources and benefit sharing, and domestication of wild animals acts, and policies and acts related to prevention of invasive alien species, Intellectual Property Rights etc. Establishment of a mechanism for regular monitoring of MFSC, NPC biodiversity Setting up of an effective monitoring and evaluation mechanism MFSC, NPC Enhancement of national coordination mechanism; Increasing MFSC and all interagency cooperation relevant stakeholders National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Time Frame 2016 2020 2016 2016 2015 2016 2016 Page221 8 9 10 11 12 13 Enhancing capacity of law enforcement agencies and professionals MFSC, and relevant departments Enhancement of capacity of the CBD focal ministry MFSC and NPC Enhancement of national research capacity NPC, universities, MFSC and all others Training and developing new pool of competent research Universities, professionals in required fields NRAC, MFSC Setting up mechanisms for exchange and sharing of research MFSC findings Systematizing biodiversity monitoring, including development and MFSC and use of biodiversity indicators partner organizations 2018 2015 2016 2020 2016 2017 Table 6.3: Illustrative example of capacity building activities and their potential effects Potential Effect of Capacity Building By Component Systems:- Systems and policy level capacity building activities improve the external environment in which organizations and individuals function, including structures supporting the way organizations interact, and/or policies and standards that must be adhered to. These may be at the national level or below. Illustrative Examples of Activities for Building Capacity Organizations:- Organizational level capacity building activities improve the performance of internal organizational systems and processes leading to stronger organizations with the ability to adapt and continue to develop over time. Governance/Management Governance and stewardship Policies, laws, and regulations Human resource management systems Resource generation and allocation Guidelines and systems development for management and accountability Coordination Infrastructure Management of strategic partnerships Governance procedures Strategic planning Organizational management Human resource management Financial management systems Change management Organizational tools and standard operating systems Information technology National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Technical National technical leadership Human resource technical accreditation Technical guidelines Technical policies and standards Infrastructure Technical training programme accreditation and guidelines Strategic partnerships/ technical forums Organizational technical leadership Programme approach Technical guidelines Standard operating procedures Results monitoring and reporting Technical infrastructure (laboratories, curriculum development) & equipment Page222 systems Project management Performance management systems Strategic collaborations and partnerships Skills, training and/or degrees in the following areas: Leadership Strategic thinking Organizational management Performance management Project management Financial management Supervision Partnerships /collaboration Professional networking Access to information resources Advocacy and mobilization Individual/workforce:Individual/workforce level capacity building activities improve the performance of staff according to specific, defined competencies and job requirements. Organizational training systems Strategic technical partnerships Skills, training and/or degrees in the following areas: Clinical and non-clinical Programme strategic information Epidemiology and surveillance Evaluation, monitoring and research Laboratory Technical training and mentoring 6.3 Technology Needs Assessment 6.3.1 Brief Overview of Current Situation on Technology Development, Acquisition and Use The significance of technologies for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity is well established. The available technologies for development, acquisition and use in case of floral/plant genetic resources (PGR) are seed conservation (short term) technologies; in-vitro techniques; regeneration and characterization; seed testing technologies; improved forage species and varieties; molecular techniques (SSR); genetic enhancement and base broadening techniques; conventional breeding; value addition through breeding and non-breeding techniques; identification of suitable forage species/varieties and conservation technology (hay and silage). The technologies for protecting biodiversity from adverse impacts of modern technologies are gene bank and field gene bank; orchard management of both the forestry and horticulture species. Similarly, the available technologies for development and acquisition in case of faunal/animal genetic resources (AnGR) are cryo-preservation (semen conservation) technologies; characterization (biochemical level); semen production technologies for cattle, buffalo and fish; and hatchling of Gharial from collected egg. Similarly, the technologies for acquisition and use are improved livestock breeds and semen; vaccines and medicines for prevention and control of diseases. For protecting biodiversity from adverse impacts of modern technologies in case of AnGR, the available technologies are cryo-bank (semen); maintenance and management of local livestock at in-situ (by the community); value addition including product diversification etc. Although climate change has posed a serious challenge on socio-ecological systems, exploring appropriate technologies and knowledge to address negative impact of climate change is still at National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page223 nascent stage. So far, climate change adaptation and mitigations are mostly treated as separate components both at international and national level. Nepal has developed NAPA to address adaptation issues and the government is in the process of development of low carbon economic development strategies, which will formally introduce the possibility of synergizing adaptation and mitigation together while addressing climate change concerns. Now, there have been some initiatives such as climate compatible development, which requires addressing development, adaptation and mitigation needs of the country. 6.3.2 Technology Needs for Biodiversity Management Technology needs for the implementation of the NBSAP strategies are presented in Table 6.4. Table 6.4: Technology needs for biodiversity management Sectors Areas Floral/PGR Faunal/AnGR Areas Development, acquisition and use Protecting floral biodiversity from adverse impacts of modern technologies Protecting forest diversity from problematic IAS Development and use Acquisition and use Protecting faunal biodiversity from adverse impacts of modern technologies Fish Genetic Ex-situ Resources conservation of fish species diversity Protecting genetic diversity from National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Needs DNA sequencing; molecular marker based technologies; microorganism bank; insect bank; genetic enhancement base broadening techniques; conventional breeding, integrated package for rangeland management; suitable forage species particularly for winter etc Quality seedling production of threatened plant species at district level through invitro techniques. GMO testing lab. technologies Biological control agents to control problematic IAs Characterization at DNA level; identification of local breeds for disease and parasite resistance; establishment of semen production techniques for pigs and goats; microorganism bank; genetic enhancement base broadening techniques; conventional breeding etc Semen production techniques for pigs and goats; quality semen (tested) of cattle, buffalo, pigs and goats etc; carpet type sheep breeds; seed for vaccines and medicines Improvement of local breeds; value addition through breeding approach; capacity enhancement for assessing the effect of using antibiotics, growth promoters and others for human health etc Characterization at DNA level, identification of endemic and native fish species for disease and parasite resistance, Induced breeding techniques for propagating indigenous species in hatchery. Genetic confirmation of pure line before stocking in the natural ecosystem Page224 hazardous hybridizations EthnoExploration and Ichthyology use (Fisheries) Protecting fish diversity Ethnoherpetology Protecting herpeto (Fisheries) fauna GIS as a cross Geospatial cutting areas techniques Climate change Promotion of clean technologies that contribute to development, adaptation and mitigation Technology of testing the chemical properties and value addition of different fish species used for medicinal purpose Technology for in and ex situ conservation of valuable fish resources and their sustainable utilization Drugs extraction technology and value addition from different amphibians and reptiles which are traditionally usedin medicinal practices Geospatial technologies, specifically, satellite imageries, Geographic Information System and Global Positioning System (GPS) for identification of the biodiversity status of different geographical units, research and development activities and also for the monitoring and evaluation tools Explore technologies (including indigenous/local) that contribute to triple objective (development, adaptation and mitigation) and promote them 6.3.3 Action plan Table 6.5: Action plan for technology development, acquisition and use Areas of technology Activities to be implemented Main implementing Agency NARC/ Universities Supporting agencies Time frame Development, acquisition and use in PGR -DNA sequencing -Molecular marker based technology - Microorganism bank - Insect bank - Genetic enhancement base broadening techniques DOA/I/NGO/, Universities /CGIAR/ Private companies etc -Short term and continuous Bioprospecting DPR/NARC/ Academic Institute Medium term and continuous Protecting biodiversity from adverse impacts of modern technologies in PGR DFQC/NARC DOF/DOA/ Academic Insitute/ HPPCL/ Private companies DOA/Universi ty -GMO testing technologies -Medium term and continuous -Medium term and continuous Development and use in AnGR -Characterization at DNA National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NARC/ University DLS/INGOs/ CGIAR/ Page225 level -Identification of local breeds for disease and parasites resistance -Establishment of semen production techniques for pigs and goats -Microorganism bank -Integrated package for rangeland management - Genetic enhancement base broadening techniques Acquisition and use in AnGR Protecting biodiversity from adverse impacts of modern technologies in AnGR Ex-situ conservation of fish species diversity Protecting genetic diversity from hazardous hybridizations in Fish University -Short term and continuous NARC/DLS -Semen production techniques for pigs and goats -Quality semen (tested) of cattle, buffalo, pigs and goats -Carpet type sheep breeds -Seed for vaccines and medicines -Suitable forage species (particularly for winter) -Long term and continuous NARC/DLS -Improvement of local breeds -Value addition through breeding approach techniques -Capacity enhancement for assessing the effect of using antibiotics, growth promoters and others for human health - Characterization at DNA level -Identification of endemic and native fish species for disease and parasite resistance -Induced breeding techniques for propagating indigenous species in hatchery. University/CG IAR /Private companies INGOs/CGIA R/University -Long term and continuous NARC/DOA INGOs/CGIA R/University -Long term and continuous INGOs/CGIA R/University -Short term and continuous INGOs/CGIA R/University -Short term and continuous NARC/DOA -Genetic confirmation of pure line before stocking in the natural ecosystem. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page226 Exploration and use in Fisheries Protecting fish diversity Protecting herpeto fauna Geospatial techniques NARC/DOA Technology of testing the chemical properties and value addition of different fish species used for medicinal purpose NARC/DOA -Technology for in and ex situ conservation of valuable fish resources and their sustainable utilization NARC/DOA -Drugs extraction technology and value addition from different amphibians and reptiles which are traditionally used in medicinal practices MOFSC/MOAD Geospatial technologies, /NARC/Universi specifically, satellite ty imageries, Geographic Information System and Global Positioning System (GPS) INGOs/CGIA R/University -Medium term and continuous INGOs/CGIA R/University -Medium term and continuous INGOs/Univer sity etc 6.4 Monitoring and Evaluation 6.4.1 Introduction to Monitoring and Evaluation in the Context of NBSAP Monitoring is the systematic and ongoing process of observing and tracking selected indicators in order to measure an evolution or change. It implies the establishment of amonitoring and evaluation (M&E) framework, an implementation process and use of the observed results. The information gained is analysed, interpreted, documented and used for steering, future decision-making and other purposes. Evaluation is a systematic collection and analysis of data in order to assess the strengths and weaknesses of programmes, policies, and organizations to improve their effectiveness. In short, M&E is the primary mechanism to assess performance of the interventions towards meeting the targets and objectives. Biodiversity interventions are designed on the assumption that programme or project interventions will lead to conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of biological resources. M&E are the primary mechanisms to assess performance whether interventions are meeting its targets and objectives. Hence, M&E framework or plan provides an important basis for further decisions. The overarching objectives of M&E are to: (a) improve performance and knowledge,(b) promote accountability for the achievement of the NBSAP objectives through assessment of results, effectiveness, processes, and performance of the partners involved in biodiversity management National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page227 activities, and (c) promote learning, feedback, and knowledge sharing among the NBSAP stakeholders in order to influence decision-making on policies, strategies as well as programme and project management. 6.4.2Framework for Monitoring and Evaluation of NBSAP Implementation Monitoring and evaluation framework is a detailed proramme of works of monitoring and evaluation activities which can provide biodiversity manager with information needed for taking decisions, guide the project strategy, provide early warnings of problems, build understanding and capacity amongst those involved, among others. A monitoring and evaluation committee with clear roles and responsibility to monitor and evaluate national level biodiversity initiatives will be created within NBCC. One of the NBCC members will act as the committee coordinator. The committee may have representatives from government ministries, non-governmental organizations, academic/research institutions and evalution socities. A designated official from NBCC secretariate will manage the day-to-day M&E activities. Based on the need and given responsibility, the M&E committee will get support from other organization to enhance quality and utilization focused M&E. The M&E committee will monitor and evaluate national level biodiversity initiatives. The national biodiversity M&Eframework follows a two-stepprocess. The first step involves developing separate and robust M&E systems for the national and local levels. The second step involvesimplementingthe monitoring and evaluation activities(Figure 6.1; Table 6.6). Figure 6.1: Monitoring, evaluation and reporting mechanism The Council of Ministers and Parliamentary body NBSCC NPC Public Meta Evaluation Annual monitoring report Monitoring and Evaluation Committee Programme Evaluation report Programme implementation report Progeramme Monitoring Programme Programme documentation Project Evaluation report Project implementation report Proje Projectcts Monitoring documentation National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Project Evaluation report Project Proje report implementation cts Project Monitoring documentation Page228 The proposed M&E plan can provide a biodiversity manager with information needed for taking decisions, guide the project strategy, provide early warnings of problems, assist empowering primary stakeholders, especially beneficiaries, and involve them more; build understanding and capacity amongst those involved; and assess progress and so build accountability. M&E is vital for continuous steering, ex-ante and ex-post evaluation of biodiversity strategies and measures. An M&E plan is a detailed proramme of work, which defines what monitoring and evaluation activities will take place when and by whom and how that information will feedback into management decisions. The plan also considers the requirement of budget and capacity building needs among concerns staff and institutions. Table 6.6: Monitoring and evaluation framework for NBSAP Priority actions Target Stocktaking of M&E systems in biodiversity conservation and management sector Review and develop a comprehensive monitoring and evaluation systems (for project/programme form government and non government) Review and harmonize M&E roles and responsibility for various stakeholders at national (i.e. Ministries, NPC) and local level (i.e. DDC, MC, VDC) and agree on clear ToRs Set up inter-ministry M &E committee with clear ToRs considering planning, preparation, data collection, analysis and sharing and use) Regular review of progress (i.e. performance, and progress status) by NGOs, development partners and local government (through EFLGCC) Commission summative evaluations of selected projects/programmes and metaevaluations at national level Share/publish (evidence based) learning from M&E to stakeholders Assist proper use in decision making process Capacity building on planning and executing monitoring and evaluation functions One assessment One comprehen sive report Time Lead responsibility At the M&E beginning committee (2014/15) At the M&E beginning committee (2014/15) Support responsibility Implementing partners Implementing partners One agreed At the NBSCC/ NPC Sectoral ministries document beginning /M&E with clear (2014/15) committee ToRs One 2014 NBSCC M&E task team and sectoral ministries - Regular Implementing partners M&E committee/ relevant stakeholders - Regular M&E Committee Implementing partners - Annually - Regular - Regular M&E Committee M&E Committee M&E Committee Implementing partners Implementing partners Implementing partners The proposed M&E plan can provide a biodiversity manager with information needed for taking decisions, guide the project strategy, provide early warnings of problems, assist empowering National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page229 primary stakeholders, especially beneficiaries, and involve them more; build understanding and capacity amongst those involved; and assess progress and so build accountability. M&E is vital for continuous steering, ex-ante and ex-post evaluation of biodiversity strategies and measures. An M&E plan is a detailed proramme of work, which defines what monitoring and evaluation activities will take place when and by whom and how that information will feedback into management decisions. The plan also considers the requirement of budget and capacity building needs among concerns staff and institutions. 