MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
Annotated Bibliography: The Impact of Motivational Interviewing on Middle School
Academic Motivation
Marion Smith Oliver
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
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Introduction
Although research has found motivational interviewing to be a successful
intervention for adults in regards to treating many addictive behaviors, such as alcohol
abuse, there has been little research with regards to its effectiveness in adolescents (Strait
et al., 2012). There has also been very little research in particular on its effectiveness in
the school setting. As a result of this gap in the literature, this annotated bibliography
sought to describe and summarize the research that is available with regards to
motivational interviewing in adolescents in the school setting. In particular, this
annotated bibliography serves as the background for an action research project on the
impact of motivational interviewing on the academic motivation of students. Therefore,
it looks at the literature regarding both student motivation and motivational interviewing.
Annotations
Atkinson, C., & Woods, K. (2003). Motivational interviewing strategies for
disaffected secondary school students: A case example. Educational
Psychology In Practice, 19(1), 49-64.
This study sought to look at the effectiveness of motivational interviewing
techniques in changing a secondary school student’s views of school, as well as
determining which strategies of motivational interviewing are effective in the school
setting. The research design for this article was a case study, and the sample was one
student. Results from this study found motivational interviewing to be a successful
intervention, with an increase in the student’s interest, motivation, and hope for success
based on the measures used (p < .01). One significant limitation of the article, however, is
that it was a case study of just one student, greatly limiting the generalizability of the
findings. It was also conducted outside of the United States, which means that the
educational setting could be very different, again limiting the ability to generalize the
findings.
Kittles, M., & Atkinson, C. (2009). The usefulness of motivational interviewing as a
consultation and assessment tool for working with young people. Pastoral
Care In Education, 27(3), 241-254.
This study looks at the use of motivational interviewing as a consultation and
assessment tool, as well as looking at young people’s views of the motivational
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
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interviewing process. The research design for this study was a case study format, looking
at three young people (two females and one male) between the ages of 13 and 15. The
results of this study found that the majority of participants viewed motivational
interviewing in a positive way, as well as a positive view of the resources used in the
intervention (in particular the “wheel of change” that was used to help them identify the
stage of change they were in). One additional finding is that it may be a less helpful
intervention for students in the precontemplation stage of change, but the article
recommends solution-focused questioning to help the client see what might be most
useful for them. A limitation of this study is the very small sample size. Furthermore,
this study was done with educational psychology in mind, although the takeaways can be
generalized to school counseling.
Niehaus, K., Rudasill, K., & Adelson, J. L. (2012). Self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation,
and academic outcomes among Latino middle school students participating in
an after-school program. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 34(1), 118136.
This article looked at the effect of a year-long after school program on the selfefficacy, intrinsic motivation, and academic outcomes of Latino middle school students.
In particular, the research question relevant to the annotated bibliography at hand is “Do
higher levels of academic self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and after-school program
participation predict more positive academic outcomes for Latino students at the end of
the school year (controlling for prior academic achievement)?” The sample of the study
included 47 Latino middle school students who attended two different public schools
(one of which was an all-boys school). The after-school program was largely centered
around academic enrichment and tutoring, although students were allowed to choose
some activities based on their interests. Results of this study found that motivation
positively predicted students’ GPAs, which is an important finding given that few
researchers have studied motivation among Latino adolescents. Another important
finding is that intrinsic motivation remained stable over the course of the year. This is
important because motivational levels often decline from childhood into adolescence, and
this study showed that they may become more stable and resistant to change during
adolescence (making it more difficult to affect an internal characteristic such as thing
during middle school).
Pascarella, E. T. (2007). Methodological Report for Wabash National Study of Liberal
Arts Education. Retrieved from http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/studyinstruments/#motivation
This article reported on the methodology used in the Wabash National Study of
Liberal Arts Education, a longitudinal study designed to look at different factors and their
effect on the outcomes of liberal arts education. This article is relevant to the annotated
bibliography as it utilizes a measure of academic motivation instrument called the
“Academic Motivation Scale.” Academic motivation is defined by this study as “a
willingness to work hard to learn material even if it doesn’t lead to a higher grade, the
importance of getting good grades… enjoyment of academic challenge” (p. 13). This
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
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scale consisted of eight items and respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which
they agree or disagree with different statements about their academic motivation. The
internal consistency reliability for the scale ranges from .69 to .74, which means that the
reliability is fairly good. The authors did not report why the reliability scores were
reported as a range, so that information is unknown at this time and is a potential
limitation of the study. Another limitation is that the sample for the testing was
composed of college students.
