City Profile Template
The aim of this document
To provide a template for your City Profile coving development, risk and adaptation as the three
lines of interest to TRUC.
The City Profile needs to be a detailed and well referenced document.. It is OK if there are gaps
in information, but it needs to be clear that this is a result of a lack of existing data.
Please follow the subject headings provided in this template and provide referenced material
throughout, all figures and graphics must be fully referenced.
The final document should be around 40 pages, single spacesd text. This will vary, the key is that
there is sufficient information and the underlying references are sufficiently clear to allow any
member of TRUC to analyse the data you will be generating through City Workshops, Modelling
and Adpatation Interviews. This is very important for allowing comparison across cases and the
template can become the basis for city case study papers for a journal special edition.
Sources to consult
Start with the peer review academic literature, then also include reviews from government and
civil society agencies including the UN. Finally, the news media can be used. The news media can
sometimes be useful in showing perspectives, for example on risk management or perception,
that does not come from official or academic documents. Quotations can be used.
If in doubt it is better to include rather than exclude material.
Keep a publications archive
Please submit all referenced material to the TRUC Dropbox account managed by Michael
Dorsch at CUNY (mdorsch@hunter.cuny.edu). We will all then have access to each others
source documents.Please contract Michael direct for any queries relating to Dropbox.
The aim of the City Profile
The aim of the city profile is to feed directly into analysis through helping to:
(1) identify critical physical and social infrastructure sectors, case study Boroughs and questions
for adaptation interviews to be conducted during the second half of 2015
(2) contextualise results of scenario workshops, risk modelling and adaptation interviews.
Deadlines
First draft to Mark Pelling: 31 March 2015
Mark to provide feedback for each report by 30 April
Final report submitted to Mark Pelling 29 May
These deadlines are very important, they will allow the report to feed into the early June Stuttgart
modelling analysis workshop and adaptation interview training session. Once a final draft has
been accepted by Mark, the city profile will be placed on the TRUC website and become a public
document.
Queries and Questions?
Please contact Mark Pelling mark.pelling@kcl.ac.uk
1
[Title]
[Authors and affiliation]
1.0 Executive Summary – 1 page
[A short summary of the most important features of your city’s urban development trajectory
(land use, inequality, economy) and how this interacts with adaptation status and movement
(CRRT), and risk (hazard, vulnerability and capacity) trends. Summarise the overall status of
adaptation policy for the city and its movement over the last decade including comment on the
major drivers for any identified movement, for example city or national legislation, policy or
political change, popular pressure, a disaster event, new technology, economic change].
2.0 Development: Trends and Context – 8 pages
[Please explain how contemporary vulnerability, hazard exposure or adaptive capacity are
associated with development context and trends, where relevant and available include historical
material, comment on national and international or rural-urban linkages etc]
2.1 Geographical context (2 pages)
[The city’s physical site and rationale for this and its expension. Position within the regional and
glbal economy: connection to global flows of finance, migration etc]
Summary (from Wikipedia)
Tokyo Metropolis, Kanto region, Honshu Island, Japan
Tokyo is the most populous metropolitan area in the world. ["Japan's Local Government
System". Tokyo Metropolitan Government. Retrieved August 5, 2013]
Tokyo is in the Kanto region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes
the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands.
Formerly known as Edo it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun
Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarter but only became the capital and was renamed
Tokyo after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868.
Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture (東京府
) and the city of Tokyo (東京市).
Tokyo is officially known and governed as a "metropolitan prefecture", which differs from and
combines elements of both a city and a prefecture; a characteristic unique to Tokyo.
The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo (each governed
as an individual city), which cover the area that was formerly the City of Tokyo before it merged
and became the subsequent metropolitan prefecture in 1943.
The metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the
prefecture and the two outlying island chains.
The population of the special wards is over 9 million people, with the total population of the
prefecture exceeding 13 million.
The prefecture is part of the world's most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8
million people and the world's largest urban agglomeration economy.
The city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city.
[Fortune. "Global Fortune 500 by countries: Japan". CNN. Retrieved July 22, 2011]
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The city is considered an alpha+ world city (as listed by the GaWC's 2008 inventory [GaWC –
The World According to GaWC 2008". Lboro.ac.uk. April 13, 2010. Retrieved October 29,
2010])
in 2014, Tokyo was ranked first in the "Best overall experience" category of TripAdvisor's World
City Survey (the city also ranked first in the following categories: "Helpfulness of locals",
"Nightlife", "Shopping", "Local public transportation" and "Cleanliness of streets"). ["Tokyo
Tops Among Global Travelers, According To TripAdvisor World City Survey". TripAdvisor.
TripAdvisor LLC. May 20, 2014. Retrieved September 1, 2014]
In 2013, Tokyo was named the third most expensive city for expatriates, according to the Mercer
consulting firm, ["2013 Cost of Living Rankings". Mercer. Mercer LLC. July 23, 2013. Retrieved
February 23, 2014] and the world's most expensive city, according to the Economist Intelligence
Unit's cost-of-living survey. [George Arnett; Chris Michael (February 14, 2014). "The world's
most expensive cities". The Guardian. Retrieved February 23, 2014]
In 2009 Tokyo was named the third Most Liveable City by the magazine Monocle. [Fawkes,
Piers (June 18, 2009). "Top 25 Most Liveable Cities 2009 – Monocle". PSFK.com. Retrieved July
6, 2009]
The Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world.["
「ミシュランガイド東京・横浜・鎌倉 2011」を発行 三つ星が 14 軒、二つ星が 54
軒、一つ星が 198 軒に", Michelin Japan, November 24, 2010]
************************ Geography and administrative divisions
The mainland portion of Tokyo lies northwest of Tokyo Bay and measures about 90 km east to
west and 25 km north to south.
Coordinates: 35°41′N 139°41′E
Area
- Metropolis 2,187.66 km2 (844.66 sq mi)
- Metro
13,572 km2 (5,240 sq mi)
- Area rank 45th
The average elevation in Tokyo is 40 m (131 ft).
Chiba Prefecture borders it to the east, Yamanashi to the west, Kanagawa to the south, and
Saitama to the north. Mainland
Because of these islands and mountainous regions to the west, Tokyo's overall population
density figures far underrepresent the real figures for urban and suburban regions of Tokyo.