6.5 Communication, Extension and Outreach 6.5.1 Communication Framework Communication, extension and outreach (CEO) have so far remained ad-hoc activities in Nepal. There is a need for a holistic CEO strategy and its dissemination framework for promoting conservation education that is required for successful implementation of the NBSAP. This strategic plan attempts to analyze various key elements of the communication process in order to achieve communication objectives and suggestes mechanism to prmote CEO in management of biodiversity.This is expected to enable relevant institutionseffective sharing of knowledge, suggest measures for building capacity, present goals and provide link between and among people doing similar works and build links between national and international networks. NBSAP recognizes that successful implementation of the strategy is reliant upon the development of a cooperative partnership all spheres of the government, community groups, farmers, business sectors and other people. Communication networks and extension services are fundamental to achieve this goal. Communication and education will provide the basis for continued responsiveness to major biodiversity related issues. The CEO will ensure that the actions of all government and non-government stakeholders involved in biodiversity conservation are consistent with Nepal's commitment to CBD's outreach programme, which aims to increase the knowledge and understanding of biodiversity's values and benefits. The overall goal of this plan is to enable the Biodiversity Divison, MFSC to implement its CEO activities effectively and engage target audiences with biodiversity conservation goals. This is to be achieved through use of different messages, communication tools and communication platforms for at different level of audiences (Table 6.7; Table 6.8). Table 6.7: Communication, extension and outreach framework Key Target Audiences Government agencies and conservation organizations Explanation Expected Outcomes Provide advice, advocacy and information on issues involving biodiversity conservation National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Develop greater awareness, understanding and appreciation of biodiversity and what the organization has to offer for conversation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Promote international cooperation and synergy among relevant multilateral environmental agreements. Page230 Policy makers (politicians and senior bureaucrats) CBOs, tourism entrepreneurs and local user groups Responsible for developing enabling policies, plans and legislations Natural resources dependent communities Educational Institutions School surrounding each of the protected areas and Ramsar sites Tourism entrepreuners Organizations and individuals enganed in tourism business Develop on-site lecturing, demonstration and interpretation infrastructure in selected protected areas and Ramsar sites Give due priority to biodiversity conservation in the country’s environmental agenda Develop greater awareness, understanding and appreciation of the role of forest, wetlands and landscapes, and act accordingly Collaborate with tourism entities, such as Nepal Tourism Board, to explore and promote ecotourism in new protected areas, wetlands and community forests Develop greater awareness, understanding and appreciation for the role the National Parks and Ramsar sites play in the total landscape and environment within their communities. Develop greater awareness, understanding and appreciation for Ramsar sites and protected area within the education sector. Promote nature based tourism in more and more new sites Table 6.8: Messages, communication tools and communication platforms Messages to be Communicated Importance of biodiversity in balancing the environment Role of different line agencies (MOFC, MOAD, DDC, VDC), CBOs, User groups, individuals including women, dalits and aboriginal peoples etc in the conservation of biodiversity Sustainable use of the biodiversity and equitable sharing of benefits Impact of biodiversity degradation on human livelihoods Relationship between biodiversity and climate change Socioeconomic impacts and livelihoods of local farmersand communities Policy, legislation and governance systems needed to address the threats to biodiversity National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Communication Tools Technical publications (technical documents, scientific publications, brochures, posters) Popular versions of technical publications Popular versions of posters and brochures in the local Languages Training manuals Policy briefs Websites Television, radio Social electronic media Multimedia (images, photos, videos, postcards) Email messages Mobile phones, SMS messages Print media (newspapers and magazines) Communication Platforms Face-to-face talks Field visits Field trainings Workshops Exhibitions Community leaders Extension officers District officers Farmer groups District assembly Vilage assembly Page231 Journal publications Note: Different communication tools and platforms will be used based on the target audience. 6.5.2 Communication, Extension and Outreach Plan The implementation plan of the CEO strategy and action plan is summarized in the Table 6.9. Performance of the implementation plan will be monitored on a quarterly basis according to the performance indicators. These will be adjusted appropriately, as the plan is implemented. Table 6.9: Communication, Extension and Outreach Implementation Action Plan Actions Produce brochures about biodiversity conservation Produce technical publications Target audiences All audiences Lead role NBCC secratariat Time frame Short term Professionals NBCC secratariat General public PI team Continuous; produced in first year and updated regularly. Continuous; one popular version produced by end of second International community Technical staff of line agencies, students and trainers Policy makers Universities and individual scholors Educational Institutes Produce popular versions of technical publications Publish journal article Preparing training curriculum manual Reviewing policies and regulations and preparing policy briefs Develop mechanism to incorporate the local knowledge, practices of indigenous people and local communities in natural resource management Produce manuals on controlling Invasive Alien Species Local communities, VDC officials, NGOs, CBOs Promotion of eco-tourism Staff, visitors, local communities General Public Improve awareness about the role of protected areas Promotion of alternative livelihoods to control illegal fishing, hunting and harvest and trade of timber Awareness raising and capacity Local people, VDC, CBO General public, Local communities, CBOs CFUGs, LFUGs National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Continuous Midium term In collaboration with INGOs, NGOs and academic institutes DOF, NPWC, DOA, DLHS Short term NAST; NARC; DFRS; TU and government departments DNPWC, Tourism Development Board DNPWC Midium term DNPWC, DOA Immediate DOF, DFO Continuous Continuous Long term Immediate Page232 building on district and community forest management Awareness raising on conservation friendly management of ecological corridors Entrepreneurship development training in business planning, improved storage, market analysis, technical and market aspect of value added processing of medicinal and aromatic plants. Awareness campaign on conservation of rangeland biodiversity Capacity building pastoral development and management Awareness and capacity building to prevent the extinction of threatened and endangered species. Understanding on the importance of biodiversity conservation enhanced Produce posters Produce brochures of technical information FUGs, CBOs, NGOs DNPWC, DOF Continuous FUGs, CBOs, NGOs DPR, DFRS Midium term Community people, CBOs, NGO Professionals, Local communities Professionals, local communities DLS; DOF Continuous NARC; Academic Institutes Continuous NBCC; Academic Institutes NARC Schools Colleges and graduate schools Concern line agencies/project, NGOs Concerned line agencies and project team Continuous Studentss General public All audiences General public Prepare press releases Produce video/TV documentary All audiences Posting and updating biodiversity information on the websites National and international Presentations/Exhibitions Local leaders and communities Face to face talks and advice Make presentations at local and international workshops Local leaders and communities Local and international audience Engage mass media General public Testing training curriculum and manual Students National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Concerned line agencies NBCC Secratariat NBCC Secratariat Concerned line agencies Concerned line agencies personnel Concerned line agencies personnel Concerned line agencies personnel Concerned line agencies personnel Continuous Continuous Posters produced and updated annually Midium term Long term One press release annually Midium term Continuous Information updated quarterly At least once a year using updated posters and brochures At least two groups quarterly At least 2 workshops annually One media briefing annually At least one trial undertaken by end of year 2 Page233 Sending messages to emails and mobile Selected opinion leaders Phones of selected stakeholders and opinion leaders Selected opinion leaders Conduct talk shows on FM All audiences Conduct user groups field schools regarding the wise use of aquatic resources Conducting stakeholder workshops on importance of wetland and their conservation Awareness campaign on the endemic and endangered species of aquatic flora and fauna Training on impact of dams on biodiversity and its mitigative measures Produce Annual report Enhance capacity of partners, local bodies and different s stakeholders for enabling women and socially excluded groups to claim their rights on NRM Raising awareness for mainstreaming gender equality and social inclusion agenda in biodiversity Local communities All audiences Local communities CBOs, NGOs, professional associated with water resource dev. projects Policy makers, local leaders, donors, local communities CBOs, NGOs, Local communities Professional, DDC, VDC, Local communities IT team in collaboration Concerned line agencies personnel Concerned line agencies personnel Concerned line agencies personnel Concerned line agencies personnel At least 2 messages sent out quarterly starting Mid term 2-4 years Once a quarter starting year 2 At least two trials undertaken annually starting year 2 Midium term DOF, DNPWC Midium term Academic Institutes Continuous Concerned line agencies personnel Long term Annually starting end of year one Line Agencies, INGOs Long term Biodiversity Focal point Immediate 6.6 Fund Generation and Mobilization 6.5.1 Current Situation of Funding for Biodiversity Management Public funding has been the main source of funding for biodiversity management in both the forestry and agriculture sectors. The contributions of the government funding and foreign assistance for conservation of forest biodiversity during the last ten years were 84.4 percent and 15.6 percent, respectively. The funding increased continuously and substantially during the last decade. The REDD programme, FRA project, Rastrapati Chure Conservation programme and the Muliti Stakeholders Forestry Programmemade substantial contributionsto the sharp increase in the forest biodiversity management fund. Some other internal sources of funding, which were not reflected on the Red Book, are the funds of NTNC and CFUGs. NTNC uses its fund mainly in Conservation Areas managed by it and partly in National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page234 other protected areas while CFUGs use 25 percent of their fund for forestry development activities. Corporate bodies’contributions relate to thepayments made for implementing mitigation measures as prescribed in the initial environmental examination or the environmental impact assessment reports of the projects. 6.5.2. Constraints and Gaps Biodiversity conservation has remained a relatively low priority of the government as compared to economic development. One of the main reasons behind is the lack of a system to account for the roles of biodiversity and ecosystems in sustainable development of the country. The current national accounting does not value the critical ecosystem services provided by protected areas, forests, wetlands and other natural systems. Conservation of agrobiodiversity is hampered by the government policy that is oriented to increasing production rather than conserving the large pool of local crop, horticulture and livestock varieties, which are usually less productive than hybrid varieties. While the government policy can be considered the right approach towards enhancing food security and livelihoods of farmers, it presents a serious risk of losing the precious local species and varieties before their full economic potentials are realized. The importance of the local and indigenous varieties can be exteremely high especially in the context of changing climate conditions and associated threats. Another major gap relates to the negligible funding available for research, monitoring and reporting; and biodiversity information management. 6.5.3. Options for Generation of Funds required for successful implementation of NBSAP Substantial amount is required for the successful implementation of the NBSAP. The estimated cost for the NBSAP for the period 2014/15 to 2020/21 is NPR 110,673,700, 000, which is 3.5 times higher than the last seven years’ allocation. Different sources of fund are required to meet this cost. As many options as possible are sought for generating funds for the implementation of the NBSAP. Government funding will remain the major source of funding for implementation of the NBSAP. Some of the specific sources include: (i) recycling of government revenues collected from biodiversity-related products and services (such as wood and non-wood forest products, tourism, trekking, mountaineering fees etc), (ii) donations by private sectors, (iii) contributions by NGOs and CBOs, (iv) investment by private sectors (e.g. ecotourism, micro-hydropower), (v) in-kind cooperation by local communities, (vi) technical assistance by international community, (vii) grants from bilateral and multi-lateral donor agencies, and (viii) loan from international bodies. NTNCcollected entry fee from visitors has remained and will be one of the main sources of funding for implementing biodiversity management programmes in the conservation areas. Funding from REDD+ and other climate change streams is expected to be a major source in future. The NBSAP cost categories and possible financing mechanisms are summarized in Table 6.10. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page235 Table 6.10: Summary of the NBSAP Financing Mechanisms Infrastructure In-situ conservation field programmes /projects Ex-situ conservation Development of Policy / legal mechanisms Awareness Raising Research Internal Sources Public (Govt) √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Local govt. NTNC Fund √ Description (brief narrative) Capacity Building NBSAP Cost Categories Administrative cost (institutions set up / running) Financing Mechanisms √ CFUGs FDF/ PES √ √ √ √ √ Programmes approved by the district and/or central level apex bodies Mitigation programmes as per EIA reports. √ √ Forestry sector donors (grant and loans) for programmes as in the project document and approved by NPC Corporate/ private sectors External Sources Donor’ grant and loan (bilateral and multilateral) √ WWF/IUCN/ BCN/ ICIMOD/TMI REDD UNCDD GEF √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan For programmes approved by NPC For the implementation of LBSAP Mainly for the programme of CAs managed by it & partly for the research, monitoring & reporting at national level. √ Page236 7 Framework for Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 7.1 Introduction It is envisaged that national objectives for biodiversity conservation can be achieved only through defined actions at the local level.Preparation and implementation of Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (LBSAP) by respective VDCs and municipalities is a fundamental requirement and the first step towards effective management of local biodiversity. In the Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework (EFLGF), the Government of Nepal has made its commitment to conserve biological diversity and resources on a sustainable basis. This commitment respects the obligation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This is important not only from the point of view of protection of biological resources but also from the point of view of linking Biodiversity to the livelihoods of people and to their economic development. Biodiversity conservation is vital because it has greater implication on productivity of biological resources, human health and nutrition, indigenous knowledge, gender equity and governance, climate change and cultural wellbeing of the people (MOFALD, 2013). This framework is prepared to serve as a guide to develop a detailed and specific LBSAP by the VDCs and municipalities across the country for developing and implementing their own LBSAP based on the local bio-physical and socio-economic context. Other local level organizations, including government agencies, NGOs, private sector and civil societies can also use this framework. Specifically, this framework has two broad functions: (i) ensuring that the strategies and actions included in the NBSAP are translated into effective action for biodiversity conservation at the local level, and (ii) ensuring that local biodiversity is conserved and local communities are benefitted from it. The key requirements of the LBSAP to be developed by VDC or municipality should; Comply with NBSAP’s vision, mission and principles, which will be associated with the objectives and principles of the Environmental Friendly Local GovernanceFramework, 2013. Be developed in consultation with regional and local stakeholders Align to international, national and local level legislation and policy prescriptions Encompass initiatives that can be performed by 3915 VDCs and 58 Municipalities within the parameters of its capacity and the powers and functions assigned to it in terms of legislation. 7.2 Goal and Objectives The maingoal of the LBSAP framework is to support the respective VDCs and Municipalities (those willing to develop their biodiversity strategy and action plan) to develop a comprehensive and practical plan through integration of effective planning that enhance ecological integrity, human rights, traditional knowledge/practice and biodiversity conservation and maintenance of environmental goods and services, and growth of the local economy. This will be achieved by reducing or managing human pressures on natural resources, reducing climatic threats to National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page237 ecosystems, species and their habitats, and addressing economic and social and cultural concerns of indigenous and local communities through targeted programmes and enabling policy and legislative environment. The specific objectives are: 1. Full integration of biodiversity conservation into the institutional and planning frameworks, governance and regulatory processes and policies at VDC level 2. Management, conservation and sustainable utilization of the respective VDC and Municipality’s aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity assets for equitable access and sharing of resources with women, indigenous, dalit and poor communities. 3. Community appreciation and active participation of poor and indigenous communities for the conservation of VDC level biodiversity. 4. Enhanced human well being and poverty reduction through the mainstreaming of biodiversity conservation into the local economy. 5. Recognition of traditional knowledge/ practices 7.3 LBSAP Development Process The LBSAP development process includes five major phases as depicted in figure below. The concerned VDC can follow some of these phases or steps as a guideline while developing its LBSAP. However, the detail outline for developing LBSAP by concerned VDC is presented in Annex 7.1. Phase 1: Stakeholder Consultation and analysis Identify institutions which are affected by loss of biodiversity & ensure their inclusion in the LBSAP process Phase 2: Formulating Environmental Friendly Local Governance Village Coordination Committee (EFLGVCC) Identification of possible partners in the VDC and development of aEFLGVCC involving members from VDC council, Civil Societiesand local groups National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Phase 3: Defining EFLGVCC and subcommittees’ roles and responsibilities Investigation of the role of stakeholders, i.e. who will contribute meaningfully and add value to the LBSAP Phase 4: Biodiversity priority identification and analysis Development and prioritization of biodiversity issues and approval by EFLGVCC and VDC Phase 5: VDC level Strategic plan development and action planning (including vision and principles) Adaption of the LBSAP by the VDC council and VBCC Page238 7.3.1 Stakeholder Consultation and Analysis The LBSAP framework is developed through a consultative process with involvement and contributions of local, regional and national level stakeholders. The stakeholders at these different levels were consulted through informal meetings with relevant organizations and individual experts in Kathmandu, consultation workshops organized in all the five regional and selected 15 district headquarters, and community level consultation meetings and field observations at 30 sites (refer to Annex 1.1 for details). The community level consultations were carried out with the following specific objectives. Identification of biodiversity priority issues at local level Knowing how core functions of various stakeholders impact on biodiversity (positive and negative) Identification of interventions aimed at the direct and indirect conservation and promotion of Biodiversity at VDC level which have the potential to be complemented and built on through the ongoing NBSAP process. Soliciting inputs from stakeholders on initiatives they would like to see incorporated into the LBSAP. Identifying partnership opportunities that the VDC can make use of to promote the conservation of biodiversity. 