Ryan, A. M., & Patrick, H. (2001). The classroom social environment and changes in
adolescents' motivation and engagement during middle school. American
Educational Research Journal, 38(2), 437-460.
This article looks at the relationship of the social environment of their eighth
grade math classroom to their motivation and engagement (specifically students’
academic and social efficacy, self-regulated learning, and disruptive behavior) and how
this changes from seventh to eighth grade. The sample of this study is a subsample from
the sample of a longitudinal study on the relationship between the learning environment
and adolescent development. There were 233 participants in this study from three middle
schools in two Midwestern school districts. The sample was representative with regards
to race and gender, however 40% of the sample received free or reduced lunch. Data was
collected through surveys administered in the spring of seventh grade and the fall of
eighth grade and measures included Likert-scale questions about person of classroom
environment, motivation, and engagement. Results showed that when students feel
supported by their teachers, when they view their classroom as one where their ideas are
respected, and when they believe they are encouraged to interact with and help
classmates, then they have higher levels of perceived engagement and motivation.
Limitations from this study include that it only surveyed students on their experiences in
math classes, not any other subject areas, as well as the fact that we do not know how
teachers created these classroom environments, only that students perceived them as a
certain way.
Sheldon, L. (2010). Using motivational interviewing to help your students. Thought &
Action, 17, 153-158.
This article describes some of the main features of motivational interviewing and
how it can be used in schools. The author states that “what separates successful students
from the less successful is their ability to navigate obstacles and maintain motivation
toward their goals” (p. 153) and describes motivational interviewing as an important tool
to this end. This article describes motivational interviewing as being comprised of ten
main components: open-ended questions, affirmations, reflective listening, summary
statements, feedback, responsibility, advice, menu, empathy, and self-efficacy. This
article also goes through several sample scenarios for how to best use motivational
interviewing in the school setting, which can be very helpful to practicing school
counselors. According to this article, resistance to change is normal, and it should not be
confronted head-on as this can deepen the resistance. This article stated that motivational
interviewing can be used to increase student competencies in school. A limitation of this
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
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article is that the author did not conduct original research, but it is instead a summary of
other research.
Strait, G., Smith, B. H., McQuillin, S., Terry, J., Swan, S., & Malone, P. S. (2012). A
randomized trial of motivational interviewing to improve middle school
students' academic performance. Journal Of Community Psychology, 40(8),
1032-1039.
This study looked at the impact of motivational interviewing as a counseling
technique on students’ academic performance. In particular, the relevant research
question asked, “could [motivational interviewing] produce meaningful changes in
middle school students’ school-related behavior, academic performance, and selfefficacy?” The sample of this study included 103 middle school (grades 6th through 8th)
students, 50% of whom were male. The design for the study was a randomized
experimental design that compared changes between a treatment group and control group,
with the treatment group receiving one 50-minute motivational interviewing session with
a structured interview protocol or an assessment only control group. The measures
included self-reports of classroom participation, homework completion, and academic
self-efficacy. The results found indicate that one motivational interviewing session had
positive effects on “math grades and some academic behaviors that should increase
academic performance” (p. 1037). The results were statistically significant with p values
less than .05. This is the first study of its kind and the authors recommend replication of
results before further dissemination.
Wentzel, K. R. (1997). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived
pedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 411-419.
This empirical article examined the relationship between perceived pedagogical
caring and the motivation to achieve positive social and academic outcomes in middle
school students by using a longitudinal design to follow 248 students from sixth to eighth
grade. Methods included administering surveys yearly to students and then collecting
achievement data; measures included questions regarding perceived caring from teachers,
control beliefs, pursuit of social goals, and academic effort among others. The measures
were a mix of both author-created and those used in other studies by researchers.