National parks
March 31, 2008: 36% of the total land area of Tokyo prefecture was designated as Natural Parks
************************ Climate
- The majority of mainland Tokyo lie in the humid subtropical climate zone (Koppen climate
classification Cfa), [Peel, M. C., Finlayson, B. L., and McMahon, T. A.: Updated world map
of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 11, 1633–1644, 2007]
with hot humid summers and generally mild winters with cool spells.
- The region, like much of Japan, experiences a one-month seasonal lag, with the warmest
month being August, which averages 27.5 °C, and the coolest month being January,
averaging 6.0 °C.
- The record low temperature is -9.2 °C, and the record high is 39.5 °C (though there was
once an unofficial reading of 42.7 °C at the Primary School Station. ["Extreme temperatures
around the world". Herrera, Maximiliano. Retrieved December 3, 2011])
- Annual rainfall averages nearly 1,530 millimetres, with a wetter summer and a drier winter.
Snowfall is sporadic, but does occur almost annually.[ "Tokyo observes latest ever 1st
3
-
-
snowfall". Tokyo. Kyodo News. March 16, 2005. Archived from the original on March 19,
2007. Retrieved October 18, 2008.]
3.1 typhoons/yr in mainland Kanto ["気象統計情報 / 天気予報・台風 / 過去の台風資
料 / 台風の統計資料 / 台風の平年値". Japan Meteorological Agency]), though few are
strong.
The wettest month since records began in 1876 has been October 2004 with 780 millimetres
[気象庁 Japan Meteorological Agency. "観測史上 1～10 位の値（年間を通じての値）
". Data.jma.go.jp. Retrieved December 4, 2011] including 270.5 millimetres Oct 9th, 2004. [
気象庁 Japan Meteorological Agency. "観測史上 1～10 位の値（10 月としての値）".
Data.jma.go.jp. Retrieved December 4, 2011]
The western mountainous area of mainland Tokyo, Okutama also lies in the humid
subtropical climate (Koppen classification Cfa).
The climate of Chichi-jima in Ogasawara village is on the boundary between the tropical
savanna climate (Koppen classification Aw) and the humid subtropical climate (Koppen
classification Cfa).
Tokyo's easternmost territory, the island of Minamitorishima (Marcus Island) in Ogasawara
village, is in the tropical savanna climate zone (Koppen classification Aw). Tokyo's Izu and
Ogasawara islands are affected by an average of 5.4 typhoons a year ["気象統計情報 / 天
気予報・台風 / 過去の台風資料 / 台風の統計資料 / 台風の平年値". Japan
Meteorological Agency.]
************ History
Pre-1869 (Edo Period): Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was
formerly part of the old Musashi Province.[Nussbaum, "Provinces and prefectures" at p.
780, p. 780, at Google Books]
12th century: Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan
1457: Ota Dokan built Edo Castle.
1590: Tokugawa Ieyasu made Edo his base
1603: Tokugawa Ieyasu became shogun; Edo became the center of his nationwide military
government.
*** Edo period
Edo grew into one of the largest cities in the world with a population topping one million by the
18th century.[McClain, James, James et al. (1994). Edo and Paris: Urban Life and the State
in the Early Modern Era. p. 13]; Edo became the de facto capital of Japan even while the
emperor lived in Kyoto, the imperial capital.
During this time, the city enjoyed a prolonged period of peace known as the Pax Tokugawa, and
in the presence of such peace, Edo adopted a stringent policy of seclusion, which helped
to perpetuate the lack of any serious military threat to the city.[Naitō, Akira (2003). Edo,
the City That Became Tokyo: An Illustrated History. p. 33,55.]
The absence of war-inflicted devastation allowed Edo to devote the majority of its resources to
rebuilding in the wake of the consistent fires, earthquakes, and other devastating natural
disasters that plagued the city.
1853: Edo period of seclusion came to an end with the arrival of American Commodore,
Matthew C. Perry
Commodore Perry negotiated the opening of the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate, leading to an
increase in the demand for new foreign goods and subsequently a severe rise in inflation.[
Naitō, Akira (2003). Edo, the City That Became Tokyo: An Illustrated History. p. 182,183.]
4
Social unrest mounted in the wake of these higher prices and culminated in wide spread
rebellions and demonstrations, especially in the form of the "smashing" of rice
establishments.[26]
1967: Supporters of the Meiji Emperor overthrow last Tokugawa shogun, Yoshinobu [27]; the
Pax Tokugawa came to an end.
*** Post Edo period
1869: the 17-year-old Emperor Meiji moved to Edo, and in accordance the city was renamed
Tokyo (meaning Eastern Capital). Tokyo was already the nation's political and cultural
center,[28] and the emperor's residence made it a de facto imperial capital as well, with the
former Edo Castle becoming the Imperial Palace. The city of Tokyo was established.
Central Tokyo, like Osaka, has been designed since about 1900 to be centered on major railway
stations in a high-density fashion, so suburban railways were built relatively cheaply at
street level and with their own right-of-way. This differs from many cities in the United
States that are low-density and automobile-centric. Though expressways have been built in
Tokyo, the basic design has not changed.
1923: the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake, which left 140,000 dead or missing,[29]
1943: the city of Tokyo merged with the "Metropolitan Prefecture" of Tokyo.
1944-45: bombing of Tokyo during World War II is estimated to have killed between 75,000 and
200,000 civilians and left more than half of the city destroyed.[30] Between 1940 and 1945,
the population of Tokyo dwindled from 6,700,000 to less than 2,800,000, with the majority
of those who lost their lives living in "ramshackle, makeshift huts".[33]
1964: Tokyo completely rebuilt and showcased to the world during the 1964 Summer Olympics
1978: construction of the controversial[34] airport at Narita
1980’s: real estate prices skyrocketed during a real estate and debt bubble
1990’s: The bubble burst, and many companies, banks, and individuals were caught with
mortgage backed debts while real estate was shrinking in value. A major recession
followed, making the 1990s Japan's "Lost Decade"[36] from which it is now slowly
recovering.
2011: The Tohoku earthquake and tsunami that devastated much of the northeastern coast of
Honshu was felt in Tokyo. However, due to Tokyo's earthquake-resistant infrastructure,
damage in Tokyo was very minor compared to areas directly hit by the tsunami,[39]
although activity in the city was largely halted.[40] The subsequent nuclear crisis caused by
the tsunami has also largely left Tokyo unaffected, despite occasional spikes in radiation
levels.[41][42]
2013, September 7: the IOC selected Tokyo to host the 2020 Summer Olympics. Tokyo will be
the first Asian city to host the Olympic Games twice.[43]
Urban development: Tokyo still sees new urban developments on large lots of less profitable
land. Recent projects include Ebisu Garden Place, Tennozu Isle, Shiodome, Roppongi
Hills, Shinagawa (now also a Shinkansen station), and the Marunouchi side of Tokyo
Station.