7.3.2 Constituting Environmental Friendly Local Governance Village Coordination Committee and Thematic Sub-Committees A) Environmental Friendly Local Governance Village Coordination Committee Planning for biodiversity is underpinned by the fundamental principle that the process needs to involve a wide range of sectors, organizations and individuals. The development of an effective village coordination committee and a working partnership is essential for the successful implementation of the objectives and targets of LBSAP. It is also essential for effective action at the local level. The partnership will bring joint ownership and will prove itself to be effective. The continuing partnership confirms the commitment and support of member organizations to the aims and mechanisms for delivering biodiversity outlined in this document. According to Section -26 (3) of the Local Self-Governance Act-1999, and Rule- 47 of the Local Self-Governance Regulations-1999, there is provision of constituting different thematic committees, such as Agriculture, Forest and Environment committee by VDC council. This has been followed by the Environmental Friendly Local Governance Framework, 2013, which has the provision to form Environmental Friendly Local Governance Village Coordination Committee (EFLGVCC). In accordance with this provision, respective VDC council can and should form EFLGVCC and its thematic sub-committees (Farmers groups, CFUGs, LFUGs, Buffer Zone community forest user groups’ committees) (Refer 6.1.3- Local level institutional mechanism). This committee consist of selected members of VDC, Secretary of VDC, and selected VDC level Agriculture, forestry and environment sector agencies involving both GOs and NGOs. The secretary of the VDC should be the member secretary of this committee. Partnership will primarily be identified by VDC , which includes Range Post, Agriculture Service Center, Livestock Service National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page239 Center, Protected Area Buffer zone council and Community Based Organizations (CBOs) who have mandate to conserve biodiversity and environment. The EFLGVCC will be chaired by VDC Chairperson. In absence of local body, VDC Secretary will act as a coordinator of this committee. If the Plan is to be successful it must stimulate a growing web of action. Success will largely rest on the commitment and enthusiasm of individual partners, and the vital role of the Partnership is to stimulate and co-ordinate action. Effective networking and information exchange by the Partnership will help to minimize duplication and instead build co-operation, making the best use of the expertise and resources available. The Terms of reference of EFLGVCC has already been enlisted in section 6.1.3 and its future direction is proposed below. The partnership is dynamic and flexible and will evolve over time. New members (business community for example and additional CSOs) need to be invited to join the EFLGVCC as appropriate. Individual EFLGVCC members should give priority to address of the local biodiversity issues within their own organizations. For this reason, the respective EFLGVCC should improve its communications with other local organizations to ensure that the value of the LBSAP process is widely recognized. Individual EFLGVCC members need to co-ordinate action internally to ensure implementation of actions of their agencies. Individual EFLGVCC members should focus their activities to conserve local biodiversity on a sustainable basis. These activities are targeted in areas where current activities are damaging biodiversity. Quarterly sharing of the progress of VDC level biodiversity status within and between members of EFLGVCC should be organized. B) Thematic Sub-Committees The EFLGVCC is supported by several thematic sub-group committees such as Conservation Area Buffer Zone User Group (BZUG) committee, Community Forest User Group (CFUG) committee, Leasehold Forestry Group (LFUG) committee, Collaborative Forest User Group (COFUG) committee, women groups, and cooperative limited, which look at specific issues of importance to biodiversity in the respective VDC. The sub-group committee will mainly be concerned with habitats and species, raising public awareness, the urban environment and the wet land area. This will be effective in relaying the priorities and opinions of local individuals to the EFLGVCC. Subgroup committees are made up of interested individuals from a range of backgrounds, primarily from the representative of the local groups and are open to all. Future Directions The number and composition of the sub-groups is flexible and may alter in the future to meet the needs of group members and the EFLGVCC and to respond to new priorities. The EFLGVCC and sub-group committee will continue to encourage wider community involvement in and input to the sub-groups. Sub-groups will continue to respond to the needs of the community, highlighting issues of local priority to the EFLGVCC, for consideration as the subject of local action plans or biodiversity projects. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page240 A EFLGVCC member is not required to chair each individual sub-group providing one or more members of the EFLGVCC sit on each sub-group to provide a two-way link. C) Roles and Responsibilities of the EFLGVCC Members and Sub-Committee Members Implementation of actions depends on a range of functions, and therefore each member will have a particular role to play. Each of the partners’ roles in the EFLGVCC has been defined as follows: 1. VDC and VDC Council Overall responsibility of LBSAP implementation will rest on VDC and VDC council. VDC will act as secretariat of the EFLGVCC Planning is the remit of local authorities- VDC and Municipality; Giving VDC grants and incentives to local community for activities related to biodiversity conservation; VDC can retain some of the grant funds from Constituent Assembly members for biodiversity conservation; Assist EFLGVCC in biodiversity documentation including traditional knowledge Provide focal person to the EFLGVCC for implementation of plan. Organize monitoring and evaluation of bio-diversity plan. 2. Range Post Office Provide training and exposure visits to CFUG members Assist EFLGVCC in monitoring and evaluation of the forest diversity conservation work. Facilitate developing forest operation plans keeping in view of species conservation. Assist in conservation of local forest and NTFP seeds. 3. Agriculture Service Center Provide training and exposure visits to farmer group members Assist EFLGVCC in monitoring and evaluation of the Agro-biodiversity conservation work. Facilitate cultivation of threatened and endangered medicinal and aromatic plants in private land. Assist EFLGVCC in conservation of locally threatened species (conserving seeds of local cultivars) of agricultural crops and fish. 4. Livestock Service Center Provide rangeland and grassland management training to livestock herders Provide seeds and planting materials of fodder trees and grasses to farmers Assist EFLGVCC in monitoring and evaluation of the effects of livestock management. Assist EFLGVCC in conservation of local breeds of livestock and cattle varieties (e.g. Lulu cows of Mustang district) 5. Protected Area Range Post and Buffer Zone Council Provide protected area management training to local users Provide 30 to 50 % National Park revenue to local user groups Assist EFLGVCC in monitoring and evaluation of the conservation area management work. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page241 6 Local NGOs and Civil Societies Provide support in community mobilization Mobilize and allocate funds for biodiversity conservation work Facilitate awareness raising campaign for local users Take part in joint monitoring with Government agencies Be member of the EFLGVCC 7. Farmers and User Group Members Land management is a primary responsibility of farmers and the farming households Community action can be fostered by sub-group committee members (CFUGs, LFUGs, CoFUGs and women groups). The farmers must also undertake the fundamental role of self monitoring and cross-learning between members of two or more communities. Provide in kinds cooperation such as local labor contribution in preventing invasive or alien species, anti-poaching activities etc. 7.3.3 Biodiversity Priority Identification and Analysis Reports of various consultation meetings will provide us a good overview of the biodiversity issues that VDC needs to address. The stakeholder consultation in the section discussed above should therefore be aimed at identifying major issues and their remedies. These issues need to be prioritized prior to developing local biodiversity strategic and action planning. The biodiversity priority identification and analysis will include an assessment of causal factors underlying the priority issues, stakeholder interventions already in place or imminently planned, potential support and partnership opportunities and possible actions that can be implemented to address the priority issues. During NBSAP revision field consultation, a number of local level issues/ or threats were identified (Table 7.1). Therefore, the concerned VDC could adopt these points based on its needs and priorities. Table 7.1: Local level issues, threats, and challenges (based on the consultations at different levels) SN 1. 2 3 4. 5 6 7 Issues and challenges Absence of institutional mechanism for biodiversity conservation at local level Weak institutional capacity to effectively manage VDC level biodiversity resources and broader environmental issues Conflict between transhumance/ high hill goat herders and low hills CF users Inadequate awareness and gap in knowledge Over harvesting and over use of terrestrial biodiversity Appearance of alien and invasive species Excessive use of chemicals (pesticide, fertilizer) and fishing by poisoning and explosives National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Number of Communities Consulted All 30 communities All 30 communities One community of Rasuwa District More than half of the communities consulted Almost half of the communities consulted All 30 communities In Tarai and some parts of middle hill communities Page242 8 Loss of fresh water ecosystem and wetland habitats 9 Lack of mainstreaming biodiversity into local economic development Majority of communities consulted from Betana, Morang to Maipokhari, Ilam. All 30 communities 7.3.4 Biodiversity Strategic and Action Planning The final step for LBSAP development is to develop biodiversity strategies and their action planning. This should start first by developing vision, mission and principles, which need to comply with NBSAP and CBD. Based on field consultation, some of the possible local level biodiversity strategies and actions have been identified (Table 7.2). These strategic actions could serve as a guideline to identify action points for respective VDC. Table 7.2: Strategies and Actions 1. Strategies 1. Develop an effective biodiversity conservation mechanism and capacity of VDC to effectively manage biodiversity and broader environmental issues 2. 2. Integrate biodiversity considerations into VDC level planning, policies and by-laws 3. 3. Develop an effective and adaptive management plan to address transboundary and transhumance issues 4. 4. Create an awareness of the importance of conserving biodiversity through targeted awareness programmes 5. 5. Reduce overharvesting and over use of terrestrial biodiversity (plants and animal) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Actions Constitute a EFLGVCC and network of local stakeholders (VDC, CFUG, Range Post, Agriculture service center, Environmental NGO/CBOs) to support biodiversity conservation activities in VDC area. Define each of the partners or EFLGVCC members’ role and responsibilities. Appoint and recruit middle level Bio-diversity conservation staff for implementation of LBSAP, if possible. Assign Biodiversity conservation work to one of the VDC members, who would be acting as a focal point at the VDC. Initiate discussion to integrate biodiversity consideration into VDC level planning, policies and by-laws Meet every quarterly to discuss and monitor the progress. Advocate for removal of inappropriate policies, laws and rules that are hindering biodiversity conservation and sustainable use. Allocate at least 5-10 percent of the VDC budget for biodiversity conservation. Initiate dialogue between people of the communities across border Develop local level code of conduct to resolve trans-boundary issues and inter community conflicts. Biodiversity awareness campaigning Organize plantation programme in degraded areas Organize exposure programme to biodiversity hotspots areas Identify new species and plants recently appeared in VDC areas Introduce groups and networks that work against pollution and damage of biodiversity. Domestication of locally threatened high value species Support to establish gene bank and or seed promotion programme Page243 6. 6. Eradicate alien and invasive species that are impacting negatively on local level biodiversity 7. 7. Reduce excessive use of chemicals and ban on use of explosives and poisoning of fish 8. 8. Conserve freshwater aquatic ecosystems through sustainable use and management of water resources 9. 9. Link biodiversity conservation to economic activity (such as job creation and entrepreneurship) Encourage plantation of local species Promote wildlife farming of threatened species Earth worm/ vermi-culture by feeding water hyacinth (Jalakumbi) Biochar and bio briquette making through use of Eupatorium spp. Involving local people in removing invasive species Using invasive species such as Mikania micrantha as feedstock for livestock Promote organic pesticide Training on compost making and green manuring Strict enforcement of laws against explosive use and poisoning River embankments Spring conservation by planting water conserving tree species (Lakuri, Jamun, Ficus etc.) Establish local conservation committee and groups Skill and entrepreneurship training Provide support to establish small scale cottage industry Domestication of locally threatened high value plant species (NTFP/MAPs) 7.4 Monitoring the Progress and Funding Source The concerned VDC is entitled to carry out monitoring and evaluation of its strategic plan based on how can the set objectives be achieved. The strategic objective of monitoring and evaluation of LBSAP should comply with the principles of CBD. Detailed outcome indicators will be developed by the concerned VDC considering 10 different action points discussed under each of the nine strategies (Table 7.3). Table 7.3: Possible actions, monitoring indicators and funding source Actions Monitoring indicators 1. Create a position for a middle level Coordinated management Biodiversity staff in the VDC In house environmental office and fill the position with a expertise developed suitable incumbent Optimal utilization of available partnership 2. Biodiversity training and induction Common understanding of programme for VDC councillors, VDC council members on officials and ward committee biodiversity conservation members developed 3. Develop and implement a policy Formal adoption of and plan to guide development biodiversity sector plan by within critical biodiversity VDC 4. Rezone VDC critical biodiversity Enhanced conservation status and critical ecological support and of VDC critical biodiversity areas areas, ecological support areas and other natural or National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Funding source VDC grant LGCDP programme LGCDP of UNDP NGOs VDC grant fund NGO’s project VDC DLAs NGO/INGOs Service providers Page244 conservation worthy areas 5. Community Negotiation on Transboundary Issues 6. Develop and implement an annual biodiversity awareness programme 7. Gene conservation through domestication of high value threatened species 8. 9. Development and implementation of an Invasive Species Monitoring, Control and Eradication Plan (ISMCEP) Promotion of organic farming 10. Entrepreneurship Development (Eco-tourism development, community based NTFP enterprise development) Enhanced cooperation between upstream and downstream communities Community understand What biodiversity is, Why it is important, and Why are community mobilized to conserve it Improved understanding of high value crop Income increased Seed bank established Job creation Aquatic and terrestrial integrity restored Land quality improved Wildlife mortality decreased No of entrepreneurs increased Increased income National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, DSCO, DFO, and DADO VDC funds Access funds of DLAs who have mandate in biodiversity conservation National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, DSCO, DFO, and DADO VDC funds DDC and VDC basket funds NGOs DADO and DFO DDC and VDC basket funds NGOs District Cottage and Small Scale Industry Office Department of Economic Development and Tourism, DFO and DADO Periodic assessments will be conducted to assess whether the biodiversity consideration has been effectively integrated into the VDC planning process. Has the institutional mechanism set by the action planning is operational and capacity for implementation of biodiversity enhanced? How well the biodiversity awareness of local people increased? Is there significant increase in income due to improved biodiversity? The effectiveness and efficiency of each of the strategic actions will be periodically monitored and evaluated. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page245 ANNEXES Annex 1.1.Methodology for the development of National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and Framework for Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) was developed during AprilDecember 2013, with technical support from the Kathmandu Forestry College (KAFCOL) through a team of 10 professionals (Table 1.1a).The main methodological steps involved in the processare shown in Figure (a). The steps are briefly described in the following sections. Figure 1.1a: Methodology used in the development of NBSAP and LBSAP Inception Meeting in Kathmandu Collection and Analysis of Literature and Secondary Data Inception Report Critical Review of NBS (2002) and NBSIP (2006) Stakeholders Identification and Consultations Integrated Analysis of the Primary and Secondary Data and Information Identification of Key Components and Setting up of Vision, Principles and Goal of the NBSAP Formulation ofStrategic Goals, Strategies and Priorities for Actions Drafting of the NBSAP Presentation of the Key Findings in a Stakeholders’ Meeting in Kathmandu Preparation of LBSAP Framework Review of the Draft Reports by MFSC Officials and Peers Revision and Finalization ofthe English Reports Translation of the Reports in Nepali National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page246 A. Inception Meeting An inception meeting with relevant experts and key stakeholders was organized in Kathmandu on 03 May 2013. The meeting had threeinter-related objectives: (i) review and validation of the methodological approach to be followed and list of stakeholders proposed by the KAFCOL team for consultations at the national, regional, district and field levels, (ii) enhancing mutual understanding of the tasks associated with the assignment between the NBSAP drafting team and key stakeholders, and (iii) gaining greater insights into the process of revising the NBSAP and drafting Fifth National Report to CBD. A total of 61 individuals representing 25 diverse organizations and expertise participated in the half-day event, which was chaired by the Secretary, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation. Table 1.1a: Professionals involved in the development of the NBSAP Name Dr. Ambika P. Gautam (Team Leader) Dr. Bishnu H. Pandit Dr. Deep B. Swar Dr. Madhusudan Upadhyay Dr. Shreeram Neopane Mr. Narayan Belbase Dr. Sushila C. Nepali Mr. Ram C. Khanal Mr. Tulsi Bhakta Prajapati Dr. Krishna P. Poudel Expertise Forestry, Forest Ecology and Biodiversity Local Biodiversity Management Planning Aquatic Biodiversity and Fishery Agro-biodiversity (crop and horticulture) Agro-biodiversity (livestock) and Rangelands NRM/Environmental Law, Policy and Institutions Gender and Social Inclusion M&E, and Climate Change Forest Biodiversity and Knowledge Management GIS and Remote Sensing B.Reviewand Analysis of RelevantLiterature Relevant literature, including agencies’ reports and reliable material available on the internetwere collected and reviewed to take stock of the existing status of the country’s biodiversity;key threats; efforts to manage biodiversity andoutcomes; and existing gaps, issues and challenges; and trends of funding for management of biodiversity. One of the specific focuses of the review was to explore the status of implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006-2010) and gaps. Available literature related to biodiversitylivelihoods linkages, gender and social inclusion, and impacts of climate change on biodiversity were also collected and reviewed.Recent CBD COP decisions, guidelines and other relevant international developments were some other key areas covered by the review. C. Collection and Analysis of Secondary Data Available secondary data relevant to the task were collected and used as appropriate. Recent spatial data available with different agencies; periodic census data on flagship wildlife species (rhino, tiger etc.) available with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation; and community, leasehold and collaborative forest handover and forest encroachment data available with the Department of Forests are example of such data acquired and used. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page247 D. Consultations Consultations with relevant stakeholders were carried out at the national, regional, district and community levels. Efforts were made to make the consultations gender-balanced and socially inclusive. Checklists were used to make the consultation meetings efficient and objective oriented. A total of 1,664 individuals, including 459 (26.7%) women and 1,205 (73.3%) men were consulted during the process (Figure 1.1b). The KAFCOL professionals carried out the consultations. Figure 1.1b: Individuals consulted as part of the NBSAP development process (a) By level of consultations (number) (c) By ethnicity (%) (b) By sex (%) (d) By type of organization (%) D1. National Level Consultations National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page248 Consultations in Kathmandu involved interactions with relevant government ministries and departments; Kathmandu-based INGOs and national NGOs; Civil Society groups; natural resources users’ federations and networks;Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities; and research and academic institutions. Interaction meetings were also organized with the professionals’ teams involved in revision of forestry sector strategy, and formulation of national REDD+ strategy with the objective of bringing harmony among the different strategies that were being prepared simultaneously. Separate meetings were organized with some focus groups (e.g. women professionals working in different agencies). Independent experts were consulted to enquire on theoretical and technical aspects of the subject. A sharing cum consultation meeting was organized with the chair and members of the national steering committee overseeing the revision of the NBSAP on 11 July 2013.Senior officials of the MFSC and departments under it also participated in the meeting. Two rounds of sharing cum consultation meetings were organized with high ranking NPC officials, and a meeting was held with a Ministry of Finance official looking after the foreign aid portfolio. A total of 41 government and non-government agencies that are directly related to biodiversity management, and a few individual experts with long experience and expertise on the subject were consulted during May-September 2013. In addition to the planned meetings described in the preceding paragraphs, the consultants also participated in some other relevant events, organized by the FECOFUN, NEFIN, and Forest Action. Those participatins provided opportunities to inform the diverse stakeholders about the NBSAP work and get their comments and suggestions. D-2. Regional and District Level Consultations Regional level government and non-government stakeholders, and district level government line agencies, NGOs, Civil Society groups and other relevant agencies and individuals were consulted by organizing a day-long consultation workshop at each of the five development regions, and selected 15 districts across Nepal (Figure 1.1c). Figure (1.1c): Location of the regional and district level consultation workshops National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page249 The districts for the consultations were selected purposively based on predefined criteria, including: (i) representation of the physiographic zones, (ii) representation of the development regions, (iii) status of biodiversity, (iv) spatial linkage to the existing protected areas, and (v) state of development (HDI). The selection was reviewed and validated by the participants of the Inception Meeting. Five of the district level consultation workshops were combined with the region level workshops organized in those district (and regional) headquarters (Table 1.1b). Table (1.1b): Description of the regional and district level consultation workshops Region/District Eastern/Morang Date (M/D) 05/20 Venue Regional Forestry Training Center (RFTC), Biratnagar Nagar Bikas Training Center, Pokhara NCDC, Ilam DDC, Taplejung DDC Hall, Jomsom Karmachari Milan Kendra, Gaighat RFTC, Surkhet Family Plan. Asso. Hall, Janakpur DADO Training Hall, Manma BISEP-ST Training Center, Hetauda District Forest Office, Bharatpur DADO Training Hall, Gularia DDC, Rasuwa RFTC, Dhangadhi DADO Training Hall Western/Kaski 05/23 Ilam 05/23 Taplejung 05/27 Mustang 05/27 Udaypur 06/02 Mid-western/Surkhet 06/03 Dhanusha 06/05 Kalikot 06/07 Central/Makwanpur 06/09 Chitwan 06/11 Bardia 06/12 Rasuwa 06/16 Far-western/Kailali 06/16 Doti 06/19 Total M = men; W = women; All dates in 2013. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Participants M W Total 30 1 31 39 17 22 27 16 35 26 35 28 22 26 22 36 20 401 4 6 1 6 2 13 2 3 4 1 6 1 1 4 55 43 23 23 33 18 48 28 38 32 23 32 23 37 24 456 Page250 Disctrict level consultation workshop, Ilam Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam The regional and district level workshops were useful in providing general overview of the plans, programmes, issues, challenges and opportunities related to conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in the regiona and district, identification and ranking of biodiversity threats, biodiversity-livelihood linkages, perceived and evidence-based impacts of climate change on biodiversity and local livelihoods, and identification of opportunities, challenges and threats associated with biodiversity conservation. Identification of biodiversity-rich areas, high-threat areas, biological corridors, important wetlands, and potential climate refugia was another important activity in each of the workshops. Part of the day in each workshop was allocated for more structured focus group discussion on specific subjects, such as gender and social inclusion, the contents of the Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan framework and identification and validation of biodiversity indicators. D-3. Community Level Consultations and Visits Field level interaction meetings were organized in 30 sites within the 15 selected districts with the objectives of collecting information on local level conservation issues, challenges and opportunities. Each site included one or more community forest user groups and other community-based organizations. The sites were selected in consultation with the district level key stakeholders (DFO and DADO). A total of 905 individuals, including 335 women and 570 men participated in the community level consultation meetings (Table 1.1c). Table (1.1c): Description of the community level consultation meetings SN Communities Location 1 Betana Wetland Management Committee and Community Forest User Group (CFUG); Belbari Ilaka Forest Office Rajghat Janakalyan Manch, bio-engineering site, Rajghat Vegetables Production Group Danabari and Sukhani CFUGs; Gajurmukhi Ilaka Forest Office Belbari, Morang 2 3 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Date (M/D) 05/21 Participants M W Total 32 8 40 Rajghat, Morang 05/21 11 12 23 Sukhani, Ilam 27 6 33 05/22 Page251 4 12 Bhalukateri, Tapu, Madhav CFUGs; Maipokhari Religious Forest Management Committee and Suryodaya Rangepost Rupatal Rehabilitation and Fishery Cooperative, Pratigyan Cooperative and Farmer to Farmer Samudre Dandapari CFUG Bamthumki, Tokmedanda and Tarebhir CFUGs, and Bamthumki Mother Group Conservation Area Management Committee, Muktinath Youth Club, and Mothers’ Group Conservation Area Management Committee members and farmers Hangdewa, Sayapatri, Yamabung, Deurali Bhitri, Tiring and Fawa Khola CFUGs Raksaha CFUG, and Deuri Rangepost Lalpatta Joginipakha CFUG, and Rampur Rangepost 13 Namuna Vegetable Product Group 14 Bhairam CFUG 15 Parshuram Lake Management Committee and Local Farmers 16 19 Dhanushadham Protected Forest and Religious Site Users Jaljale Biregda, Palta Mahadev and Pujaimalika CFUGs Microenterprise Agriculture Group, Kelakhet Agriculture Group Ramanthali Leasehold FUG 20 Rani CFUG 21 23 Janapragati, Jharana, Nibuwatar and Sampryang CFUGs; Shaktikhor Rangepost Kalpabrikshya Fewa, Sagamatha Women, Kalpabrikshya Fish, Chandra Fewa, Laligurans Fewa and Hariyali Fewa Agriculture Groups Madhuban CFUG 24 Barandabhar Buffer Zone CFUG 25 Sitapur Agro, Kanchan United Farmers’, Srijana, Laligurans, Sayapatri Women Farmers, Chaudhary Women Farmers, 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 17 18 22 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Maipokhari, Ilam 05/24 15 3 18 Sundari Danda, Lekhnath 11, Kaski Kuvinde, Kaski Dokhu, Taplejung Jharkot, Muktinath Lete, Mustang 05/24 7 3 10 05/24 05/26 13 42 4 20 17 62 05/27 20 16 36 05/28 20 4 24 Deurali, Taplejung Hardiya, Udaypur RampurThokshila, Udaypur Naya Gaun, Sukhet Birendranagar, Surkhet MithileshworNikas, Dhanusha Dhanushadham, Dhanusha Tadi, Kalikot 05/28 34 7 41 06/01 30 11 41 06/03 23 11 34 06/04 7 27 34 06/04 35 57 92 06/06 31 0 31 06/06 25 0 25 06/06 18 13 31 Garuwa, Kalikot 06/06 9 8 17 Padampokhari, Makwanpur Chaughada, Makwanpur Shaktikhor, Chitwan Jagatpur, Bardia 06/08 1 17 18 06/10 10 10 20 06/10 18 4 22 06/11 15 27 42 Dhodhari, Bardiya Gitanagar, Chitwan Tikapur, Kailali 06/11 10 3 13 06/12 14 1 15 06/13 23 5 28 Page252 26 27 28 29 30 Chameli and Seed Production Agriculture Groups; Mothers’ Groups Tenuwa, Komal Hariyali, Mohannyal, Tribeni, Brinda and Ghotaili CFUGs, and Ghodaghodi Wetlands Project Office Nangrang and Panchgore CFUGs; Goljung Rangepost Laligurangs CFUG; LIBIRD and other local groups Syaubari Buffer Zone CFUG, Rasuwa Mathillo, Bajhokol, Kalika, Chunepai, Bhaluodar, Kerabari, Gorkheodar and Chaupato CFUGs Ghodaghodi, Kailali 06/13 29 17 46 Goljung, Rasuwa Gaira, Doti 06/17 18 4 22 06/17 11 4 15 Laharepauwa Pulut, Doti 06/18 06/19 12 10 8 25 20 35 570 335 905 Total M = men; W = women; All dates in 2013. Community level consultation meeting, Raksaha Community Forest, Udaypur Photo ©: Ambika P. Gautam Community forest user groups, buffer zone community forest user groups, conservation area management committees, leasehold forest user groups, community based on-farm biodiversity management groups, relevant local NGOs, CBOs and eco-clubs, mother groups, representatives of indigenous and local communities, local micro-enterprises operators, and progressive farmerswere some of the main groups consulted through the community level meetings. Group discussions, key informants interviews and other participatory rapid appraisal techniques were used to collect data and information on trends of changes in biodiversity, opportunities and threats to biodiversity, local perceptions on meaning, importance and drivers of biodiversity loss, impacts of climate change and adaptation strategies of communities and households, governance, and gender and social inclusion related information relevant to the management of community forests, protected areas and other natural resources. Where appropriate, separate focus group meetings were organized for women and other disadvantaged social groups. While in the field, the team of experts also directly observed and took notes and pictures of features and events of interest, such as invasion of alien species, land use and natural resource management practices, forest encroachments, and status of wetlands in and around the travel routes and visited communities and places. These activities greatly helped enhance the NBSAP drafting team memebers’ understanding of the field realities with regard to status of conservation, threats and challenges in conservation and sustainable use of local biodiversity. E.Reports Drafting Using the data and information collected through the methods described in the preceding sections, the KAFCOL consultant team drafted the NBSAP and Fifth National Reports to the CBD. Annex2.1: Endemic tree species of Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page253 SN Botanical Name Average Elevation (m) Region of Occurrence 1 Barinda chigar 3,000 Western, Central 2 Barinda emeryi 3,000 Central 3 Brommus nepalensis 3,000 Western 4 Himalayacalamus asper 2,000 Central 5 Himalayacalamus cupreus 2,500 Central 6 Himalayacalamus fimbriatus 1,200 Western, Central 7 Himalayacalamus porcatus 2,270 Central 8 Persea tomentosa Central 9 Persea blumei 1,350 N/A 10 Prunus himalaica 3,900 Central 11 Prunus jajarkotensis 900-1,000 Western 12 Sorbus sharmae 3,170 N/A 13 Salix nepalensis 3,870 N/A 14 Wendlandia appendiculata 1,400 Central Sources: Rajbhandari and Adhikari (2009); Rajbhandari and Dhungana (2011) Annex 2.2: Major plant species found in different types of rangelands National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page254 Tropical Savannas Andropogon pumilus, Bothriochloa intermedia, Bothriochoa odorata, Chrysopogan aciculatus, Cynoden dactylon, Desmostachys bipinnata, Hymenachne pseudoinlerrupta, Imperata cylindrica, Ischaemmum timorense, Narenga porphyroecoma, Panucum natatum, Paspalum conjugatum, Phragmites karka, Saccharum arundinaceum, Sacchrrum bengalense, Saccharum spotaneum, Sclerostachya fusca, Sporobolus indicus, Vetiveria zizaniodes Sub-tropical Rangelands Andropogon pumilis, Apluda mutica, Arundinella bengalensis, A. nepalensis, Bothriochloa intermedia, B. decumbens, B. pertusa, Chrysopogon fulvus, C. gryllus, C. jwarancusa, Capillipedium parviflorum, Cymbopogon microtheca, C. stracheyi, Cynodon dactylon, Dimeria fuscescens, Digitaria setigera, D. cruciata, Eragrostiella leioptera, Eragrostis nigra, Eulaliopsis binata, Eleusina indica, Heteropogon contortus, Imperata cylindrica, Isachna globusa, Ischaemum baratum, Oplismenus compositus, Paspalidium flavidum, Paspalum dilitatum, P. scrobiculatum, Penisetum clandestinum, P. pedicellatum, Perotis hordeiformis, Polygonum spp, Sporobolus fertilis, Thysanolaena maxima Temperate Rangelands Agropyron canaliculatum, Agropyron semicostatum, Agrostis canina, Agrostis falipus, Agrostis micrantha, Agrostis muriantha, Agrostis pilosula, Anaphalis contorta, Andropogon pumilus, Andropogen tritis, Arundenella hookerii, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Bromus ramorus, Bothriochloa bladhii, Calamagrostis epigejos, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis pseudophragmites , Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon distans, Cymbopogon microtheca, Danthonia jacqnemontii, Deschampsia caespitosa, Deyeuscia scabrescens, Digiterai spp., Eragrostis nigra, Erigeron alpinus, Elymus caninus, Eulalia mollis, Festuca gigantea, Festuca ovina, Festuca rubra, Helictotrichon asperum, Keoleria cristata, Muhenbergia spp., Miscanthus nepalensis, Oryzopsis aequiglumis, Paspalum spp., Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa pratensis, Poa alpina, Poa annua, Polygonum spp., Seteria pallidefusca, Schizachyrium delarvayi, Stippa concinna, Taraxacum officinale, Themeda quadrivalis, Thymus serphyllum, Trisetum spicatumm, Trisetum micans. Major legumes are Desmodium spp, Medicago denticulata, Medicago lupinina, Pretropis cytosoides, Trigonella emodi, Vicia spp. Sub-alpine Rangelands Agrostis inaequiglumis, Agrostis pilosula, Agrostis tenuis, Anthoxanthum hookerii, Arrhanatherum elatius, Bromus himalaicus, Calamagrostis emodensis, Calamagrostis pulchella, Crotalaria albida, Danthonia schneideri, Duthiea nepalensis, Elymus canaliculatus, Elymus dehuricus, Elymus nuleris, Elymus schrenleiannus, Festuca eumminsii, Festuca leptopogon, Festuca omina, Helictotricton virescens, Medicago lupina, Poa alpina, Poa ludens, Poa polycolea, Stipa concinna, Stipa duthiea, Stipa koelzei, Stipa regeliana, Stipa seliria, Triluria oreophilia, Trisetum spicatum Major legumes found in the regions are Medicago lupina, Vicia tetrasperma and others. Major Shrubs: Berberis, Caragana, Junipers, Potentiall, Rosa, Spiraea and others. Major trees: Rhododendron spp., Juniperus spp., Betula spp, Rosa spp, Potentilla spp, Berberis spp.,Medicago lupina, Vicia tetrasperma Alpine Meadows and Steppe Agrostis pilosula, Androsace lehmani, Carex spp., Cortia depressa, Elymus nutans, Kobrasa hookerii, Kobresia nepalensis, Poa alpina, Poa attenuata, Potentilla argyrophylla, Andropogon tritis, Aristida spp., Calamagrostis spp, Crysopogon stellera, Cymbopogon stracheyi, Danthonia cachemyriana, Deyeuxia holciformis, Deyeuxia pulchella, Festuca ovina, Melica jacquemontii, Melica scaberrima, Orinus thordii, Oryzopsis lateralis, Pennisetum flaccidum, Poa alpigena, Poa pagophila, Poa poophagorum, Rumex nepalensis, Stippa spp. Major legumes are Medicago falcata and others. Sources: Miller (1987), Archer (1990), Pande (2009) Annex 2.3: Freshwater fish species reported from Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page255 SN Species SN Species 1 Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) 116 B. dario (Hamilton) 2 Chitala chitala (Hamilton) 117 B. histrionica (Blyth) 3 Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) 118 B. lohachata chaudhuri 4 Neoanguilla nepalensis sp. Nov. 119 B. geto (Hamilton) 5 Moringua raitaborua (Ham) 120 Neoeucirrhichthys maydelli Banarescu & Nalbant 6 Gudusia chapra (Hamilton) 121 Acantophthalmus pangio (Hami) 7 G. variegate (Day) 122 Semileptes gongota (Hamilton) 8 Setipinna phasa (Hamilton) 123 Lepidocephalus annadalei Chaudhuri 9 Securicula gora (Hamilton) 124 Lepidocephalus guntea (Hamilton) 10 Salmonstoma acinaces (Valenciennes) 125 L. menon Pillai & Yazdani 11 S. bacaila (Hamilton) 126 Rita rita (Hamilton) 12 S. phulo phulo (Hamilton) 127 Batasio batasio (Hamilton) 13 Aspidoparia jaya (Hamilton) 128 B. tengana (Hamilton) 14 A. morar (Hamilton) 129 B. macronotus sp. nov. Ng & Edds 15 Barilius barila (Hamilton) 130 Mystus bleekeri (Day) 16 B. barna (Hamilton) 131 M. cavasius (Hamilton) 17 B. bendelisis (Hamilton) 132 M. gulio (Hamilton) 18 B. radiolatus Gunther 133 M. menoda (Hamilton) 19 B. shacra (Hamilton) 134 M. tengara (Hamilton) 20 B. tileo (Hamilton) 135 M. vittatus (Bloch) 21 B. vagra vagra (Hamilton) 136 Aorichthys aor (Hamilton) 22 B. modestus (Day) 137 A. seenghala (Sykes) 23 B. bola (Hamilton) 138 Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) 24 B. guttatus (Day) 139 O. pabda (Hamilton) 25 Chela cachius (Hamilton) 140 O. pabo (Hamilton) 26 Chela laubuca (Hamilton) 141 Wallago attu (Schneider) 27 Esomus danricus (Himilton) 142 Ailia coila (Hamilton) 28 Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland) 143 Pseudeutropius atherinoides (Bloch) 29 D. dangila (Hamilton) 144 P. murius batarensis Shrestha 30 D. devario (Hamilton) 145 Clupisoma garua (Hamilton) 31 Brachydanio. Rerio (Hamilton) 146 Clupisoma montana Hora 32 Rasbora daniconius (Hamilton) 147 Eutropiichthys muris (Hamilton) 33 Bengana elanga (Hamilton) 148 E. vacha (Hamilyon) 34 Amblypharyngodon mola (Hamilton) 149 E. goongware (Sykes) 35 A. micropelis (Bleeker) 150 Silonia silonia (Hamilton) 36 Tor putitora (Hemilton) 151 Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton) 37 Tor tor (Hamilton) 152 Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton) 38 Tor mosal (Hamilton) 153 Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton) 39 Naziritor cheilynoides (McClelland) 154 B. yerrellii Sykes 40 Neolissochilus hexagonolepis 155 Gagata cenia (Hamilton) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page256 41 Osteobrama cotio cotio (Hamilton) 156 G. gagata (Hamilton) 42 O. neilli (Day) 157 G. sexualis Tilak 43 158 Nangra nangra (Hamilton) 44 Cyclocheilichthys. Apogon (Cuvier & Valenciennes) Chagunius chagunio (Hamilton) 159 N. viridescens (Hamilton) 45 Oreichthys cosuatis (Hamilton) 160 N. assamenisis Sen 46 Puntius chola (Hamilton) 161 Erethistes pussilus Muller & Troschel 47 P. conchonius (Hamilton) 162 Erethistoides montana montana Hora 48 P. gelius (Hamilton) 163 E. ascita sp. nov. Ng & Edds 49 P. guganio (Hamilton) 164 E. cavatura sp. nov. Ng & Edds 50 P. phutunio (Hamilton) 165 Hara hara (Hamilton) 51 P. sophore (Hamilton) 166 H. jerdoni Day 52 P. ticto (Hamilton) 167 Conta conta (Hamilton) 53 P. clavatus clavatus (McClelland) 168 Glyptosternum maculatum (Regan) 54 P. sarana sarana (Hamilton) 169 G. reticulatum McClelland 55 P. terio (Hemilton) 170 Laguvia ribeiroi Hora 56 Semiplotus semiplotus (McClelland) 171 L. kapuri Tilak & Hussain 57 Cirrhinus mrigala (Hamilton) 172 Glyptothorax annandalei Hora 58 C. reba (Hamilton) 173 G. cavia (Hamilton) 59 Catla catla (Hamilton) 174 G. conirostris conirostae (Steindacher) 60 Labeo angra (Hamilton) 175 G. gracillis (Gunther) 61 L. bata (Hamilton) 176 G. indicus Talwar & Jhingran 62 L. boga (Hamilton) 177 Glyptothorax kashmirensis Hora 63 L. calbasu (Hamilton) 178 G. pectinopterus (McClelland) 64 L. dero (Hamilton) 179 G. telchitta telchitta (Hamilton) 65 L. fimbriatus (Bloch) 180 G. trilineatus (Blyth) 66 L. gonius (Hamilton) 181 G. alaknandi Tilak 67 L. pangusia (Hamilton) 182 G. garhwali Tilak. 68 L. rohita (Hamilyon) 183 G. botius (Hamilton) 69 L. caeruleus (Day) 184 Euchiloglanis hodgarti (Hora) 70 L. dyocheilus dyocheilus (McClell.) 