Statistics of reliability were provided for each measure, and each had a reliability of
above .71. The results found significant positive relationships between perceived caring
from teachers and students’ academic effort, pursuit of prosocial goals, and internal
control beliefs. This study is important because it shows effects that go beyond student
race or family background. Limitations of this study include that the survey was given
only twice, once in sixth grade and once in eighth grade, which limits the depth of
information gathered, as well as the fact that the teacher remained in the room, which
could have influenced student responses.
Conclusion
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MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
In conclusion, the majority of research around motivation in schools has focused
on what teachers can do, rather than school counselors. Specifically, Ryan & Patrick
(2001) found that when students feel supported by their teachers and when they view
their classroom as one where their ideas are respected, then they have higher levels of
motivation. However, the study does not give specific information about how these
teachers create these environments thus limiting the generalizability of the research and
ability for school counselors to incorporate at their schools. Motivational interviewing
has been highly researched as an effective intervention for addictive behaviors such as
alcoholism, but the research around using it with adolescents and in school settings is still
in the early stages. The studies that have been completed have found it to be an effective
tool in the school setting, leading to the need for further research and confirmation of
findings. Thus, this annotated bibliography highlights a gap in the literature for further
investigation.
Table of References
Resource
Type of
Resource
Topic or
Treatment
Conclusion
Limitations
Atkinson &
Woods, 2003
Empirical
Motivational
Interviewing
This study found
motivational
interviewing to
be a successful
intervention for
increasing school
interest,
motivation, and
hope for success.
This article was
a case study of
one student,
which greatly
limits its ability
to be
generalized. It
was also
conducted in a
school system
outside of the
United States,
which again
limits its
generalizability
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
Kittles &
Atkinson, 2009
Empirical
Motivational
Interviewing
Niehaus, et. al.
2012
Empirical
Motivation
Pascarella, 2007 Empirical
Motivation
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to the school
system here.
This study found The sample size
most students to for this case
have an overall
study was very
positive view of small (only
motivational
three students);
interviewing.
this greatly
However, it
limits the ability
found that it may to generalize the
not be as helpful findings and
or positive for
must be done
students in the
with caution. It
precontemplation was also
stage of change. conducted with
educational
psychologists in
mind.
Motivation is a
Sample was
predictor of
relatively small
academic
and specific to
achievement for Latinos; afterLatino middle
school program
school students.
administered
It is also
separately at the
relatively stable, two middle
meaning that it
schools (thus
may be harder to could have been
change in middle different in its
school students
administration).
and interventions One middle
potentially
school was an
should be
all-boys school
focused at an
while the other
earlier
was co-ed, and
developmental
the researchers
stage.
did not
disaggregate the
data based on
gender for the
findings.
The Academic
The sample for
Motivation Scale this study was
used in this study college students
was found to be
from 19
fairly reliable.
different
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
Ryan & Patrick,
2001
Emprical
Motivation
Sheldon, 2010
Theoretical
Motivational
Interviewing
Strait, et. al.
2012
Empirical
Motivational
Interviewing
Wentzel, 1997
Empirical
Motivation
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colleges and
universities that
were not
randomly
selected, which
makes the
findings more
difficult to
generalize.
Students have
Sample was
higher levels of
small and
perceived
surveys were
engagement and only asked
motivation when about math
feel supported by classrooms (no
teacher and like
other subject
their ideas are
areas).
respected in the
classroom.
The techniques
This study is a
of motivational
summary of
interviewing can other research
be used to
and is not based
increase student on an original
competencies in study.
school.
Motivational
First empirical
interviewing had study that
positive effects
documents
on some
motivational
academic
interviewing as
behaviors, and
having a
higher math
positive impact
grades, for
on middle
middle
school academic
school students
motivation, so
even after one
further research
session.
and replication
of findings is
needed.
Students who
Sample was
perceived caring relatively small,
from their
surveys were
teachers have
administered
increased
only twice, and
academic effort, teacher
MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING AND STUDENT MOTIVATION
pursuit of goals,
and more
positive beliefs
about their
control and
influence over
events in life.
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remained in
room during
survey
administration.