Land reclamation projects: been going on in Tokyo for centuries. The most prominent is the
Odaiba area, now a major shopping and entertainment center. Various plans have been
proposed[37] for transferring national government functions from Tokyo to secondary
capitals in other regions of Japan, in order to slow down rapid development in Tokyo and
revitalize economically lagging areas of the country. These plans have been
controversial[38] within Japan and have yet to be realized.
*************** Economy
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Tokyo has the largest metropolitan economy in the world.
2012: the Tokyo urban area (35.2 million people) had a total GDP of US$1.91 trillion (at
purchasing power parity) (study conducted by PricewaterhouseCoopers)
51 of the companies listed on the Global 500 are based in Tokyo, almost twice that of the
second-placed city (Paris).[75]
During the centralised growth of Japan's economy following World War II, many large firms
moved their headquarters from cities such as Osaka (the historical commercial capital) to Tokyo,
in an attempt to take advantage of better access to the government.
The Tokyo Stock Exchange is Japan's largest stock exchange, and third largest in the world by
market capitalization and fourth largest by share turnover. In 1990 at the end of the Japanese
asset price bubble, it accounted for more than 60% of the world stock market value.[79]
Tokyo had 8,460 ha (20,900 acres) of agricultural land as of 2003,[80] according to the Ministry
of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (last place among the nation's prefectures)
Currently, most of Tokyo's fish production comes from the outer islands, such as Izu Oshima
and Hachijojima.
Tourism in Tokyo is also a contributor to the economy. In 2006, 4.81 million foreigners and 420
million Japanese visits to Tokyo were made; the economic value of these visits totaled 9.4 trillion
yen according to the government of Tokyo.
The Tsukiji Fish Market in central Tokyo is the biggest wholesale fish and seafood market in the
world and also one of the largest wholesale food markets of any kind. The Tsukiji market serves
some 50,000 buyers and sellers every day. [81]
********** Transportation
5 Airports:
Haneda Airport (Ota ward)
Narita International Airport (Chiba Prefecture)
Hachijo-jima (Hachijojima Airport)
Miyakejima (Miyakejima Airport)
Izu Oshima (Oshima Airport)
Rail: the most extensive urban railway network in the world and an equally extensive network of
surface lines.
JR East operates Tokyo's largest railway network
The subway network operated by the private Tokyo Metro and the governmental Tokyo
Metropolitan Bureau of Transportation
The metropolitan government and private carriers operate bus routes and one tram route
Expressways: In order to build them quickly before the 1964 Summer Olympics, most were
constructed above existing roads.[83]
Long-distance ferries serve the islands of Tokyo and carry passengers and cargo to domestic and
foreign ports.
****** Education
6
Tokyo has many universities, junior colleges, and vocational schools. Many of Japan's most
prestigious universities are in Tokyo, including University of Tokyo, Hitotsubashi University,
Tokyo Institute of Technology, Waseda University, and Keio University.[84]
Publicly run kindergartens, elementary schools (years 1 through 6), and Primary schools (7
through 9) are operated by local wards or municipal offices. Public Secondary schools in Tokyo
are run by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education and are called
"Metropolitan High Schools". Tokyo also has many private schools from kindergarten through
high school.
********* OTHER STUFF
Cuisine in Tokyo:
In November 2007, Michelin released their first guide for fine dining in Tokyo, awarding 191
stars in total, or about twice as many as Tokyo's nearest competitor, Paris. Eight establishments
were awarded the maximum of three stars (Paris has 10), 25 received two stars, and 117 earned
one star. Of the eight top-rated restaurants, three offer traditional Japanese fine dining, two are
sushi houses and three serve French cuisine.[87]
Olympics:
Despite the International Gymnastics Federation's initial doubt in Tokyo's ability to host the
championships following the March 11 tsunami.[88] Tokyo was selected to host the 2020
Summer Olympics on September 7, 2013.
Cityscape:
Architecture in Tokyo has largely been shaped by Tokyo's history. Twice in recent history has
the metropolis been left in ruins: first in the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake and later after
extensive firebombing in World War II.[89] Because of this, Tokyo's urban landscape consists
mainly of modern and contemporary architecture, and older buildings are scarce.[89] Tokyo
features many internationally famous forms of modern architecture including Tokyo
International Forum, Asahi Beer Hall, Mode Gakuen Cocoon Tower, NTT Docomo Yoyogi
Building and Rainbow Bridge. Tokyo also features two distinctive towers: Tokyo Tower and the
new Tokyo Skytree which is the tallest tower in Japan and the second tallest structure in the
world after the Burj Khalifa in Dubai.[90]
Tokyo also contains numerous parks and gardens. There are four national parks in Tokyo
Prefecture, including the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, which includes all of the Izu Islands.
**** International relations
Tokyo is the founder member of the Asian Network of Major Cities 21 and is a member of the
Council of Local Authorities for International Relations. Tokyo was also a founding member of
the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group.
Tokyo is twinned with the following cities and states:[91]
United States New York City, United States (since 1960)[92]
China Beijing, China (since 1979)
France Paris, France (since 1982)
Australia New South Wales, Australia (since 1984)
South Korea Seoul, South Korea (since 1988)[93][94]
Indonesia Jakarta, Indonesia (since 1989)
Brazil Sao Paulo State, Brazil (since 1990)
Egypt Cairo, Egypt (since 1990)
Russia Moscow, Russia (since 1991)
7
Germany Berlin, Germany (since 1994)[95]
Italy Rome, Italy (since 1996)
Taiwan Taipei, Taiwan (since 2012)
In addition, Tokyo has a "partnership" agreement with:
United Kingdom London, United Kingdom (since 2006)[96]
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2.2 Governance context (2 pages)
[Working culture and legal structure for public policy making within which the city government
and other actors sit. Is planning centralised, decentralised to local authorities, led by civil society
or the private sector? Comment on rule-of-law, free-and-fair elections, corruption, politicisation
of the public sector, clientalism of low-income settlements etc should be commented upon]
Under Japanese law, Tokyo is designated as a “to” ( 都 ), translated as metropolis.[45] Its
administrative structure is similar to that of Japan's other prefectures.