185 Coraglanis kishinouyei (Kimura) 71 Schismatorhynchus (Nukta) nukta (Sykes) 186 Myersglanis blythii (Day) 72 Schizothorax richardsonii (Gray) 187 Exostoma labiatus (McClelland) 73 S. sinuatus (Heckel) 188 Pseudechenesis sulcatus (McClelland) 74 Schizothoraichthys curvifrons (Heckel) 189 P. crassicaudata sp. nov. Ng & Edds 75 S. ecocinus (Heckel) 190 P. serracula sp. nov. Ng & Edds 76 S. niger (Heckel) 191 P. eddsi sp. nov. Ng 77 S. labiatus (McClelland) 192 Sisor rhabdophorus (Hamilton) 78 S. progastus (McClelland) 193 Sisor rheophilus Ng 79 Schizothoraicthys macrophthalmus (Terashima) S. nepalensis (Terashima) 194 Clarius batrachus (Linnaeus) 195 Heteropneustes fossillis (Bloch) 80 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page257 81 S. raraensis (Terashima) 196 Chaca chaca (Hamilton) 82 Dipticus maculates Steindachner 197 Olyra longicaudata McClelland 83 Crossocheilus latius latius (Hamilton) 198 Sicamugil cascasia (Hamilton) 84 Garra annandalei Hora 199 Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) 85 G. gotyla gotyla (Gray) 200 Xenentodon cancila (Hamilton) 86 Garra lamta (Hamilton) 201 Hyporhamphus limbatus (Valenciennes) 87 G. lissorhynchus (McClelland) 202 Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton) 88 G. mullya (Sykes) 203 Monopterus cuchia (Hamilton) 89 G. nasuta (McClelland) 204 Macragnathus aral (Bloch & Schneider) 90 G. rupecula (McClelland) 205 M. pancalus (Hamilton) 91 Psilorhynchus balitora (Hamilton) 206 M. zebrinus (Blyth) 92 P. sucatio (Hamilton) 207 Mastacembelus armatus (Lacepede) 93 P. gracillis Rainboth 208 Chanda nama (Hamilton) 94 P. nepalensis (Conway & Mayden) 209 Parambassis baculis (Hamilton) 95 210 P. ranga (Hamilton) 96 Psilorhynchoides. Homaloptera Hora & Mukherji P. pseudecheneis Menon & Datta 211 P. lala (Hamilton) 97 Homaloptera bilineata (Blyth) 212 Johnius coiter (Hamilton) 98 Balitora brucei Gray 213 Daysciaena albida (Cuvier) 99 B. eddsi sp. Nov. conway & Mayden 214 Badis badis (Hamilton) 100 Acanthocobitis botia (Hamilton) 215 Nandus nandus (Hamilton) 101 Nemacheilus. Corica (Hamilton) 216 Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) 102 217 Brachyamblyopus burmanicus (Hora) 103 Turcinomacheilus himalaya (Shrestha & Mayden) Schistura beavani Gunther 218 Anabas testudineus (Bloch) 104 S. devdevi Hora 219 A. cobojius (Hamilton) 105 S. multifaciatus Day 220 Ctenops nobilis (McClelland) 106 S. rupecola rupecola (McClelland) 221 Colisa fasciatus (Bloch & Schneider) 107 S. rupecola inglishi (Hora) 222 C. lala (Hamilton) 108 S. savona (Hamilton) 223 C. sota (Hamilton) 109 S. scaturigina (McClelland) 224 C. barca (Hamilton) 110 S. sikamaiensis (Hora) 225 C. marulius (Hamilton) 111 S. prashadi (Hora) 226 Channa orientalis (Bloch & Schneider) 112 S. horai (Menon) 227 C. punctatus (Bloch) 113 S. himachalensis (Menon) 228 C. stewartius (Playfair) 114 Aborichthys elangatus (Hora) 229 C. Striaraus (Bloch) 115 Botia almorhae Gray 230 Tetradan cutcutia (Hamilton) Annex 2.4: Phytoplankton species reported from Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page258 SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Species Microcystis aeruginosa Microcystis sp. Chroococcus sp. Lyngbya sp. Ocsillatoria sp. Oedogonium sp. Cymbella sp. Anabaena sp. Aphanothece sp. Spirulina gigantea Coelosphaerium natans Merismopedia sp. Ceratium hirundinella Gymnodinium sp. Peridinium inconspicuum Peridinium sp. Mallomonas sp. Dinobryon sertularia Dinobryon divergens Centritractus belonophorus Milosira islandica f. spiralis Milosira granulata Diatoma elongatum Synedra ulna Volvocales: Volvox sp. Paulschulzia Pseudovolvox Pandorina morum Chlorococcales: Pediastrum duplex Pediastrum duplex var. subgranulatum Pediastrum boryanum pediastrum clathratrum pediastrum simplex pediastrum tetras SN 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Species Scenedesmus quadricauda Scenedesmus opoliensis Scenedesmus brevispina Scenedesmus ecornis Scenedesmus acuminatus Tetrallantos lagerheimii Crucigenia lauterbornii Crucigenia tetrapedia Apiculata Apiculata quadrata Coelastrum microporum Coelastrum intermedium Ankistrodesmus falcatus Conjugatophhceae: Closterium gracile Actinotaenium globosum Cosmarium monoliforme Cosmarium luetkemuelleri Cosmarium sp. Cosmarium pseudophaseolus var. tithophoroides Cosmarium javanicum Cosmarium obsoletum Cosmarium margispinatum Staurodesmus phimus Staurodesmus leptodermus Staurodesmus O'Mearii Staurodesmus extensus Staurodesmus conatus Staurodesmus pachyrhynchus Staurastrum protectum var. rangoonense staurastrum spp. Staurastrum tohopekaligenese Staurastrum rosei Staurastrum chaetoceras Staurastrum sexangulare 36 37 38 pediastrum angulosum Sphaerocystis schroeteri Botryococcus braunii 87 88 89 Staurasturm diptilum Xanthidium hastiferum var. javanicum Teilingia granulate 39 Botryococcus protuberans 90 Spondylosium nitens var. triangular f.javanicum 40 41 Dictyosphaerium ehrenbergianum Dictyosphaerium pulchellum var. ovatum 91 92 Sphaerozosmaaubertianum Spondylosium planum 42 43 44 45 46 Westella botryoides Eutetramorus planctonica Oocystis borgei Oocystis solitaria Oocystis sp. 93 94 95 96 97 Trachelomonas volvocina Trachelomonas acanthophora Trachelomonas globularis Trachelomonas mirabilis Trachelomonas hispida National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page259 47 48 49 50 51 Monoraphidium conrolutum Nephrocytium sp. Nephrocytium agardhianum Kirchneriella obesa Kirchneriella lunaris 98 99 100 101 102 Trachelomonas armata Trachelomonas megalacantha var. crenulatocollis Euglena oxyuris var. charkowiensis Phacus longicauda Phacus spp. Annex 2.5: Zooplankton species reported from Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page260 SN Species A)Rotifer 1 Lecane ceylonensis chengalath and fernando, 1973 SN 60 61 2 Lecane crepida Harring, 1914 B) Cladocera 3 Lecane curvicornis (Murray, 1913) 62 Diaphanosoma excisum sar, 1884 4 Lecane curvicornis var. miamiensis Myers, 1941 63 Diaphanosoma Saroi Richard, 1894 5 Lecane curvicornis var. nitida (Murray, 1913) 64 Daphma similis clans, 1876 6 Lecane elegans Harring, 1914 65 Daphma lumhothis sars, 1885 7 Lecane hastata (Murray, 1913) 66 Daphma tibetana sars, 1903 8 Lecane hornemanni (Ehrenberg, 1881) 67 Daphma pulex (De Geer), 1978 9 Lecane leontina (Turner, 1892) 68 Daphma longis pina Muller, 1785 10 Lecane ludwigii (Eckstein, 1883) 69 Simocephalno vetulus Muller, 1776 11 Lecane luna (Muller, 1776) 70 Ceriodaphnia cornuta sars, 1885 12 Lecane papuane (Murray, 1913) 71 Ceriodaphnia cornuta sars, 1885 13 Lecane ploenensis (Voigt, 1902) 72 Ceriodaphnia retientata (Jurme, 1820) 14 Lecane subtillis Harring and Myers, 1926 73 Ceriodaphnia pulchella sars, 1862 15 Lecane ungulata (Gosse, 1887) 74 Ceriodaphnia quadrangulia Muller, 1787 16 Lecane sympoda Hauer, 1929 75 Micrura kurne, 1874 17 Lecane undulata Hauer, 1938 76 Bosmina longirostris Muller, 1885 18 Lecane bulla (Gosse, 1851) 77 Eubrsmina coregoni (Baird, 1857) 19 Lecane closterocerca (Schmarda,1859) 78 Macrothrex laticornis (Jurine 1820) 20 Lecane decipiens Murray, 1913 79 Echinisca triseridis brady, 1886 21 Lecane lunaris (Ehrenberg, 1832) 80 Eurycercus opp 22 Lecane perpusilla (Hauer, 1929) 81 Pleuroxus aduncus (jurine 1820) 23 Lecane pyriformis (Daday, 1905) 82 P.Similis vavra 1900 24 Lecane quadridentata (Ehrenberg, 1832) 83 P. laevis sars, 1862 25 Lecane stenroosi (Meissner, 1908) 84 Alonella nana (Baird, 1850) 26 Lecane thienemanni Hauer, 1938 85 Alonella excisa (fischer, 1954) 27 Lecane Unguitata (Fadeev, 1925) 86 Exigua 28 Brachionus angularis Gosse, 1851 87 Chyrodus sphaerns Maller, 1887 29 Brachionus calyciflorus Pallas, 1766 88 Chydorus barrolisi (Richard, 1894) 30 Brachionus caudatus Barrois and Daday, 1894 89 Chydus eurynotus eury sars, 1911 31 Brachionus leydigii Cohn, 1862 90 Chydus parvus Daday, 1898 32 Brachionus patulus (Muller, 1786) 91 Dunhavedisa crana king, 1853 33 Brachionus quadridentatus Hermann, 1783 92 Leydigia ciliata Gauthier, 1939 34 Brachionus urceolaris Muller, 1773 93 Alona quadrangularis Muller, 1785 35 Keratella cochlearis (Gosse, 1851) 94 A. reclangulla sars, 1863 36 Keratella procurva (Thorpe, 1891) 95 A. costata sars, 1862 37 Platyias quadricornis (Ehrenberg, 1832) 96 A. pulchella king, 1853 38 Colurella colurus (Ehrenberg, 1830) 97 A. guttata sars 1862 39 Lepadella acuminata (Ehrenberg, 1834) 98 G. testudinars (fischer, 1851) 40 Lepadella ovalis (Muller, 1786) 99 Biaperturs pseudoverrucusa B.affims (laydig, National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Species Conochiloides dossuarius (Hudson, 1885) Tetramastix opoliensis Zacharias, 1898 Page261 1860)(sars, 1901) 41 Lepadella patella (Muller, 1773) 100 B. karna (king, 1985) 42 Lepadella rhomboides (Gosse, 1886) 101 Oxyurella singalensis (Daddy, 1898) 43 Dicranophorus robustus Harring and Myers, 1928 C) Copepoda 44 Lophocharis salpina (Ehrenberg, 1834) 102 Ectocyclops phaleratus (Koch, 1838) 45 Mytilina bisulcata (Lucks, 1912) 103 Paracyclops fimbriatus (Fischer, 1853) 46 Mytilina ventralis Ehrenberg, 1832 104 Tropocyclops prasinus (Fischer, 1860) 47 Dipleuchlanis propatula Gosse, 1886 105 Eucyclops leuckarti (Fischer, 1851) 48 Euchlanis dilatata Ehrenberg, 1832 106 Mesocyclops leuckarti (Claus, 1857) 49 Tripleuchlanis plicata (Levander, 1894) 107 Thermocyclops crassus (Fischer,1853) 50 Cephalodella forficula Ehrenberg, 1832 108 Microcyclops varicans (Sars, 1863) 51 109 Ergasilus philippinensis Velasquez, 1951 52 Trichocerca capucina (Wierzejski and Zacharias, 1893) Trichocerca rattus Muller, 1776 110 Elaphoidella sewelli (Chappuis, 1928) 53 Macrochaetus collinsi Gosse, 1867 111 54 Tricho tria tetractis (Ehrenberg, 1830) 112 Elaphoidella grandidieri (Guerne and Richard, 1893) Filipinodiaptomus insulanus (wright, 1928) 55 Asplanchnopus multicepes (Schrank, 1793) 113 Monglodiaptomus birulai (Rylov, 1924) 56 Polyarthra vulgaris (Carlin, 1943) 114 Tropodiaptomus gigantoviger Brehm, 1933 57 Testudinella patina (Hermann, 1783) 115 Tropodiaptomus vicinus Kiefer 58 Sinantherina spinosa (Thorpe, 1893) 116 Tropodiaptomus australis (Kiefer, 1936) 59 Hexarthra intermedia (Wisniewski, 1929) Annex 2.6: Species of aquatic insects reported from Nepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page262 SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Species Leptophlebiidae sp. Ephemerella sp.1 Ephemerella sp.2 Ephemerella sp.3 Ephemerella sp.4 Ephemerella sp.5 Ephemerella sp.6 Ephemerella sp.7 Ephemerella sp.8 Ephemerella sp.9 Caenis sp. 1 Caenis sp. 2 Baetis sp.1 Baetis sp.2 Baetis sp.4 Baetiella sp. 2 Epeorus sp. 1 Epeorus sp. 2 Epeorus sp. 3 Epeorus sp. 4 Epeorus sp. 5 Ecdyonurus sp.2 Rhithrogena sp. 2 Rhithrogena sp. 3 Rhithrogena sp. 4 Ophiogomphus sp. 1 Nemoura sp. Neoperla sp. Claassenia sp. Paragnetia sp. Acroneuria sp. Aphelochirus sp. Ryacophila sp.1 Ryacophila sp.2 Ryacophila sp.3 Ryacophila sp.5 Ryacophila sp.6 SN 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Species Himalopsyche sp. 2 Dolophilodes sp. Stenopsyche sp. Prastenopsyche sp. (Pupa) Psychomyiinae sp. Polycentropus sp.2 Hydropsycae sp.1 Hydropsycae sp.2 Hydropsycae sp.3 Macronema sp. Macronema sp.1 Limnocentropus sp. Goera sp. 1 Goera sp. 2 Uenoa sp. (Pupa) Cataclysta sp. Hydrophilidae sp. Psephenidae sp.2 Psephenidae sp.3 Psephenidae sp.4 Zaitevia sp. Apistomyia sp. (Pupa) Antocha sp. Pedica sp. Ericera sp. Simuliidae sp. 1 Simuliidae sp. 2 Tendipedidae spp. Tabanus sp. Atherix sp. Annex 2.7: Freshwater molluscks reported fromNepal National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page263 S.N Family Specises S.N Family Species FRESHWATER BIVALVES 1 Amblemidae Parreysia corrugata 2 Parreysia sikkimensis 3 Parreysia triembolus 4 Parreysia viridula 5 Parreysia favidens 6 Radiatula bonneaudi 7 Radiatula caerulea 8 Radiatula lima 9 Radiatula occata 10 Radiatula shurtleffiana Radiatula pachysoma 12 Radiatula gandichaudi 14 15 Corbicula striatella Pisidium (Afropisidium) chandanbariensis 16 Pisidium atkinsonianum 17 Musculium indicum 18 Pisidium nevillianum 19 Pisidium clarkeanum 20 Pisidium annansalei 21 Pisidium casertanum 22 23 Pisidium (afropisidium) ellisi 24 Pisidium kuiperi Pisidium (Odhneripisidium) prasongi 11 13 25 Corbiculidae Unionidae Sphaeriidae Musculium goshaitanensis Lamellidens jenkinsianus 26 Lamellidens corrianus 27 Lamellidens Mainwaringi 28 Lamellidens narainporensis 29 Lamellidens marginalis 30 Lamellidens consobrinus FRESHWATER GASTROPODS 31 Apullariidae Pila theobaldi Bithyniidae Digoniostoma cerameopoma 32 Pila globosa 33 34 Gabbia orcula 35 36 Digoniostoma pulchella 37 38 Glaba truncatula 39 Galba simulans 40 Radix ovalis 41 Radix luteola 42 Radix persica 43 Radix brevicauda 44 Radix hookeri 45 lymnaea andersoniana 46 Pseudosuccinea 47 Gabbia stenothyroides Lymnaeidae Neritidae lymnaea acuminata Neritina violacea 48 Physidae Physa acuta 49 Physa (Haitia) mexicana 50 Planorbidae Gyraulus convexiusculus 51 Indoplanorbis exustua 52 Comptoceras lineatum 53 Hippeutis umbilicalis 54 Gyraulas labiatus 55 Segmentina calatha 56 Segmentina trochidea 57 Ferrissia verruca 58 Gyraulus euphraticus 59 Planorbarium corneus 60 Ferrissia baconi 61 Pleuroceridae Paludonmus conica 62 Paludomus blanfordiana 63 Pomatiopsidae Erhaia chandeshwariensis 64 erhaia banepaensis 65 Erhaia sugurensis 66 Tricula montana 67 Tricula godawariensis 68 Tricila mahadevesis 69 70 Melanoides tuberculatus 71 72 Thiara (tarebia) granifera 73 74 Thiara lineata 75 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Thiaridae Brotia costula Thiara (Tarebia) scabra Melanoides pyramis Viviparidae Bellamya bengalensis Page264 76 78 Idiopoma dissimilis Filopaludina sumatrensis polygramma National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 77 Mekongia crassa 79 Viviparus sp. Page265 Annex 2.8: Amphibians reported fromNepal S N 1 Family Species Salamandridae 2 Bufonidae Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson, 1971 Bufo himalayanus Gunther, 1894 Bufo melanostictus Schneider, 1799 Bufo microtympanum Boulenger, 1982 Bufo stomatiecus Lutken,1862 Microhyla ornata (dumeril and Biborn, 1841) Kaloula pulchra Gray, 1831 Kaloula taprobanica (Parker, 1934) Upeodon globulosus (Gunther, 1864) Uperodon systomus (Schneider, 1799) Megophrys parva (Boulenger, 1893) Megophrys robusta (Boulenger, 1908) Scutiger boulengeri (Bedriaga, 1898) 3 4 5 6 Microhylide 7 8 9 10 11 Megophryidae 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Ranidae Common Name crocodile salamander Himalayan toad Black spine toad Small ear toad Elevation Range 1200-2150m Status 1300-2744m Fairly common Below 2500m 1300-2500m Fairly common Marbled toad 130-1880m Fairly common Ornate rice frog Below 1980m Common Below 300m Unknown Below 300m seems to be scarces scutiger napalenisis Dubois, 1974 Scutiger nyingchiensis fei, 1977 Scutiger sikimmemsis (Blyth, 1854) Painted bullfrog Sri lanka bull frog Gray ballon frog Marbled ballon frog Myanmar pelobatid toad Robust spadefoot toad Boulenger's high altitue toad Khaptad pelobatid toad Nyingchi high altitue toad Sikkimise pelobatid toad Amolops formosus (Gunther, 1875) Amolops marmoratus (Blyth, 1855) Amolops monticola (Andrson, 1871) Amolops nepalicus yang, 1991 Chaparana sikimensis (Jerdon, 1870) Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider, 1799) Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson, 1834) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Remarks Fairly common Common Smallest species smallest frog of nepal Below 300m Below 200m Unknown 970-2440m Fairly common 1600-2400m scarce Above 3000m Common 2920-3100m 2730-4560m Unknown 1260-4116m Common Beautiful stream frog Meghalaya stream frog Montane stream frog Nepalese stream frog 1190-2896m scarce 842-2896m Common 1067-2350m Common Sikkimise frog 1210-2500m Tic-Tike pha Below 2000m Unknown Recorded from upper Mustang Endemic to Nepal Tibeto himalayan spices Medicine Possibly Nepalese endamic Fairly common Indian green frog Page266 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 Rhacophoridae Hoplobatrachus Crassus (Jerdon, 1853) Hoplobatrachus tigrinus (Daudin, 1802) Limnonectes nepalinsis (Dubois, 1975) Limnonectes Pierrei (Dubois, 1975) Limnonectes syhadrensis (Annandale, 1919) Limnonectes teraiensis (Dubois, 1984) Nanorana parkeri (Stejneger, 1927) Jerdon's bull frog Indian bull frog Nepalese cricket frog Jhapa frog Below 300m Common Below 1600m 1350-1580m Common, CITES(II) Common 170-500m Common Syhadra frog Below 1980m Below 400m Fairly common Above 2000m Common Paa annandalii (Boulenger, 1920) Paa blanfordii (Boulenger, 1882) Paa ercepeae (Dubois, 1974) Paa liebigii (Gunther, 1860) Annandale's frog Blanford's paa frog Bhajang frog 1650-2650m Common 1800-2920m scarce 2200-2650m Unknown Liebig's frog 1525-3360m Common paa minica (Dubois, 19750 Paa polunini (Smith, 1951) Tiny frog 1000-2000m Common Langtang frog 2100-3990m Common Paa rarica (Dubosis and Matsui, 1983) Paa rostandi (Dubosis, 1974) Rara frog 2900-3020m Scarce Mustang frog 2230-3500m Common, Red Data (Nepal),S Rana chitwanensis Das, 1998 Rana humeralis Boulenger, 1897 Rana nigrovittata (Blyth, 1855) Rana tytleri (Theobald, 1868) Sphaerotheca breviceps (Schneider, 1799) Sphaerotheca maskeyi (Schleich and Anders, 1998) Sphaerotheca rolandae (Dubosis, 1983) Sphaerotheca swani (Myers and Leviton, 1956) Philautus annandalii (boulenger, 1906) Chitwan frog 200m Unknown Burmese frog 100-250m Unknown Black-spotted frog Taipeh frog 100-250m Scarce 100-250m Common Indian burrowing frog Maskey's burrowing frog 150-2100m Scarce 200-800m Scarce Rolanda's burrowing frog Sawn's burrowing frog 126m Unknown 250-1560m Rare, NRDB (Nepal),S Annandale's bush frog 1250-2250m Common National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Nepalese terai frog Parker's high altitue frog Fairly common Traditional medicine Medicinal value Endemic to Nepal Endemic to Nepal Reported from Mustang Endemic to Nepal Health benefits and food value Food and medicinal value Food and medicinal value Page267 48 Polypedates leucomystax (Gravenhorst, 1829) Polypedates maculatus (Gray, 1834) 49 50 Polypedates taeniatus (Boulenger, 1906) Polypedates zed (Dubois, 1987) 51 52 53 Ichthyophidae Rhacophorus maximus Gunther, 1858 Ichthyophis sikkimensis Taylor, 1960 Java whipping frog Common Indian tree frog Six-lined tree frog Nepalese tree frog <210m Scarce 150-2500m Common 150-250m scarce 310m Large tree frog 1150-1585m seems to be scarces scarce Sikkimese caecilian 1550m scarce Source: Shah and Tiwari (2004) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page268 Annex 2.9: Common crops, fruits and vegetable species grown in Nepal Crops Fruits Tarai Rice, kodo millet, pigeon pea, Mango, litchi, pineapple, grass pea, chick pea, horse gram, jackfruit, tomato, guava, potato, sweet potato, sesame, wild jujube, gooseberry, relatives of rice watermelon, natal plum, black plum, tamarind, pineapple Vegetables Drumstick, tomato, brinjal, okra, radish, onion, garlic, taro, bottle gourd, sponge gourd, cowpea, snake gourd, ash gourd, pumpkin, cucumber, cauliflower, cabbage, potato Siwalik Rice, maize, finger millet, foxtail Mango, papaya, banana, Yam, taro, chayote, tomato , millet, black gram, horse gram, guava, gooseberry, jujube, okra, radish, onion, garlic, taro, soybean, sweet potato, taro, yams, rasp berry, pineapple cowpea, snake gourd, pumpkin, mustard, perilla, niger cucumber, cauliflower, cabbage, potato Middle Mountains Rice, maize, finger millet, foxtail Citrus, rasp berry, bay berry, Yam, taro, chayote, balsam millet, proso millet, amaranths, pear, plum, hog plum apple, chathel gourd, okra, soybean, rice bean, faba bean, radish, onion, garlic, cowpea, beans, taro, yams, mustard , broadleaf mustard, pumpkin, perilla, niger, buckwheat cucumber, cauliflower, cabbage, beans, potato High Mountains Cold tolerant rice, maize, potato, Walnut, pear, plum, apricot, Beans, pumpkins, broad leaf rice bean, buckwheat apple, sea buckthorn mustard High Himal Terminal point for food crop Sea buckthorn Potato, buckwheat diversity Source: Upadhyay and Joshi (2003) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page269 Annex 2.10: Livestock breeds found in different physiographic zones Livestock Tarai Cattle Buffalo Goats Sheep Pigs Poultry Duck Siwaliks Cattle Buffalo Goat Sheep Pigs Poultry Local Breeds/Genotypes Transboundary Breeds Tarai cattle Tarai buffalo Tarai goat Lampuchhre Hurrah Sakini Sahiwal, Hariana, Jersey, Holstein-Friesian Murrah Jamunapari, Barbari, Beetal, Boer, Ajmeri None Yorkshire, Landrace, Hampshire, Duroc New Hampshire, White leghorn, Black Australorp, Giriraja, Several synthetic layers and broilers Mescavi, Peking white Pahadi cattle, Achhami Lime, Parkote Khari Kage Chwanche Sakini Jersey, Holstein-Friesian, Brownswiss Murrah Jamunapari, Barbari Polwarth, Rambouillett, Border Leceister, Romney Marsh Yorkshire, Landrace, Duroc New Hampshire, White leghorn, Black Australorp, Giriraja, Several synthetic layers and broilers Middle Mountains Cattle Pahadi cattle, Achhami, Khaila Buffalo Lime, Parkote, Gaddi Goats Khari Sheep Kage, Baruwal Pigs Chwanche Poultry Sakini High Mountains Cattle Yak, Lulu Goats Sinhal Sheep Baruwal Poultry Sakini High Himal Cattle Yak, Lulu Goat Chyangra Sheep Bhyanglung Source: Neopane (2006) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Jersey, Holstein-Friesian, Brown Swiss Murrah and its cross Jamunapari, Barbari Polwarth, Rambouillett, Border Leicester, Romney Marsh Pakhribas pigs, Saddle back, Yorkshire, Tamworth New Hampshire, Black Australorp, Giriraja, Several synthetic layers and broilers Brown Swiss None Merino, Polwarth None None None None Page270 Annex 2.11: Nationally-assessed status of wild mammals in Nepal IUCN Category Regionally Extinct (RE) Critically Endangered (CR) Endangered (EN) Vulnerable (VU) Near Threatened (NT) Species Pigmy Hog (Porcula salvania) Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), Csorba’s Mouse-eared Myotis (Myotis csorbai), Great Evening Bat (la io), Grey Wolf (Canis lupus), Indian Chevrotain (Moschiola indica), Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica), Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticaudata) Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster), Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus), Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Black Giant Squirrel (Ratufa bicolour), Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Dhole (Cuon alpines), Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Greater One-horned Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), Harlequin Bat (Scotomanes ornatus), Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), Himalayan Field Mouse (Apodemus gurkha), Himalayan Pika (Ohotona himalayana), Himalayan Water Shrew (Chimarrogale himalayica), Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus), Hog Deer (Axis porcinus), Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus), Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), Spotted Linsang (Prionodon pardicolor), Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena), Swamp Deer (Rucervus duvaucelii), Water Buffalo (Bubalus arnee) Assam Macaque (Macaca assamensis), Axis Deer (Axis axis), Barking Deer (Muntiacus vaginalis), Bengal Fox (Vulpes bengalensis), Common Leopard (Panthera pardus), Crabeating Mongoose (Herpestes urva), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Kiang (Equus kiang), Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), Lynx (Lynx lynx), Mandelli’s Mouse-eared Bat (Myotis sicarius), Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor), Short-winged Pipistrelle (Philetor brachypterus) Andersen’s Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros pomona), Blyth’s Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus Lepidus), Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra), Ghoral (Naemorhedus goral), Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha), Tibetan Tube-nosed Bat (Murina aurata) Source: Jnyawali et al. (2011) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page271 Annex 2.12: Threatened tree species found in the mountains of Nepal Botanical Name Abies pindrow Alnus nitida Choerospondias axillaris Cinnamomum glaucescens Crataeva unilocularis Elaeocarpus sphaericus Larix griffithiana Carriere Larix himalaica Local Name Thingre salla Utis Elevation Range (m) 2100-3600 Region of Occurrence West IUCN Threat Category Rare Reference 1800-2500 West-Central Rare Lapsi 1200-1500 Central-East Rare Shrestha and Joshi (1996); Press et al. (2000) Shrestha and Joshi (1996) Sugandhak okila Siplikan 2000-2500 West-East 1200-1800 Central-East Rare (GON protected) Rare Rudrakchh ya Dhingre sallo Langtang sallo 650-1700 Central-East Vulnerable 1100-4000 East Rare 2400-3600 Central Rare 3200-3400 East Rare Magnolia globosa Michelia champaca Michelia kisopa Champ Champ 600-1300 1400-2800 Central-East West-East Endangered Endangered Olea ferruginea Oroxylum indicum Podocarpus neriifolius Olive tree Tatelo Gunsi 500-2600 200-1400 800-1500 West West-East Central-East Talauma hodgsonii Bhalu kath 900-1800 Central-East Taxus wallichiana Lauth sallo Rare Vulnerable Endangered; CITES Appendix III Endangered; CITES Appendix III CITES Appendix II Rare; CITES Appendix III Rare/ Endangered Tetracentron sinense 2150-3200 East Ulmus wallichiana 1800-3000 West-Central National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Press et al. (2000) Press et al. (2000) Shrestha and Joshi (1996) Shrestha and Joshi (1996); Press et al. (2000) Shrestha and Joshi (1996) Shrestha and Joshi (1996); Press et al. (2000) Shrestha and Joshi (1996) Shrestha and Joshi (1996); Press et al. (2000) Shrestha and Joshi (1996); Press et al. (2000) Press et al. (2000) Shrestha and Joshi (1996) Page272 Annex 2.13: Threatened wetland-dependent plant species of Nepal SN Scientific Name 1 Operculina turpethum 2 Aconitum balangrense 3 Crateva unilocularis 4 Butea monosperma 5 Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifolia 6 Valerina jatamansii 7 Piper longum 8 Alstonia scholaris 9 Panax pseudo-ginseng 10 Swertia multicaulis Source: (to be completed) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Local Name Nisodh N/A Khaichola or Sipligan Palans N/A Sugandhawal Pipla Chhatiwan Mangan Sarma guru IUCN Red List Category Endangered Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Data Deficient Page273 Annex 2.14: Threatened wetland-dependent animal species of Nepal SN Scientific Name Mammals 1 Bubalus bubalis 2 Rhinoceros unicornis 3 Platanista gangetica 4 Cervus duvauceli duvauceli 5 Lutrogale perspicillata 6 Lutra Perspicillata 7 Prionailurus viverrinus Birds 1 Rhodonessa caryophyllacea 2 Leptoptilos dubius 3 Sypheotides indica 4 Anas formosa 5 Francolinus gularis 6 Aythya baeri 7 Pelecanus philippensis 8 Grus antigone 9 Rynchops albicollis 10 Grus nigricollis 11 Leptoptilos javanicus 12 Haliaeetus leucoryphus Reptiles 1 Kachuga kachuga 2 Kachuga dhongoka 3 Gravialis gangeticus 4 Crocodylus palustris 5 Hardella thurjii 6 Aspideretes gangeticus 7 Morenia petersi 8 Geoclemys hamiltonii Amphibians 1 Hoplobatrachus tigerinus 2 Paa rostandi (endemic to Nepal) Fishes 1 Tor putitora 2 Clupisoma garuwa 3 Ompak bimaculatus 4 Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis 5 Chagunius chagunio 6 Tor tor 7 Schizothorax plagiostomus 8 Schizothorax richardisoni 9 Schizothoraichthys progastus 10 Psilorhynchus pseudecheneis 11 Anguilla bengalensis 12 Danio rerio Insect 1 Epiophlebia laidlawi Local Name IUCN Red List Category CITES Appendix Asiatic wild buffalo One-horned rhinoceros Gangetic dolphin Swamp deer Indian smooth-coated otter Common otter Fishing cat Endangered Endangered Vulnerable N/A N/A N/A N/A I I I I N/A N/A N/A Pink-headed duck Greater adjutant Lesser florican Baikal teal Swamp francolin Baer's pochard Grey pelican Sarus crane Indian skimmer Black-necked crane Lesser adjutant Band-tailed fish-eagle Crit. Endangered Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Red crowned river turtle Dhond roofed turtle Gharial Mugger crocodile Crowned river turtle Soft shell turtle Indian eyed turtle Black pond turtle Crit. Endangered Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable N/A N/A N/A I N/A I N/A N/A Bull frog Mustang frog N/A N/A II N/A Sahar Jalkapoor Jalkapoor Katle Rewa Sahar Buchhe Asla Asala Soal Chuche Asala Tite machha Rajabam Zebra machha Endangered Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable Vulnerable N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Himalayan Dragonfly Vulnerable N/A Source: Compiled from various sources National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page274 Annex 2.15: Protected plant species in Nepal Scientific Name Common English Local Name IUCN Red CITES Appendix Name List Status Status Species Banned for Collection, Use, Sale, Distribution, Transportation and Export Angiosperms Juglans regia Walnut Okhar Orchis latifolia Orchid Panch aunle Piccrohiza kurroa Gentian Kutki II Species Banned for Export Except for Processed with Permission of Department of Forests Angiosperms Cinnamomum glaucescens Sugandakokila Cordyceps sinensiss Yarsagumba Rauvolfia serpentina Serpentine Sarpagandha VU II Valeriana Jatamansi Spike nard Jatamansi Vleriana wallichii Valerian Sugandhawal Gymnosperms Abies spetabilis Fir Talis Patra NT Taxus buccata Himlayan yew Loth salla EN II Taxus wallichiana East Himalayan yew Taxus contorta West Himalayan yew Bryophyte Parmelia spp. Lichen Jhyau Species Banned for Harvest, Transportation and Export for Commercial Purposes Angiosperms Acacia catechu Cutch tree Khayer Bombax malabaricum Silk cotton tree Simal Dalbergia latifolia Rose wood Satisal VU Michellia champaca Magnolia Champ Pterocarpus marsupium Indian kino tree Bijaysal Shorea robusta Common sal Sal Source: Nepal Gazette, 12 February 2001, IUCN ( 2013b). Note: Protection of Walnut is from National Forest Only National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page275 Annex 2.16: Protected Animal Species of Nepal Scientific Name Mammals Macaca assamensis Manis pentadactyla Manis crassicaudata Caprolagus hispidus Canis lupus Ursus arctos Ailurus fulgens Prionodon pardicolor Felis bengalensis (Prionailurus bengalensis) Felis lynx (Lynx lynx) Neofelis nebulosa Panthera tigris Panthera uncia (Uncia uncial) Elephas maximus Rhinoceros unicornis Sus salvanius Moschus chrysogaster Cervus duvauceli Bos gaurus Bos grunniens Bubalus arnee Ovis ammon Pantholops hodgsoni Antilope cervicapra Tetraceros quadricornis Hyaena hyaena Platanista gangetica Birds Buceros bicornis Catreus wallichii Houbaropsis bengalensis (Eupodotis bengalensis) Lophophorus impejanus Ciconia nigra Ciconia ciconia Tropan satyra Sypheotides indica (Eupodotis indica) Grus antigona Reptiles Gavialis gangeticus Python molurus Varanus flavescens Common English Name Local Name Assam Macaque Chinese Pangolin Indian Pangolin Hispid Hare Grey Wolf Brown Bear Red Panda Spotted Linsang Leopard Cat Asami Rato Bandar Kalo Salak Tame Salak Laghukarna Kharayo Bwanso Himali Rato Bhalu Habre Silu Biralo Chari Bagh Lynx Clouded Leopard Royal Bengal Tiger Snow Leopard Asian Elephant Greater One-horned Rhino Pygmy Hog Alpine Musk Deer Swamp Deer Gaur Wild Yak Wild Water Buffalo Great Tibetan Sheep Tibetan Antelope Blackbuck Four-horned Antelope Striped Hyaena South Asian River Dolphin Pahan Biralo Dwanse Chituwa Pate Bagh Hiun Chituwa Hatti Gainda Pudke Bandel Kasturi Mriga Bahrasingha Gauri Gai Chauri Gai Arna Nayan Chiru Krishnasar Chauka Hundar Shons IUCN Red List Status VU EN EN EN CR CR EN EN CITES Appendix Status II II II I I I I I VU VU EN EN EN II I I I EN EN I I RE EN EN VU I I I I I III I I III III EN DD DD CR DD EN CR Giant Hornbill Cheer Pheasant Bengal Florican Raj Dhanes Cheer Khar Mayur R R R Impeyon Pheasant Black Stork White Stork Crimson-horned Pheasant Lesser Florican Danphe Kalo Bhundiphor Seto Bhundiphor Munal Sano Khar Mayur R Saras Crane Saras R Gharial Crocodile Asiatic Rock Python Golden Monitor Lizard Gharial Gohi Ajingar Sun Gohoro WV R I I I I I II I III II II I I I Source : 1) Chapagain, D and Dhakal, J. 2003; 2) IUCN, 2011; 3) BCN and DNPWC, 2011. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page276 Annex 2.17: Forest tree species with seed stands Species Name Botanical Abies spectabilis Acacia catechu Aegle marmelos Local Talis patra Khayar Bel Number of Plots 1 3 1 Area (ha.) 2.5 10.9 0 Aesandra butyracea Albizia procera Chiuri Seto siris 5 1 18.5 48.5 Alnus nepalensis Anthocephalus chinensis Artocarpus chaplasha Azadirachta indica Bauhinia mlabarica Bauhinia purpurea Betula alnoides Bombax ceiba Castanopsis spp. Cedrus deodara Choerospondias axillaris Cinnamomum tamala Dalbergia latifolia Uttis Kadam Latahar Neem Amil tanki Tanki Saur Simal Katus Deodar Lapsi Tej pat Satisal 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 2 18.2 1.5 0 0 0 5 2.5 1.5 11.3 0 10 4.5 21.1 Dalbergia sissoo Eucalyptus spp. Ficus auriculata 10 1 1 40.4 2.2 0 Hippophae salicifolia Sissoo Masala Nimaro Ashuk/ Khurpu 1 1.5 Juglans regia Michelia champaca Olea cuspidate Okhar Champ Jaitun 2 1 1 10 10 0 Pinus patula Pate salla 5 16.4 21 100.4 5 24.2 Pinus roxburghii Pinus wallichiana Khote salla Gobre salla National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Location (District) Solokhumbu Siraha, Chitwan, Kapilvastu Sarlahi Syangja, Palpa, Arghakhanchi, Pyuthan Bara Sindhuli, Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Gorkha, Kaski, Myagdi, Palpa Morang Jhapa Kapilvastu Tanahu Dhading Makwanpur Chitawan Lalitpur, Tanahu,Kaski & Syangja Dadeldhura Sindhupalchowk Udayapur & Kaski Morang, Bara Jhapa, Dhanusa, Sarlahi, Bara, Parsa, Makwanpur, Nawalparasi, Kapilvastu, Kailali Mahottari Sindhupachowk Mustang Sindhupalchowk & Kavrepalanchowk Palpa Dolpa Dolkha, Sindhupalchowk, Kavrepalanchowk & Kathmandu Ramechap, Dolakha, Sindhupalchowk, Kavrepalanchowk, Bhaktapur, Kathmandu, Nuwakot, Makwanpur, Dhading, Parbat, Syangja, Palpa, Arghakhanchi, Dadeldhura, Baitadi Dolakha, Makwanpur, Baglung, Mustang Page277 Pterocarpus marsupium 1 6.5 Kapilbastu Pterocarpus santalinus Quecus lanata Bijayasal Rakta chandan Banjh 1 2 2.5 17.9 Quercus semicarpifolia Sapindus mukarassi Kharsu Ritha 5 1 14.5 * 6 2 5 1 1 14.2 7.3 18.8 1.5 * Syangja Lalitpur, Dadeldhura Dolkha, Lalitpur, Makwanpur, Lamjung Sallyan Kathmandu, Nuwakot, Gorkha, Tanhu, Kaski, Syangja Nawalparasi, Kailai Dhanusa, Sarlahi, Parsa, Rupandehi Bardia Myagdi Schima wallichii Chilaune Syzygium cumini Jamun Tectona grandis Sagvan Terminalia bellirica Barro Zanthoxylum armataum Timur Source: TISU (2013). * Scattered on farmland National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page278 Annex 2.18: Brief description of the global terrestrial ecoregions found in Nepal (1)Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf Forests [IM0401] This ecoregion is comprised of the temperate broadleaf forests found to the east of Kali Gandaki River between 2000-3000 m. The ecoregion is globally outstanding for both species richness and levels of endemism, especially for its flora. It contains several localized areas of floral richness and endemism floral hotspots, which are especially rich in rhododendrons and oaks.Red panda (Ailurus fulgens), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus) are some flagship mammals found in this ecoregion. The forests are also home to hundreds of bird species, many of which are endemic to this region. The ecoregion also plays an important role in maintaining altitudinal connectivity between different habitats types found in the region. (2) Eastern Himalayan Conifer Forests [IM0501] TheEastern Himalayan Conifer Forests are typically found on steep, rocky, north-facing slopes between 3,000-4,000 m in eastern Nepal. It represents the transition from the forested regions to treeless alpine meadows. The forests are dominated by fir (Abies spectabilis), larch (Larix griffithii), hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), and Juniperus spp. Several colourful species of rhododendrons grow profusely in the understory, along with other broadleaf species such as Viburnum grandiflorum and Betula utilis. (3) Eastern Himalayan Alpine Shrub and Meadows [PA1003] This ecoregionextends eastwards from the gorge of Kali Gandaki River. The ecoregion supports one of the world's richest alpine floral diversities (Mittermeier et al., 2004). The meadows display spectacular colorful flowers of alpine herbs during the spring and summer. The main scrub vegetation in this region includes varied associations of Rhododendron spp. and Juniperus spp. The region is also very rich in faunal diversity. The endangered snow leopard, Himalayan goral (Naemorhedus baileyi), serow (Capricornis sumatraensis) and Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) are some of the important mammals found in this region. (4) Himalayan Subtropical Broadleaf Forests [IM0115] Th ecoregion extends between 500 to 1,000 m across the Siwaliks, forming a critical link in the chain of country’s interconnected ecosystems that extend from the Terai-Duar grasslands along the foothills to the high alpine meadows. The dry Shorea robusta forests and moist mixed deciduous forests are the dominant vegetation types found in the ecoregion. It houses several threatened species of mammals, including the tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), smooth-coated otter (Lutrogale perspicillata), and gaur (Bos gaurus). The ecoregion also hosts numerous species of birds, including globally threatened whitewinged wood duck (Carina scutulata) and hornbill species (BirdLife International, 2004). (5) Himalayan Subtropical Broadleaf Forests [IM0115] This ecoregion covers a large area in between 1,000 m-2,000 m. The natural vegetation is primarily comprised of dry chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forests. The ground is covered by grass species such as Arundinella setosa, Imperata cylindrica and Themeda anathera. The Kali Gandaki valley bisects the ecoregion, dividing it into a drier, western conifer forest dominated by chir pine and a wetter and richer eastern conifer forest. (6) Western Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests [IM0502] The Western Himalayan Subalpine Conifer Forests occurs on elevations between 3,000 and 3,500 to the west of the Kali Gandaki River. The forest types include pure fir forest (Abies spectabilis), mixed oak-fir forest (Quercus semecarpifolia and A. spectabilis), mixed rhododendron, fir, and birch forest (Rhododendron campanulatum, A. spectabilis, and Betula utilis), and mixed coniferous forest (A. spectabilis, Pinus wallichiana, and Picea smithiana). Cypress (Cupressus torulosa) and deodar (Cedrus deodara) are common above 2,400 m (Shrestha and Joshi, 1997). The ecoregion is home to snow leopard, Himalayan tahr, blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), and hundreds of bird species including several species of pheasants. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page279 (7) Western Himalayan Broadleaf Forests [IM0403] This ecoregion represents the temperate broadleaf forests of western Nepal, between 1,500 m to 2,600 m. It is less species-rich than the eastern temperate forests but nevertheless harbors several important species of mammals, including the black bear (Ursus thibetanus), leopard (Panthera pardus), and the Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). (8) Western Himalayan Alpine Shrub and Meadows [PA1021] This lies between 3,000 m and 5,000 m elevations in western Nepal. The ecoregion has large areas of habitat suitable for conserving viable populations of the high-altitude Himalayan predator, including the snow leopard (Uncia uncia), and the large montane ungulates such as blue sheep (Pseudois nayur), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus), Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), and serow (Capricornis sumatraensis). The rich meadow flora is dominated by herbaceous plants, such as Anaphalis, Aster, Cynanthus, Jurinea, Morina, Potentilla, Gentiana, Delphinium, Gentiana, Meconopsis, Pedicularis, Anemone, Aster, Polygonum, Primula, and Saussurea (Shrestha and Joshi, 1997). (9) Upper Gangetic Plains Moist Deciduous Forests [IM0166], and (10) Lower Gangetic Plains Moist Deciduous Forests (IM0120) These ecoregions occur in the Tarai region. In ancient times the region harvored tropical moist deciduous forests dominated by sal (Shorea robusta) and impressive populations of several large mammals including tiger (Panthera tigris), rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), and gaur (Bos gaurus). Currently, the region is densely populated, and the fertile plains have largely been converted to intensive agriculture, with only a few enclaves of forest remaining. The riparian forests are characterized by an Acacia-Dalbergia association. The ecoregion harbors numerous species of birds including two globally threatened species, the Bengal florican and the lesser florican (Eupodotis indica). (11) Tarai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands [IM0701] This ecoregion is characterized by a mosaic of tall riverside grasslands (Saccharum sp.), savannas and evergreen and deciduous forests. The grasslands and marshlands of the Chitwan Valley and adjoining lowlands are examples. Eugenia jambolana, Bombax sp., Trewia nudiflora, and Mallotus philippensis are some of the common tree species that grow in association with the grass species. Sal (Shorea robusta) dominated deciduous forests occur in drier and higher elevation areas. These savannas and grasslands are excellent habitat for several endangered species of mammals and reptiles, including the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris), Rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), and Gharial crocodile (Gavialis gangeticus). Grasslands in Shukla Phanta and Chitwan are habitats for internationally important populations of some globally threatened grassland birds (BCN and DNPWC, 2011). (12) Rock and Ice This ecoregion covers a significant proportion of the high elevation areas in the northernmost belt of the Himalayas. Source: Compiled from various sources including Olson et al. (2001) and Wickamanayake, et al. (2002) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page280 Annex 4.1: Biodiversity related cross-sectoral policies, strategies, and regulatory framework developed since 2002 SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Policy/ Biodiversity related Key Provision(s) Strategy/ Legislation The Tenth Plan Internalized the concept of sustainable development in national development planning. (2002-2007) Emphasized sustainable forest and watershed management and biodiversity [Poverty conservation through public participation to help economic activities and enhance Reduction livelihood opportunities. Strategy Paper] Recommended putting biodiversity at the center during conservation, promotion, management and utilization of the forest resources. Promoted landscape approach to biodiversity conservation. Integrated conservation and development of rare and endangered plants Increasing forest cover to 40 percent Nepal The goal was to provide a strategic planning framework for the conservation of biological Biodiversity diversity, the maintenance of ecological processes and systems, and the equitable sharing Strategy (2002) of the benefits accrued. National The objectives of the Foundation are to preserve and promote the language, culture, Foundation for literature, arts, and; preserve and promote the traditional, skill, technology and special Development of knowledge and provide assistance for its vocational use; and provide assistance in Indigenous building an equitable society by social, economic, religious and cultural up-liftment and Nationalities development of Indigenous Nationalities, among others. Act (2002) The powers and functions of the Foundation include formulation and implementation of s necessary for the promotion and preservation of traditional skill and technology of Indigenous Nationalities; and protection of the technology, skill and special knowledge that have been traditionally practiced by Indigenous Nationalities as intellectual property rights of the concerned Indigenous Nationalities subject to and as prescribed by the prevailing law. Sustainable Environmental conservation an integral component of poverty alleviation and Development sustainable economic growth. Agenda for Emphasized the need for more effective management of forests, ecosystems and Nepal (2003) biodiversity in order to achieve the goal of sustainable development. Recommended promoting people’s participation in forestry resource development, and enhancing economic benefits to local people from protected areas Science and Sustainable use of natural resources through the use of science and technology. Technology Need of education, research, training, and development in various sectors including Policy (2005) agriculture, forest, water resource, environment, and biotechnology. Biosafety GMO to be released step by step only after assessing the potential adverse effects it causes Guidelines and making sure that it will not have adverse effects on human health and the environment. (2005) Biotechnology Has envisioned increasing production and productivity by means of research and Policy (2006) development of biotechnology as well as transfer of technology, and improve the living standard of Nepali people by achieving a significant progress in the field of public health and environment. Nepal The overall goal was to contribute to achieve the goals and objectives of NBS (2002) Biodiversity through its successful implementation for the conservation of biodiversity, the Strategy maintenance of ecological processes and systems and equitable sharing of the benefits Implementation accrued. Plan (2006) Identified and planned for implementation of 13 priority projects during 2006-2010. National Bio- Objective is to protect bio-diversity and human health from the unfavorable impacts of safety imports, production and use of GMOs Framework National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page281 10 Policy (2007) Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007) 