Tokyo Metropolitan Government headquarters are in the ward of Shinjuku. They govern all of
Tokyo, including lakes, rivers, dams, farms, remote islands, and national parks
The Tokyo Metropolitan Government is headed by a publicly elected governor and metropolitan
assembly
Governor: Yoichi Masuzoe (Independent – not affiliated with any party)
Tokyo is subdivided into 23 special wards, 26 cities, 1 district, 4 subprefectures, 5 towns (町), 8
villages (村)
The 23 special wards ((特別区) (occupying the eastern half):
- Until 1943, these wards constituted the city of Tokyo.
- Now, while falling under the jurisdiction of Tokyo Metropolitan Government, each ward is
also a separate, self-governing municipality, each having a mayor, a council, and the status of
a city (like other cities of Japan - the special wards use the word "city" in their official English
name (e.g. Chiyoda City)).
- The wards differ from other cities in having a unique administrative relationship with the
prefectural government: certain municipal functions, such as waterworks, sewerage, and firefighting, are handled by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government. To pay for the added
administrative costs, the prefecture collects municipal taxes, which would usually be levied by
the city.[46]
- The "three central wards" of Tokyo - Chiyoda, Chuo and Minato - are the business core of
the city, with a daytime population more than seven times higher than their nighttime
population.[47]
The Tama area (多摩地域 – also western Tokyo): 26 cities, 3 towns, 1 village
- 26 cities, each of which has a local government and enjoy the same legal status as cities
elsewhere in Japan
- The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has designated Hachioji, Tachikawa, Machida, Ome
and Tama New Town as regional centers of the Tama area,[48] as part of its plans to
disperse urban functions away from central Tokyo.
- Nishi-Tama District (gun): The far west. Much of this area is mountainous and unsuitable for
urbanization. The highest mountain in Tokyo, Mount Kumotori, is 2,017 m high; other
mountains in Tokyo include Takasu (1737 m), Odake (1266 m), and Mitake (929 m). Lake
Okutama, on the Tama River near Yamanashi Prefecture, is Tokyo's largest lake. The district
is composed of three towns (Hinode, Mizuho and Okutama) and one village (Hinohara).
Two island chains in the Pacific Ocean directly south: 2 towns, 7 villages
- extend as far as 1,850 km (1,150 mi) from central Tokyo
- administered by local offices
- The Izu Islands: a group of volcanic islands that form part of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National
Park: Izu Oshima and Hachijojima are towns; the remaining islands are six villages
- The Ogasawara Islands: the islands form both Ogasawara Subprefecture and the village of
Ogasawara, Tokyo.
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********* Environmental legislation
Governor Shintaro Ishihara created Japan's first emissions cap system in Tokyo, aiming to
reduce greenhouse gas emission by a total of 25% by 2020 from the 2000 level.[65]
In 2006, Tokyo enacted the "10 Year Project for Green Tokyo" to be realised by 2016. It set a
goal of increasing roadside trees in Tokyo to 1 million (from 480,000), and adding 1,000 ha of
green space 88 of which will be a new park named "Umi no Mori" (sea forest) which will be on a
reclaimed island in Tokyo Bay which used to be a landfill.[69] From 2007 to 2010 436 ha of the
planned 1,000 ha of green space was created and 220,000 trees were planted bringing the total to
700,000. By 2014 road side trees in Tokyo will increase to 950,000 and a further 300 ha of green
space will be added.[70]
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2.3 Human Context (2 pages)
[Demographic (especially aging), social and economic status including inequality, political and
social instability/violence, major health concerns.]
Population (August 1, 2011)[3][4]
- Metropolis: 13,185,502; Density: 6,000/km2
- Metro: 35,682,460: Metro density: 2,629/km2
- 23 Wards: 8,967,665 (2011 per prefectural government)
Registered foreign nationals[71]
Nationality
Population (2012)
China 161,169
North Korea and South Korea
Philippines 27,929
United States 15,901
India 8,313
Nepal
8,669
Thailand
6,906
United Kingdom
5,522
Myanmar
4,781
France
4,635
99,880
Oct 2012: the official intercensal estimate showed 13.22 million people in Tokyo with 8.996
million living within Tokyo's 23 wards.[72] During the daytime, the population swells by over 2.5
million as workers and students commute from adjacent areas.
2005: The three central wards of Chiyoda, Chuo, and Minato have collective population of
326,000 at night, and 2.4 million during the day.[3]
Oct 2007: The entire prefecture had 12,790,000 residents in October 2007 (8,653,000 in 23
wards), with an increase of over 3 million in the day. Tokyo is at its highest population ever,
while that of the 23 wards peak official count was 8,893,094 in the 1965 Census, with the count
dipping below 8 million in the 1995 Census.[72] People continue to move back into the core city
as land prices have fallen dramatically.[citation needed]
1889: the Ministry of Home Affairs recorded 1,375,937 people in Tokyo City and a total of
1,694,292 people in Tokyo-fu.[73] In the same year, a total of 779 foreign nationals were
recorded as residing in Tokyo. The most common nationality was British (209 residents),
followed by United States nationals (182) and nationals of the Qing dynasty (137).[74]
2.4 Disaster Context (2 pages)
[disaster risk context (include extensive everyday riks eg waterlogging) and recent extreme events
including outcomes of response and reconstruction.]
Seismicity
Powerful earthquakes in 1703, 1782, 1812, 1855, 1923, and 2011.[50][51]
The 1923 earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 8.3, killed 142,000 people.
Tokyo is near the boundary of three plates.
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3.0 Hazards: Risk and Impact – 8 pages
[Detailed information on observed, modelled or anticipated risk and impact. Discussion should
give priority to risk and impacts on human health and mortality, which we will be able to model
thorugh the WRI, but also include discussion of risk and impacts on physical infrastructure and
ecomic assets where these might have multiplier effects on human health and wellbeing,
including through producing inequality and extended vulnerability to future risk, for example
thorgh forced relocation, evictions or land-use change. Include extensive and intensive risk and
everyday and catastrophic events.]