11 Three-year Interim Plan (2007-2010) 12 National CDM of the Kyoto Protocol (2007) Genetic Resources (access, use and sharing of benefits) Bill (2008) 13 14 15 Guarantees the right of every person to live in a clean environment as a fundamental right. Requires the state to make arrangements for the special protection of the environment and of rare wildlife and provide for the protection of forest, vegetation and biodiversity, its sustainable use and for equitable distribution of the benefit derived from it. Obliges the state to pursue a policy aimed at identifying and protecting traditional knowledge, skills and practices. Emphasized maintenance of balanced environmental by scientific management of forest, plants, watersheds, biodiversity and protected areas and ensuring the access and rights of poor and disadvantaged communities over forest products Prioritized the implementation of Biodiversity Implementation Plan, among others. Emphasized the protection, restoration and wise use of natural environment; and ensuring individual’s right to live in a clean environment; and effective implementation of national and international environmental management commitments. Prioritized formulating and implementation of action plans of environmental conventions to which Nepal is party. Provides indicators for maintaining sustainability of local ecological functions; and maintaining genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity and not permitting any genetic erosion. Vests the sovereign rights over the genetic resources and genetic materials on country. Provides ownership of genetic resources and genetic materials to individual person or institution, local community, and GoN depending on the ownership or use of the building, land, and forest or water resources where genetic resources and materials exist. Vests the right to traditional knowledge of the local community with the respective local community. Gives priority in the access to, use and sharing of benefits to the relevant local community on whose traditional knowledge the use of genetic resources is based irrespective of the ownership over genetic resources and genetic materials is on any person, institution or GoN. Empowers individual person, local community, institution, local bodies or GoN to separately or collectively document biological resources and its components and genetic resources and genetic materials and their derivatives and associated traditional knowledge of local community. Provides detailed conditions and provisions for developing registers, prior informed consent and sharing of the benefits arising from use of traditional knowledge, innovation and practices associated with genetic resources and materials. (to be completed) Churia Area Programme Strategy (draft; 2008) Three-year Plan (2010-2013) Emphasized development and expansion of adaption to climate change by conserving and utilizing agro-biodiversity and organic farming. Highlighted increasing the productivity of forest by promoting ecosystem services through scientific, inclusive and participatory, management of forest heritage. Promoted carrying out research, development and sustainable management of forest, plants, watersheds, protected areas and biodiversity through participatory system. Emphasized adoption of preventive and controlling measure for protecting forest from forest fire through participatory system. Provided for formulation and implementation of a new national forest strategy with long term perspective in participation of relevant stakeholders. Stressed maintaining a balance between livelihoods and biodiversity conservation by achieving public support and participation in the management of protected areas. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page282 16 Climate Change Policy (2011) 17 National Land Use Policy (2012) 18 National Intellectual Property Policy (draft; 2012) 19 Environment Friendly Local Governance Framework (2013) Committed to refine and internalize the NBS and NBSIP and implementing them. Committed to promote the concept of green development by making human activities and development works environment friendly to minimize the adverse effect of climate change and adaption to climate change. The goal is to improve livelihoods by mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts of climate change, adopting a low-carbon emissions socio-economic development path and supporting and collaborating in the spirits of country's commitments to national and international agreements related to climate change. Requires allocating more than 80 percent of the total climate change fund for field level activities. Has helped internalizing the concerns adverse impacts of climate change in a few policies. Has envisioned achieving sustainable social, financial and environmental development. The objectives include maintaining a balance between development and environment. Categorizes land into seven types for the optimum use of land and the land resources. Emphasizes identification and protection of environmentally sensitive areas; conservation and promotion of biodiversity by maintaining balance among land, environment and development; and operation of developmental activities taking into account the principle of sustainable development and impact of climate change. One of the objectives is protection of rights of farmers including local communities by protecting the intellectual property relating to products or services developed or manufactured by using biodiversity, species and sub-species of plants including biological resources. Promotes protection and enhancement of rights and interests of relevant farmersand local communities to agricultural products, forest products including medicinal plants which are developed in certain climate, soil of certain geographical area or developed because of especial skills of local traditional professional or occupational community. Emphasizes documentation of medicines, herbs including medicine making process as prior art so that others cannot misuse it in other countries as well traditional knowledge. Prioritizes documentation of description of herbs used in manufacturing medicines and resource persons involved in such work since ancient times and establishing the right of concerned communities. The objectives are to mainstream envrionment, climate change, disaster management in the local planning process; make the local governance system environment friendly; make every person responsibe for envrionmetn friendly sustainbale development from basic level; encourgare coordination and collaboration in envrionemnt and development; and increase the local ownership by localing the dimensions of envrioment for sustainable management of the environment. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page283 Table 4.2: Biodiversity related sectoral policies, strategies, and regulatory framework formulated since 2002 SN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Policy/ Biodiversity related Provision Strategy/ Legislation Water Resource The goal is to improve living conditions of Nepali people are significantly in a Strategy (2002) sustainable manner. Sustainable management of watersheds and aquatic ecosystems achieved is the one strategic output. Mountaineering Requires the mountaineering expedition team to comply with different conditions such Expedition as preventing damage or destruction of any tree, and other forest heritage and Regulations environmental cleanliness existing in the adjoining area or on mountaineering (2002) expedition route. Imposes a responsibility on the liaison officer to carry out necessary work relating to environmental cleanliness and solid waste management. Makes it mandatory to the mountaineering team to re-export to the country of origin wastes such as used oxygen bottles, used battery, equipment necessary for mountaineering or personal goods used for climbing. Leasehold Clarifies the ambiguities in then existing forest polices on the leasehold forest handover Forest Policy process. (2002) National One of the objectives is conservation, promoting and proper utilization of natural Agricultural resources, environment and biodiversity. Policy (2004) Encourages in situ conservation and provides forestablishment of gene banks and participatory biodiversity parks. Emphasizes development of agro-forestry system to improve the condition of degraded forests. Herbs and Non- Aims at establishing Nepal as a storehouse of medicinal plants and other NTFPs by Timber Forest 2020. Products Policy (2006) Rural Energy One of the goals is to reduce dependency on traditional energy and conserve Policy (2006) environment by increasing access to clean and cost effective energy in the rural areas. Emphasizes the development of the environmental friendly rural energy technologies which is affordable Highlights the promotion, research and development of technologies related to micro and small hydropower; bio-gas; fuel-wood, charcoal, briquette, biomass energy, biomass gasification; solar energy; wind energy; improved cook stove; improved water mill; and rural electrification. Agro Emphasizes conservation, promotion and sustainable use of agro-biodiversity. biodiversity Provides for conservation and promotion of the rights and interests of farmers’ Policy (2007) traditional knowledge, skill, innovation, technology, and practices of the farmers; Makes policy arrangements for equitable and distribution system of opportunities and benefits arising from access to and utilization of agricultural genetic resources and materials; Lists working policies for making arrangement for equitable and judicious distribution system of opportunities and benefits arising from access to and utilization of agricultural genetic resources and materials. Provides some substantive right such as ownership of traditional and local agricultural genetic resources to the farmers. Plant Protection Provides for prevention of the introduction, establishment, prevalence and spread of Act (2007) pests while importing and exporting plants and plant products, promoting trade in plants and plant products. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page284 9 10 11 12 13 14 Requires entry permit for importing plants, plant products, biological control agents, beneficial organisms or means of growing plants such as soil, moss and pit. Imposes a duty to undertake pest risk analysis and determine controlled pests. Requires seizing and destroying the infected plants or plant products, biological control agents, beneficial organisms or other articles to be imported or transported, are still found to be infected despite treatment. Tourism Policy The objectives are to develop Nepal as a major tourism destination by conserving, (2009) promoting and developing tangible and intangible natural, cultural, and biological heritage; and conserve and sustainably use environmental resources while utilizing natural resources during development and construction of tourism infrastructure. Prioritizes eco-tourism, and regulation and operation of water travel by determining water pollution limit and other pollution limits. Emphasizes formulation and implementation of a separate environment protection and solid waste management guidelines for the sustainable management and environmental cleanliness of tourism activities. Plant Protection Has provisions for dealing with GMOs; outlines duties and powers of National Plant Rules (2010) Protection Organization Forest Fire It has four pillars for forest fire management in Nepal, namely: i) policy, legal and Management institutional development and improvement; ii) education, awareness raising, capacity Strategy (2010) building and technology development; iii) participatory (involving local community) fire management and research; and iv) coordination and collaboration, international cooperation, networking, and infrastructure development Industrial One of the main objectives is to establish industrial entrepreneurship as a sustainable Policy (2011) and reliable sector by utilizing latest technology and environment friendly production process. Provides for technical and financial assistance to the industries that use environmentfriendly and energy saving technology on their own costs. Emphasizes special measures to be taken to promote green industries and to make the established industries pollution free and zero to carbon emission. Provides for deduction of the capital expenses and technology and process for installation of a system for pollution control and less impact in environment may be deducted for the purpose of income tax. Rangeland One of the objectives is to help maintain ecological balance by conserving, promoting, Policy (2012) sustainable and scientific utilization of rangeland biodiversity. Emphasizes sustainable utilization of biodiversity and natural resources and protection of such commodity by bringing them under the ambit of intellectual property rights legislation. Highlights studying and developing record/data of biodiversity and genetic differences of rangelands and updating regularly. Promotes in-situ and ex-situ conservation of rangeland based resources that are rare and on the verge of extinction. Plans carrying out research to learn the contribution of range lands in carbon sequestration. Sets up a 13 member Steering Committee at the central level and a 15 member District Coordination Committee. National Has envisioned healthy wetlands for sustainable development and environmental Wetlands balance. Policy (2012) Aims at conserving and managing wetlands resources sustainably and wisely. Objectives are to conserve biodiversity and protect environment by conservation of wetlands, involve local people in the management of wetlands and conservation, rehabilitation and effective management of wetland areas; support the wellbeing of wetland dependent communities; and enhance the knowledge and capacity of stakeholders along with maintaining good governance in management of wetland areas. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page285 15 Irrigation Policy (2013) 16 Agriculture Development Strategy (draft; 2013) National Seed Vision (20132025) Emphasizes identification and prioritization of wetlands on the basis of ecological, social and economic importance and conservation, rehabilitation and management of such areas; identification, respect and sustainable utilization of traditional knowledge and skills of wetland dependent communities; making provisions for equitable distribution of the benefits arising from the utilization of wetland based resources; and promotion of good governance. Provides working polices for conservation, restoration, and effective management of wetland areas; wise use of wetlands; and promoting good governance in the management of the wetlands. Establishes a high-level National Wetlands Committee Promotes implementation of s relating to management of climate risk, disaster risk and adaptation and mitigation for addressing the effects of climate change. Highlights construction of irrigation projects/systems in a manner that the negative environmental effects are least. Commits to using only the remaining water for irrigation from any river/rivulet for irrigation purpose after discharging minimum water in the same river/rivulet. It envisions having a self-reliant, sustainable, competitive, and inclusive agricultural sector. Includes sustainability (both natural resources and economic) as one of the strategic components. Recognises efficient and sustainable practices and use of natural resources; and increased resilience to climate change and disasters as measures to increase agricultural productivity. Emphasizes promoting community based seed production and agro-biodiversity in inaccessible remote areas. Recommends developing with policy decision, implementing and scaling up schemes related to payment of environmental services including carbon sequestration. Envisages doubling the number of location specific improved varieties and seed replacement rate increased at least up to 25 percent for cereal crops and over 90 percent for vegetables. Emphasizes community sector (farmer groups and cooperatives) lead in seed production in rural and remote areas particularly in hills and mountainous regions. Strengthens varietal development, release and maintenance breeding using diverse gene-pool both from local and exotic sources. Promotes the use of quality seeds by diversifying farmers’ choice including use of local genetic resources. Realizes the significance of local crop diversity in crop improvement, but in spirit it is inclined to modern agriculture. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page286 Annex 4.3: Selected biodiversity related international conventions, treaties, agreements that Nepal has signed and the progress Name of Convention Date Major Obligation Achievements Convention on Wetlands on International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar) (1971) 17 Apr.1988 Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) 16 Sep. 1975 Formulation of National Wetland Policy (2003; 2012). Declaration of nine wetlands as Ramsar sites. EIA has been made mandatory to hydro power and irrigation projects. NPWC Act (1973); Forest Act (1993) MOFSC has declared protected plants and animals of Nepal Establishment of CITES section in the DNPWC The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979) Convention for the Protection of the World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) N/A Conservation, management and wise use of migratory waterfowl and promotion of wetland conservation. Formulation and implementation of measures to make wise use of wetlands. Protection and regulation in the trade of wild fauna and flora and their products Legal protection to all species threatened with extinction with appropriate measures and trade regulation Protection of migratory species of wild animals that live within or pass their national jurisdiction. Ten cultural and natural heritage sites (including two national parks) have been listed on the List of World Heritage Sites Several relevant Acts promulgated. GON, in collaboration with IUCN-Nepal, is carried out monitoring of World Heritage Sites since 2002 Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) 21 Feb. 1994 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) 31 Jul. 1994 Each party is required to ensure the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission to future generations of the cultural and natural heritage situated on its territory; and ensure that effective and active measures are taken for the protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage situated on its territory Conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources Adoption of precautionary measures to prevent or minimize the release of green house gases and mitigate effects of climate change. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994) 13 Jan. 