3.1 Heatwave (2 pages)
Tokyo is an example of an urban heat island, and the phenomenon is especially serious in its
special wards.[55][66] According to the Tokyo Metropolitan Government,[67] the annual mean
temperature has increased by about 3 °C (5.4 °F) over the past 100 years. Tokyo has been cited
as a "convincing example of the relationship between urban growth and climate."[68]
- The record low temperature is -9.2 °C, and the record high is 39.5 °C (though there was
once an unofficial reading of 42.7 °C at the Primary School Station.[53])
Heat-related deaths were most prone to occur on days with a peak daily temperature above 38°C,
and the incidence of these deaths showed an exponential dependence on the number of hot days.
Thus, even a small rise in atmospheric temperature may lead to a considerable increase in heatrelated mortality, indicating the importance of combating global warming (Nakai et al., 1999).
Half (50.1%) of the deaths occurred in children (4 years and under) and the elderly (70 years and
over) irrespective of gender, indicating the vulnerability of these specific age groups to heat.
Over the past 22 years (1990–2011), the inland part of the Tokyo metropolitan area has had 75 days
with an extreme high temperature (EHT) higher than 37.20C in Kumagaya, Saitama Prefecture.
Sachiho et al., 2012 demonstated in their study that the increase in the surface air temperature from
the 1990s to the 2070s is about 2.00C as a result of global climate changes under the A1B scenario in
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) and
about 0.50C as a result of urbanization in the Tokyo Metroplitan Area.
Sachiho et al., 2012 also noticed that Considering the current urban heat island intensity (UHII) of
1.00C, the possible UHII in the future reaches an average of 1.58C in the Tokyo Metroplitan Area.
12
87 deaths from heat-related maladies and record-breaking downpours that triggered
landslides across the country (Japan times, 2013)
Japan is hit particularly hard by extreme temperatures because of its aging population.
About 25 percent of Japanese citizens are age 65 or older, compared to just 14 percent in the
United States.
In Tokyo age distribution of patients affected by heatwave is shown by following graph
(heatstroke study 2008)
13
Distribution of heatwave affected patients by their work, most of the young people (age 11-20)
have heatwave stike are in exercise profession and age 21-60 is in physical labor profession
Most of the patients with the heatstroke are those who work outdoors with lots of physical
labour.
Most of the old age people are hospitalized after the heat stroke, but the young people are
usually just outpatients.
14
In order to reduce morbidity and mortality of multiple organ failure secondary to heatstroke, it is important
to identify the early signs and symptoms suggesting the possible onset of heatstroke and to provide first aid
treatment as soon as possible.
15
3.2 Sea Level Rise (2 pages)
No clear long-term trend of rise in sea levels in Japanese coastal areas has been observed over
the last 100 years. The maximum sea level appeared around 1950, and near-20-year
(bidecadal) variation was dominant until the 1990s. From then onward, a trend of sea level
rise has been seen with near-10-year (decadal) variation. Sea level data for the Tokyo station
are available from 1968 onward.
Time-series representation of annual mean sea level values (1906 - 2013)
The 1981 - 2010 average is used as the normal.
Time-series representation of annual mean sea level anomalies (1960 - 2013) for the four
regions shown in the image below
16
http://www.data.jma.go.jp/gmd/kaiyou/english/sl_trend/sea_level_around_japan.html
In contrast to the globally averaged rate noted in the IPCC report, rate of sea level rise in Tokyo
coastal areas is 0.2 mm/year higher for the period 1993-2010.
An increase of such magnitude seriously threatens Tokyo’s of coastline, which contains a
large part of Japan’s population and economic activity (Kojima, 2004).
Compared to other countries, Japan has the sixth largest number of people (more than 30
million) living within 10km of the sea (IIED, 2007). While coastal municipalities occupy
only about 32% of the total area of Japan, they hold about 46% of the total population and
produce about 47% of the industrial output, and amazingly 77% of the total expenditure for
retail business or market goods is spent in the coastal municipalities (Kojima, 2004).
Unfortunately, sea-level rise together with storm surges, typhoons, tsunamis, and beach
erosion, are major threats to coastal communities and economic productivity (Kojima, 2004).
Impacts associated with a rise in sea-levels are inundation and submergence, exacerbation of
flooding, saline intrusion in rivers and ground water aquifers, and erosion of Japan’s coastal
zone. People and wildlife species will experience the impacts of increased levels of storm
surges, flooding and inundation and the encroachment of tidal waters into estuaries and river
systems (McLean et al., 2001).
The Japanese government estimates that the costs associated with defending the country from
a 1 m rise in sea levels would be about US$115 billion, whereas the value of assets at risk
from the same amount of sea-level rise exceeds US$1 trillion (Kojma, 2006).
17
More than 90% of Japan’s beaches would disappear with a 1 meter sea-level rise, along with
many of the tidal wetlands where migratory birds feed (Hulme and Sheard, 1999; MOE,
2004; Harasawa 2006).
However, these areas are already protected by high dikes which are likely to be raised, so the
problem is one of changing flood risk rather than population displacement.
(http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/350873/1/sealevel.pdf)
Nicholls,
Rob
J. and Mimura,
Nobuo (1998) Regional issues raised by sea-level rise and their policy implications. Climate
Research, 11, (1), 5-18. (doi:10.3354/cr011005).
Many studies have estimated a inundation risk assuming no coastal protection, because data
for coastal protection facilities were not easily available. Though these results give an
indicator for a potential risk of inundation, a more realistic assessment was needed. Recently,
a study was undertaken to estimate the inundation risks in the three major bays (Tokyo,
Osaka and Ise Bays) in the 2090s, using the heights of the present seawalls along these bays.
This study indicated that for the typhoon (tropical cyclone) that is 1.3 times stronger than the
Ise Bay Typhoon in 1959, the inundation areas and people at risk will be 63–72 km2 and
300–350 thousand, respectively, and economic damage will amount to 1.8–2.3 trillion JPY.
The range of estimates comes from the three different scenarios for sea-level rise. This study
also showed that, if sea level rise and intensified storm surges are superposed, the current
return period of 1/several hundred years for a high water level will be shortened to 1/several
decades. The significance of this result is that the current design heights of seawalls might be
insufficient
for
the
higher
sea
level
expected
in
the
future.
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3758961/pdf/pjab-89-281.pdf , Sea-level rise
caused by climate change and its implications for society, Nobuo Mimura, Proc. Jpn. Acad.,
Ser. B 89 (2013))
A case study for the coastal area in Tokyo Bay suggested an increase of liquefaction potential
as a result of the combined effect of sea-level rise and higher river level (K. Yasuhara, H.
Komine, S. Murakami, G. Chen, Y. Mitani, D.M. Duc, Effects of climate change on geodisasters in coastal zones and their adaptation, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Volume 30,
February
2012,
Pages
24-34,
ISSN
0266-1144,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2011.01.005.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0266114411000069))
Some coastal areas have more to fear from climate change than others. Tokyo and Sydney,
for instance, are likely to see bigger sea-level rises than Vancouver or London, according to
a new study that attempts to model the oddities of the rising oceans. (Why Tokyo has more
to fear from sea-level rise than Vancouver
- http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2013/02/12/why-tokyo-has-more-tofear-from-sea-level-rise-than-vancouver/)
M. Perrette et al.: A scaling approach to regional sea level projections. http://www.earth-systdynam.net/4/11/2013/esd-4-11-2013.pdf
Perrette has modelled all of these effects and calculated local sea level rises in 2100 for the entire
planet. While the global average rise is predicted to be between 30 and 106 centimetres, he says
tropical seas will rise 10 or 20 per cent more, while polar seas will see a below-average rise. Coasts
18
around the Indian Ocean will be hard hit, as will Japan, south-east Australia and Argentina (Earth
System Dynamics, doi.org/kbf).
Some impacts




Sea level rise caused by global warming expands brackish river water regions, thereby
degrading the levee strength.
Sea level rise and anomalous rainfall raise the groundwater level and expand areas that
suffer geotechnical hazards through liquefaction in the event of an earthquake.
When rainfall and an earthquake are combined, the risk of mid-depth middle-scale
sliding and surface sliding increase too, but the risk of deep large-scale slides does not
become so high. If countermeasure costs are considered, measures against surface
sliding, considering a partial mid-depth slide, are the most cost-beneficial.
Among possible adaptation measures against climate-change-induced geo-disasters,
geosynthetics are and will be more powerful options in the near future for protection of
coastal zones.
K. Yasuhara, H. Komine, S. Murakami, G. Chen, Y. Mitani, D.M. Duc, Effects of climate
change on geo-disasters in coastal zones and their adaptation, Geotextiles and Geomembranes,
Volume
30,
February
2012,
Pages
24-34,
ISSN
0266-1144,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2011.01.005.
(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0266114411000069
19
3.3 Coastal cyclones, extreme wind events and storm surge (2 pages)
- Annual rainfall averages nearly 1,530 millimetres, with a wetter summer and a drier winter.
Snowfall is sporadic, but does occur almost annually.[54]
- 3.1 typhoons/yr in mainland Kanto [64]), though few are strong.
- The wettest month since records began in 1876 has been October 2004 with 780 millimetres
[56] including 270.5 millimetres Oct 9th, 2004.[57]
Tokyo is situated in a floodplain, between rivers and the sea, and has always been subject to
flood risk. Measures against floods have been taken since the Tokugawa Shogunate, about
400 years ago, when it was decided to divert Edo River and make it flow to Pacific Ocean
through Japanese East Coast instead of Tokyo Bay. Besides the morphological location
characteristics (low elevation, proximity or rivers and sea), Tokyo Bay suffers the
consequences of frequent typhoons, tropical cyclones that grow in the Western part of North
Pacific Ocean and move Northwards reaching Japan several times a year. These
characteristics make Tokyo Bay an area predisposed to flood disasters.
A large number of flood events have been registered in the past in Tokyo area (C40 Tokyo
Conference on Climate Change, 2008). The most harmful storm surge event happened in
1917, when 87 km2 were flooded, leaving 180,000 inundated houses and causing 1,524
deaths. This disaster was surpassed regarding material damage in 1958, due to floods caused
by a typhoon (nº22 on Kano River). This time 311 km2 were flooded and 340,000 houses
were inundated, though the number of deaths was lower (203 deaths).
In the second half of 20th century no casualties due to floods were registered, indicating that
flood protection measures taken in last decades seem to have been effective. Nevertheless,
several decades is not a period long enough to guaranty that current flood defences are
sufficient to ensure the desired safety levels. The current state of coastal defences needs to be
analyzed in order to estimate the existing safety margins and possible future performance.
María José Ruiz Fuentes, STORM SURGE BARRIER TOKYO BAY ANALYSIS ON A
SYSTEM LEVEL AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN, MSc Thesis June 2014
Sea level rise and an increase in typhoon intensity are two of the expected consequences from
future climate change. In the present work a methodology to change the intensity of tropical
cyclones in Japan was developed, which can be used to assess the inundation risk to different
areas of the country. An example of how this would affect one of the worst typhoons to hit
the Tokyo Bay area in the 20th century was thus developed, highlighting the considerable
dangers associated with this event, and how current sea defences could be under danger of
failing by the end of the 21st century. S. HOSHINO, M. E., T. MIKAMI, T. TAKABATAKE, T.
SHIBAYAMA 2012. Climate change and coastal defences in Tokyo Bay.
Japan has many shallow bays that are only about a few dozen meters deep, but not all are
protected. “Some bays are equipped with measures for disasters, but there still can be
unexpected events,” said Shinji Sato, a coastal engineering professor at the University of
Tokyo. In 2010, the Cabinet Office’s Central Disaster Prevention Council unveiled a worstcase scenario that projected 7,600 people would die if a storm about the size of the 1934
Muroto Typhoon hit Tokyo Bay, assuming global warming causes ocean levels to rise.
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2013/11/23/national/japans-coast-menaced-by-stormsurges/#.VRlBpvmUcpU
20
http://www.kensetsu.metro.tokyo.jp/c40/act6_E/PDF/Historical_Floods.pdf
There are studies about increasing trends in typhoon intensity that calculate representative
parameters like wind velocities and pressure difference at the eye of the typhoon (H. Kawai,
2010). The typhoon Taisho, from October of 1917, is used to simulate the consequences over
Tokyo Bay.
Taisho 6th year (1917) typhoon
The Taisho (1917) Typhoon was the worst typhoon to affect Tokyo Bay in the last 100 years.
It caused widespread damage in the Tokyo Bay area, and from past historical records it
flooded an area of over 200 km2, with the number of dead and missing estimated to be over
1300 people (Table. 2). The typhoon did not pass directly above Tokyo Bay but slightly to
the west. The lowest pressure of the typhoon was said to be 952.7hPa according to Miyazaki
(2003), though the way in which pressure was measured in 1917 is slightly different to the
way it is done now (the original way to measure the central pressure of a typhoon was to
carry out plane observations).