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC (1997) 14 Dec. 2005 20 Sep. 1978 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan N/A A number of polices, strategies and acts formulated and implemented Substantial progress made in in-situ and ex-situ conservation of biodiversity Formulation and implementation of Climate Change Policy, NAPA, LAPA, R-PP, Environment Protection Act (1997). Preparation of Nepal vehicle pollution standard (1999). Adoption of measures to combat desertification Preparation of national action plan to combat Addressing the physical, biological, and socio desertification economic aspects of the processes of desertification Preparation and presentation of three national and drought reports on land degradation Formulate, implement, publish and regularly The government has developed a number of update national and, where appropriate, regional s criteria and indicators for environmental Page287 containing measures to mitigate climate change and measures to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate change Plant Protection Agreement for the South East Asia and Pacific Region (1956) Agreement on the Network of Aquaculture Centers in Asia and the Pacific (1988) International Tropical Agreement (1983) Timber 12 Aug. 1965 04 Jan. 1990 03 Jul. 1990 Millennium Summit (2000) Millennium Development Goal (MDG) Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety to the CBD (2000) N/A The World Trade Organization 23 Apr. 2004 N/A Global Tiger Forum N/A National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Prevent introduction into and spread of destructive plant diseases and pests Regulate trade in plants and plant products Promotion of aquaculture development for increasing production, improving rural income and employment Strengthening institutional capacity Promotion of exchange of information Ensure conservation and sustainable use of timber Implement activities for forest management and any decisions on timber trade Ensure environmental sustainability. Target 7 B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss Contribute to ensuring an adequate level of protection in the field of the safe transfer, handling and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity Protection of intellectual property over plant varieties through development of a patent regime (TRIPs agreement) Make legal regime compatible withthe WTO Comply with all WTO trade rules latest by the end of 2006 Effective protection of wild population of Royal Bengal Tiger, its prey base and habitat in the country protection and sustainable development. Some of the indicators that are directly related to biodiversity are: (i) maintaining sustainability of local ecological functions, and (ii) maintaining genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity and not permitting any genetic erosion. Not available Not available Not available N/A Plant Protection Act 2007 Biosafety Guidelines (2005) National Bio-safety Framework Policy (2007) Patent, Design and Trade Mark Act 2006, Copyright Act 2002, Competition Promotion and Market Protection Act 2007, Foreign Investment And Technology Transfer Act 2001 N/A Page288 Annex 4.4: Protected Areas of Nepal S.N Protected Area National Parks 1 Chitwan (World Heritage Site 1984) Year Established Area (sq.km.) Elevation (m) Conservation Significance 1973 932 150-815 The Park houses over 50 species of mammals including one-horned rhinoceros, Royal Bengal tiger and bison; Important Bird Area;539 species of birds that include migrant birds like paradise flycatcher, Indian pitta, parakeets and several species of waterfowl; and many species of amphibians and reptiles including the endangered gharial, marsh mugger crocodile and python. The habitat comprises of deciduous broadleaf forest with over 600 plant species, savannas and wetlands. The habitat types range from sub-tropical forests below 1,000 m to alpine shrubs and grasslands. Musk deer and red panda are at the focus of conservation. Many other mammals such as snow leopard, wild dog, Himalayan black bear, Himalayan tahr, ghoral, serow, rhesus monkey and langur monkey, and over 370 species of birds including tragopan and impeyan pheasant (danphe) are found. Rara has many animal species including endangered red panda and musk deer. Three species of snow trout are found in the lake. During winter over 270 species of birds including coots, great-crested grebe, black-necked grebe, red crested pochard, mallard, common teal, merganser and gulls, and migrant water fowls can be seen. Coniferous forests, primarily of blue pine forms the dominant vegetation. Rhododendron, juniper, spruce, oak and cypress are found around 3,000 m while spruce and fir are more common at higher elevations. The Park is famous for the scenic beauty of the Himalayas (including Mount Everest), musk deer, red panda, beer and snow leopard. Nearly 200 species of birds including impeyan pheasant, blood pheasant, red-billed chough, yellow-billed chough, snow cock, and snow pigeon are found. The forest vegetation comprises of pine and hemlock forests at lower elevations, and silver fir, birch, rhododendron and juniper at higher elevations (i.e. above 3,500 m). Wild goat (ghoral), blue sheep, musk deer, and the Shey-Phoksundo lake are some of the main attractions. Over 200 species of birds including yellow throated marten, Tibetan partridge, wood snipe, white-throated tit, wood accentor and crimson-eared rose finch, impeyan pheasant, cheer pheasant, chough, raven, Tibetan snow cock, Tibetan twit and Himalayan griffon; and 29 species of butterflies are found. Pine, walnut, willow, oak, cypress are dominant trees in the lower elevations and pine, spruce, juniper and birch at higher elevations. Alpine range is comprised of meadows and shrubs of berberis, wild rose and caragana. The Park is famous for medicinal plants. Over 220 species of medicinal plants are recorded. Wildlife includes barking deer, wild boar, ghoral, Himalayan black bear, yellow-throated marten, rhesus monkey and langur monkey, and around 270 species of 2 Langtang 1976 1,710 792-7,245 3 Rara 1976 106 1,800-4,048 4 Sagarmatha (World Heritage Site 1979) 1976 1,148 2,800-8,848 5 Shey-Phoksundo 1984 3,555 2,000-6,885 6 Khaptad 1984 225 1,000-3,276 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page289 7 Bardia 1988 968 152-1,494 8 Makalu Barun 1991 1,500 435-8,463 9 ShivapuriNagarjun 2002 159 1,366-2,732 10 Banke 2010 550 360-480 Wildlife Reserves 1 Shuklaphanta 1976 305 90-270 2 Koshi Tappu (Ramsar Site, 1987) 1976 175 80-100 3 Parsa 1984 499 150-815 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan birds are found. Vegetation is mainly comprised of grasslands and subtropical, temperate and sub alpine forests. This is also a famous spiritual site. Mammals such as Royal Bengal tiger, one-horned rhinoceros, elephant, swamp deer, black buck, and reptiles such as gharial, marsh mugger crocodile are the main species. Fresh-water Gangetic dolphin is found in the Karnali River. Bengal florican, lesser florican, silver-eared mesia and sarus crane are some of 400 species of birds found in the Park that is dominated by sal forest and savannahs. The Park is an important habitat for endangered red panda and snow leopard, and several species of endangered plants. Above 80 varieties of fish including salmon are reported in the Arun River. Wren babbler and olive ground warbler are some of the 400 species of birds found in the Park. Forest vegetation ranges from sub-tropical forests to sub-alpine and alpine vegetation as the elevation increases. The park is also famous for rhododendrons and orchids. Twenty-five (out of 30 found in Nepal) varieties of rhododendrons, 48 species of orchids, 87 species of medicinal herbs, 48 species of primroses and 86 species of fodder trees are reportedly found in the Park. Conservation of watershed that drains the Kathmandu Valley is a major objective. Around 19 species of mammals including Himalayan black bear, leopard, barking deer, wild boar, wild cat, rhesus monkey and langur monkey, 177 species of birds, 102 species of butterflies, and 129 varieties of mushrooms are reported. Conservation of endangered wildlife and strengthening of transboundary biological corridor are some of the main objectives. Includes eight natural ecosystems, and houses 124 species of plants, 34 mammals, more than 300 birds, 24 reptiles, seven amphibians, and 58 fish species. Major wildlife consists of swamp deer, wild elephant, tiger, several species of deer, wild boar, leopard, and monkeys. Marsh mugger crocodile, cobra, and python are common reptiles. Important Bird Area;Sarus crane, swamp francolin, grass owl, warblers, flycatchers, Bengal florican are the common birds found in the sub-tropical sal forest and open grasslands. Wild buffalo and Siberian migratory birds are the main focus of conservation. Vegetation consists of grasslands with patches of scrub and deciduous riverine forests. Many other species of mammals (such as wild elephants, wild boar, hog deer, spotted deer, blue bull and jackal); Important Bird Area;479 species of birds, and reptiles are found. Gangetic dolphins are found in the Koshi River. Wildlife species including wild elephant, tiger leopard, sloth bear, and gaur; reptiles including king cobra, common cobra, krait, rat snake and python; over 370 species of birds including the endangered great hornbill are reported. Natural vegetation consists of tropical and sub-tropical sal forests. Chir pine, khair, and sissoo trees are found on the hilly parts. Page290 Hunting Reserve 1 Dhorpatan Conservation Area 1 Annapurna 1987 1,325 2,850-7,000 The reserve is famous for blue sheep, which is open for regulated trophy hunting. 1992 7,629 1,000-8,092 Endemic plants and mountains are the main characteristics. Over 100 species of mammals including blue sheep and endangered snow leopard; 39 species of reptiles; 22 species of amphibians; Important Bird Area (IBA); 474 species of birds including multi-colored impeyan pheasant, kokla and blood pheasant are reported. Many species of orchids and rhododendrons are found. Mammals including endangered snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, musk deer, red panda, blue sheep, rhesus monkey; 252 species of different birds including impeyan pheasant, red-billed blue magpie, ashy drongo; 20 indigenous gymnosperms, 15 among Nepal's 23 endemic flowering plants, 30 varieties of rhododendrons and 48 varieties of orchids are reported. Snow leopard, musk deer and Himalayan Tahr are among the 33 species of mammals found in the conservation area. Over 110 species of birds and 1,500-2,000 species of flowering plants are reported. (to be completed) The first organized effort to conserve the endangered blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra). Snow leopard, musk deer, clouded leopard, ghoral, Himalayan black bear and Himalayan tahr are found in the area. 2 Kanchanjunga 1997 2,035 1,200-8,598 3 Manasula 1998 1,663 1,360-8,163 4 5 6 Gaurishankar Khairapur Api Nampa 2010 2010 2010 2,179 16 1,903 1,000-7,200 120-230 539-7,132 1996 1996 1998 1998 750 327 420 1,349 1999 830 2000 2004 2004 275 243.5 173 2005 2006 2006 2010 298.17 198 216 343 Buffer Zones 1 Chitwan NP 2 Bardia NP 3 Langtang NP 4 Shey-phoksundo NP 5 Makalu Barun NP 6 Sagarmatha NP 7 Suklaphanta WR 8 Koshi Tappu WR 9 Parsa WR 10 Rara NP 11 Khaptad 12 Banke NP Total National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page291 Annex 4.5: Tree species having breeding seedlings orchards Species Name Botanical Acacia catechu Aesandra butyracea Albizzia lebbeck Anthocephalus cadamba Artocarpus chaplasha Artocarpus lakoocha Azadirachta indica Bauhinia purpurea Bauhinia variegate Bombax ceib Cassia fistula Choerospondias axillaris Cinnamomum tamala Dalbergia latifolia Dalbergia sissoo Ficus semicordata Gmelina arborea Juglans regia Leucaena spp. Madhuca indica Michelia champaca Phyllanthus emblica Pterocarpus marsupium Sapindus mukarassi Tamarindus indica Tectona grandis Zanthoxylum armataum Total (27 spp.) Source: TISU (2013) Local Khayar Chiuri Kalo siris Kadam Latahar Badahar Neem Tanki Koiral Simal Rajbrikshya Lapsi Tejpat Satisal Sissoo Raikhanyu Khamari Okhar Ipil Ipil Mahuwa Champ Amala Bijayasal Ritha Imli Sagvan Timur National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Number of Plots 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 Area (ha.) 1 1.9 1 1.5 2.0 1.8 0.9 0.4 0.9 2.2 1.0 2.3 1.6 2.1 7 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 41 11.4 1.4 0.9 1.4 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.1 2.6 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 46.1 Location of the Plots Siraha Makwanpur, Palpa Chitawan Sarlahi Jhapa Chitawan, Kaski Sunsari Chitawan Dhading Nawalparasi, Rupandehi Rupandehi Kathmandu, Nuwakot Sunsari, Kaski Chitwan Sunsari, Siraha, Chitwan, Kapilbastu, Banke, Kanchanpur, Kaski Sarlahi Makwanpur Chitwan, Kapilbastu Nawalparasi Kathmandu Chitwan, Kaski Kanchanpur Tanahu Nawalparasi Rupandehi Myagdi 18 Districts Page292 Annex 4.6: Status of implementation of the Nepal Biodiversity Strategy (2002) and Nepal Biodiversity Strategy Implementation Plan (2006) Section Strategies 5 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5 5.1.6 5.1.7 5.1.8 5.1.9 5.1.10 5.1.11 5.1.12 5.1.13 5.1.14 5.1.15 5.1.16 5.1.17 Sub-total 5.2 5.2.1 5.2.1.1 5.2.1.2 5.2.1.3 5.2.1.4 5.2.1.5 5.2.1.6 5.2.1.7 5.2.1.8 Sub-total 5.2.2 5.2.2.1 5.2.2.2 5.2.2.3 5.2.2.4 5.2.2.5 5.2.2.6 5.2.2.7 5.2.2.8 5.2.2.9 Sub-total 5.2.3 5.2.3.1 STRATEGIES TO CONSERVE BIODIVERSITY Cross-Sectoral Strategies Landscape planning approach Integrating local participation Institutional strengthening In-situ conservation Strengthening the National Biodiversity Unit Increasing support for biodiversity research and conservation Endorsing indigenous knowledge and innovations Cross-sectoral co-ordination and implementation of policies Enhancing national capacity Ex-situ conservation and biotechnology Securing intellectual property and farmer property rights Biodiversity prospecting Environmental impact assessment Women in biodiversity conservation Developing eco-tourism Increasing conservation awareness Biodiversity registration Implementation Status VG G P NI U √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 4 Sectoral Strategies Protected areas New models of protection and management Coordination Capacity enhancement Representation of all ecosystems in protected areas Biodiversity inventories Exchange of information Species conservation plan Management of protected area tourism Forests Forest rehabilitation Inventory of flora and fauna Ecosystem network and representation Understanding forest resilience and biodiversity Local participation Strengthening management practices Sustainable harvesting Non-timber forest products Religious forests management National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 2 3 3 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 2 Rangelands Need for a national rangeland policy 6 √ 5 3 √ 4 √ Page293 5.2.3.2 5.2.3.3 5.2.3.4 Sub-total 5.2.4 5.2.4.1 5.2.4.2 5.2.4.3 Sub-total 5.2.5 5.2.5.1 5.2.6 5.2.6.1 5.2.6.2 Sub-total 5.3 √ Conservation of rangeland biodiversity (focusing on 11 specific actions) Pastoral development and management in the Himalayas (focusing on 10 specific actions) Forage development through integrated management planning (focusing on 19 specific actions) √ √ 1 Agro-biodiversity Participatory plant breeding Participatory variety selection Gene Bank √ √ 2 Wetlands Management of wetlands (focusing on nine specific actions) Mountain biodiversity National mountain policy Integrated management Commitments to Address the Most Serious Threats to Biodiversity Formulation of an implementation plan (NBSIP) District Biodiversity Committee (DBC) will be established on a trial basis in each of selected districts Sub-total 6 MECHANISMS FOR ACTION 6.1 The Role of Government Overall responsibility for implementing the NBS will lie with the MFSC Relevant ministries and departments are responsible for implementation of their sectoral biodiversity plans MOPE to apply Environment Protection Act, 1996, and Regulations, 1997 for biodiversity conservation. The Ministry needs to put more emphasis on enforcement of mitigation measures as prescribed in the EIA reports and monitoring such activities, and taking action against those violating the prevailing laws DOPR and DOFRS will continue to conduct flora and fauna inventories and research e.g. on biodiversity assessment and monitoring. The NBS will be implemented through project activities outlined in the periodic NBSIPs Sub-total 6.2 Organisational Structure for Implementation of the Strategy 6.2.1 The National Biodiversity Co-ordination Committee 6.2.2 Thematic Sub-committees 6.2.3 National Biodiversity Unit 6.2.4 Biodiversity Coordinator 6.2.5 District Biodiversity Coordination Committee 6.2.6 The role of NGOs National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 3 √ 1 √ √ √ 1 1 √ √ 1 1 √ √ √ √ √ 4 1 √ √ √ √ √ √ Page294 6.2.7 Sub-total 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.2.1 6.3.2.2 6.3.2.3 6.3.2.4 6.3.2.5 6.3.2 Sub-total 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 Sub-total 6.5 6.5.1 6.6 2 CS1 PA3 RL1 AG1 AGI1 CS2 PA1 FO2 PA2 FO3 WL1 MO1 FO1 The role of universities and research institutes 3 Public Participation The role of the public Essential elements of public participation Rights and responsibilities Public participation policy Framework for participation Protected areas and buffer zone management Ecosystem landscape management Involving NGOs and civil society 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 Financial Resources Nepal Trust Fund for Biodiversity Other funding mechanisms Monitoring and Progress Indicators Biodiversity monitoring Transparency and Accountability All those involved in its implementation will be accountable to the NBCC, which, through its open procedures and public annual reports, is accountable to government and the People of Nepal PRIORITY PROJECTS (NBSIP) Institutionalization of Biodiversity Conservation in Nepal Establishment of Kanchemjugha Tri-national Peace Park Integrated Rangelands Management Agrobiodiversity Conservation through Community Participation Conservation and Management of Pollinators for Sustainable Agriculture through an Ecosystem Approach Landscape Level Biodiversity Conservation Species Conservation and Habitat Management (in PAs) Rhododendron Conservation Programme in Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale Poverty Reduction through Biodiversity Conservation Phulchoki-Chandragiri Biodiversity Conservation Programme Integrated Wetland Management National Mountain Policy and Research Network Forests Biodiversity Conservation through Community Participation (outside PAs) √ 2 2 √ √ 1 1 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ Sub-total 3 4 3 3 VG = Very Good (≥80%); G = Good (50-80%); P= Poor (<50%); NI = Not Implemented; U = Unknown National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page295 Annex 5.1. Aichi Biodiversity Targets Target 1: By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably. Target 2: By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems. Target 3: By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in order to minimize or avoid negative impacts, and positive incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and other relevant international obligations, taking into account national socio economic conditions. Target 4: By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natural resources well within safe ecological limits. Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought close to zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced. Target 6: By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches, so that overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in place for all depleted species, fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits. Target 7: By 2020 areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity. Target 8: By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem function and biodiversity. Target 9: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or eradicated, and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment. Target 10: By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning. Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscape and seascapes. Target 12: By 2020 the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of those most in decline, has been improved and sustained. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page296 Target 13: By 2020, the genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and of wild relatives, including other socio-economically as well as culturally valuable species, is maintained, and strategies have been developed and implemented for minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity. Target 14: By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and contribute to health, livelihoods and well-being, are restored and safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women, indigenous and local communities, and the poor and vulnerable. Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced, through conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15 per cent of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation and adaptation and to combating desertification. Target 16: By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization is in force and operational, consistent with national legislation. Target 17: By 2015 each Party has developed, adopted as a policy instrument, and has commenced implementing an effective, participatory and updated national biodiversity strategy and action plan. Target 18: By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources, are respected, subject to national legislation and relevant international obligations, and fully integrated and reflected in the implementation of the Convention with the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities, at all relevant levels. Target 19: By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied. Target 20: By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of financial resources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan 2011-2020 from all sources and in accordance with the consolidated and agreed process in the Strategy for Resource Mobilization should increase substantially from the current levels. This target will be subject to changes contingent to resources needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page297 Annex 7.1: Framework for Development of Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 1 2. 3. 4 5 6. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Framework background 1.2 Goal and Objectives PROFILE OF THE VILLAGE DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE 2.1 Physical Setting 2.1.1 Location 2.1.2 Climate (rainfall, temperature, aspect) 2.1.3 Forests (Area, types and floral and faunal species and their status, local endemic specific flora & fauna) 2.1.3 Range/ Grazing Lands 2.1.4 Wetlands and River/ Stream systems (wetland floral and faunal species, endemic species specific to the VDC) 2.1.5 Agriculture (crop species/ varieties/ endmic or specifc species; domestic animals species, endemic or specific breeds) 2.1.6 Land Use 2.2 Socio-economic Setting 2.2.1 Population and Human Development 2.2.2 Economic Activities INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM 3.1 Existing Biodiversity Related Institutions and their current functions 3.2 Biodiversity Related Rules, Laws and Policies LOCAL BIODIVERSITY STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 4.1 Stakeholder Consultation 4.2 Structure of Environmental Friendly Local Governance Village Coordination Committee (EFLGVCC) 4.2.1 Forming Environmental Friendly Local Governance Village Coordination Committee (EFLGVCC) 4.2.2 EFLGVCC Thematic Sub-Committees 4.3 Defining Roles and Responsibilities of EFLGVCC and Thematic Sub-Committees 4.3.1 VDC and VDC Council 4.3.2 Range Post Office 4.3.3 Agriculture Service Center 4.3.4 Livestock Service Center 4.3.5 Protected Area Range Post, Buffer Zone Council, CAMC 4.3.6 Local NGOs and Civil Societies 4.3.7 Farmers and User Group Members 4.4 Biodiversity Priority Identification and Analysis 4.5 Biodiversity Strategic and Action Planning 4.5.1 Vision, Mission and Principles 4.5.2 Possible Strategies and Actions 4.5.3 Biodiversity Projects MONITORING THE PROGRESS AND FUNDING SOURCE REFERENCES National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan Page298