The selected design typhoon is the most harmful registered in the 20th century, which
corresponds approximately to a return period of 100 years. Then a simulation is done taking
into account the expected increase in intensity, in order to calculate the consequences for
Tokyo Bay area. An increase in storm surge is found.
21
The obtained storm surge levels are combined with sea level rise producing different
scenarios. Then, coastal defences’ performance is evaluated. As the results lead to the
conclusion that coastal defences might be insufficient to protect the area in the future, an
estimation of the damage that could occur and the necessary investment to upgrade the
defences is made. Several authors calculated the values of expected storm surge for different
return periods (H. Kawai, 2008) corresponding to Tokyo Bay and other large bays in Japan.
Besides that, there are studies where the convenience of using a determined return period is
analyzed (T. Takayama, 2004). María José Ruiz Fuentes, STORM SURGE BARRIER TOKYO
BAY ANALYSIS ON A SYSTEM LEVEL AND CONCEPTUAL DESIGN, MSc Thesis June
2014
Esteban, M., Mikami, T., Shibayama, T., Takagi, H., Jonkman, S., & Ledden, M. (2014).
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN TOKYO BAY: THE CASE FOR A STORM
SURGE BARRIER. Coastal Engineering Proceedings, 1(34), management.35.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.9753/icce.v34.management.35
Increases in typhoon intensity and sea level rise could pose significant challenges to coastal
defences around Tokyo Bay. In order to analyse the extent of future problems the authors
determined the increase storm surge that could result from an increase in typhoon intensity
and sea level rise to this area around the turn of the 21st century. Results show how the
various settlements around Tokyo Bay are at considerable risk of storm surges and sea level
rise in the future. If defences are breached the potential direct economic consequences could
be significant, potentially in excess of 100 trillion yen, with the indirect costs likely to be
even greater. As a result it is likely that sea defences will have to be strengthened around
Tokyo Bay in the future, which could cost in the order of 370bn yen to defend against a 1 in
100 year storm by the year 2100. Alternatively, a storm surge barrier could be built, which
would be more expensive (possibly in the range of 700-800bn yen), though it could increase
the protection level and would be able to cope with 1 in 200 or 500 year events, amongst
other benefits.
Since 22 April 2009, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) has issued five-day tropical
cyclone (TC) track forecasts to encourage early public attention to and preparation for TCs.
JMA’s Five-day Tropical Cyclone Track Forecast, Kenji KISHIMOTO, Forecast Division,
Forecast Department, Japan Meteorological Agency
http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/jma-eng/jma-center/rsmc-hp-pub-eg/techrev/text12-2.pdf
22
How giant tunnels protect Tokyo from flood threat
http://www.water-technology.net/projects/g-cans-project-tokyo-japan/
G-Cans Project, or the Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel, is the
world's largest underground flood water diversion facility. It is located between Showa in
Tokyo and Kasukabe in Saitama prefecture, on the outskirts of the city of Tokyo in the
Greater Tokyo Area, Japan. The complex, which was built between 1993 and 2006 at a cost
of nearly $3 billion, is an example of how Japan's capital, which lies in a region at high risk
from flooding and tropical cyclones, is trying to figure out how to contain the elements to
protect its 13 million inhabitants.
The project aims to protect the city of Tokyo itself from floods during heavy rainfall and
typhoons. The project operates by channelling the overflowing flood waters from the rivers
within Tokyo to five silos through tunnels.
The water is then stored in a huge storage tank and pumped out into the Edogawa River,
which is located at a lower altitude on the outskirts of Japan's capital city.
Construction work for the G-Cans project started in 1992 and was completed in early 2009.
The project was undertaken by the Japanese Government, guided by the Japan Institute of
Wastewater Engineering Technology. The facility is capable of withstanding a once-in-200
years flood.
http://www.kensetsu.metro.tokyo.jp/c40/act6_E/PDF/Massive_flood_damage_of_Kano_Rive
r_Typhoon.pdf
Additional readings
1. http://www.jsce.or.jp/kokusai/civil_engineering/2007/91-4-1.pdf - Exploring Tokyo
Bay Present problems and future prospects of Tokyo Bay
2. http://www.mlit.go.jp/river/toukei_chousa/kasen/jiten/nihon_kawa/map_83.html
Rivers of Japan Online
23
http://www.kensetsu.metro.tokyo.jp/c40/act6_E/PDF/GentleSlope_Levees_and_Super_Levees.pdf
24
3.4 Waterlogging, salt-water intrusion, subsidence, coastal erosion – others (2 pages)
Land subsidence in Tokyo has been rapidly reduced since about 1973 due to the restrictions for
extraction of groundwater by means of the laws and the ordinance (Tanaka et al., 2004).
Figure shows the changes in groundwater head and land subsidence in the subsidence areas of
Tokyo and Osaka. This data shows that the groundwater heads declined by around 10m from the
beginning of the observation periods in 1933 to 1943, then rose by up to 5m, before resuming a
declining trend from 1951. It shows that subsidence occurred until 1973 continously, but after that it
reduced because of decreased pumping.
Recently, underground railroad stations have been constructed deeper than 50m below the surface
in the metropolitan city of Tokyo. On the other hand, regulation of groundwater pumping has been
forced, following the land subsidence, since the 1970s. Constuction of subsurface dams has been
successful to store groundwater, which would quickly discharge into the sea and prevent saltwater
intrusion (Sakura et al., 2013).
Groundwater withdrawals that have been increased due to urbanization had a marked impact on
the distribution of hydraulic head and groundwater flow in the region.
After the implementation of groundwater pumping regulations in the Tokyo Bay area, groundwater
levels are still increasing (Hayashi et al., 2009).
The recovery of groundwater levels induces new groundwater problems that affect the subsurface
structures and induces an increase of demand for groundwater. Increased groundwater withdrawals
may further alter groundwater levels and groundwater flow conditions. Consequently, to ensure the
sustainability of groundwater resources, the groundwater environment must be continuously
monitored (Hayashi et al., 2009).
Groundwater in the southern region of the Ashigara plain, the coastal aquifer in Odawara region
near Tokyo, constitutes an important source of water for the industry, agriculture and municipal
25
supplies. However, it is threatened by many problems such as water level decline and
salinization due to seawater intrusion or water-rock interactions. For these reasons many
authors were interested in studying on this groundwater. Yokoyama et al. (1999) reported a
significant depression of water level due to over extraction. This resulted in salinization of the
groundwater quality due to intrusion by seawater, the chloride content of groundwater reached
409 ppm in the industrial area in Odawara city. This high chloride concentration seems to have
been caused by overextraction since the groundwater head has dropped more than 20 m below
sea level.
The land subsidence is a compaction phenomenon of soil layer due to lowering water pressure of
aquifer system and dehydration of the pore water. Since 1920 to 1975 subsidence of the lowland
in Tokyo has been considered to be due to groundwater withdrawal. The maximum subsidence
rate during this period is 4.57m in Koto ward. Water quality in these alluvial lowlands are
worsening overt time and chloride content reached more than 100 ppm along Tokyo Bay.
Following these observations, the Japanese government took initiatives and put regulations on
water withdrawal rate to minimize the land subsidence as well as to return the water quality back
to normal (Environmental Protection Agency (1995)).
26
4. Adaptation: Status and Trajectories for Critical Infrastructure – 14 pages
[We are interested in the adaptive qualities of management regimes – this will be indicated by
mandates in legislation, attitudes and skill levels of staff, access to technology, appropriateness of
budget lines, scope for learning and responseiveness in management culture and the degree to
which there are effective relationshsips with other sectors/agencies. It will be important to
indicate the degree of a sector that is influenced by state planning, eg how much of the housing
provisoin in Kolkata is regulated by land-use and construction law. This is helpful in showing the
challenges for adapting.
Each entry should include: (1) An overview of each sector’s management regime, its strengths
and weaknesses. (2) An account of past adpatations in respsone to disaster events or predicted
risk. (3) A characterization of adaptation status for each infrastructure type (CRRT), with
examples in the text to support your judgement. (4) A judgement on the management
regimes position in the CRRT table (see the end of this template) to summarise your analysis.
This work will involve your judgement but will nonetheless be helpful in guiding selection of
infrastructures and local Boroughs for detailed modelling and adaptation analysis. If relevant this
judgement can draw from comments made on specific adaptation capacities during City
Workshop 1. While only two of these infrastructures will be taken forward to the adaptation
interview analysis it is necessary to have a broader overview analysis to provide context for
adpatative status and subsequent publication]
4.1 Housing (1.5 pages)
[formal and informal, public and private, owned and rented]
To be written later.
4.2 Water (1.5 pages)
[land drainiage, subsidence, sanitation, potable water management and any interaction with
poverty and risk.]
Land drainage
THE GREATER TOKYO REGION (hereafter Greater Tokyo), with its densely populated megacities,
includes five river basins covering an area of about 22,600 square kilometres (km2), with a total
population of 27 million and property value assets totalling about US$2.9 trillion.
http://waterwiki.net/images/c/ca/Japanfull.pdf
27
The total number of rivers in Tokyo is 107, with a total distance of about 858 km. Due to
their topological configuration, Tokyo's rivers generally have their source to the west and
flow into Tokyo Bay. Among the 107 rivers, 92 are specified by the Minister of Land,
Infrastructure and Transport as Class A rivers in the Tamagawa, Arakawa, Tonegawa, and
Tsurumigawa river systems. Another 15 are specified by the governor of Tokyo as Class B
rivers. Among those, the TMG manages around 105 rivers spanning 711 km, excluding the
Arakawa and Tonegawa Rivers that are managed by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and
Transport. http://www.kensetsu.metro.tokyo.jp/english/kasen/gaiyo/02.html
http://www.kensetsu.metro.tokyo.jp/english/kasen/gaiyo/pdf_/02img01.pdf
Of the rivers administered by the metropolitan government, 46 rivers in the 23 wards are
managed by the wards in accordance with an ordinance governing TMG administration in
special zones. In addition, the quasi-rivers specified and administered by the wards, cities,
townships and villages in Tokyo number 20 and are approximately 33 km long in total.
To safely deal with overflowing flood water during heavy rains, rivers are being widened and
dug down the riverbed. Paths through lush greenery border the rivers, and in areas with
28
sufficient space the revetments are built at a gentle slope, allowing visitors to enjoy the river
and creating an environment preserving the local fish, insects, and birds. Regulating
reservoirs have been installed to store a volume of flood water when water levels rise in
heavy rain, while diversion channels route flood water to a different location.
The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has been implementing measures to control river
flooding with the aim of withstanding rainfall up to 50 mm per hour. In recent years,
however, heavy rains exceeding that amount are increasingly, repeatedly causing floods in
Tokyo. To address this problem, the TMG formulated its flood control policy for small and
midsized rivers in November 2012. Specifically, the rainfall criteria were raised to 75 mm per
hour for the ward area and 65 mm per hour for the Tama area based on different rainfall
tendencies in the two areas. These are the levels of rainfall that occur once in 20 years. The
policy also states that the portion exceeding 50 mm should be, in principle, controlled by
detention basins.
http://www.kensetsu.metro.tokyo.jp/english/kasen/gaiyo/03.html
-----------------------------The average precipitation in Greater Tokyo has been 1,551 millimetres (mm) per year for the past
thirty years. During periods of drought, the average is 1,213 mm/year, which is 20 percent less than in
normal years. Over the last one hundred years, overall precipitation has been decreasing. However,
recently, there have been more and more rainfalls of over 100 mm/day (Water Resources Department,
MLIT, 2002)
http://waterwiki.net/images/c/ca/Japanfull.pdf
日本の降水量は梅雨期や台風期に集中しており、河川が急流であることから、降った雨が一
気に流れ出すために、大量の雨が降れば瞬時に洪水となり、逆に日照りが続くと渇水となる
特徴があります。また、河川水が少ない時には取水できない「不安定取水」に頼っている部
分が多く（特に都市部）、それだけ河川流量の変動に影響されやすく、渇水や頻発しやすい
状況となっています
http://www.ktr.mlit.go.jp/river/nyuusatu/river_nyuusatu00000041.html
Additional readings (Japanese)
2013 fiscal year report on water quality of public waters
http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/water/tokyo_bay/measurements/data/25.html
Water management
Most of the water resources of Tokyo come from rivers. The breakdown of the water from rivers is as
follows: 78% from the Tonegawa and Arakawa River systems and 19% from the Tamagawa River
system. Until the first half of the 1960s, most of the water resources depended on the Tamagawa
River system. Since then the dependence on the Tonegawa River has increased in accordance with
water resources development in the Tonegawa River system in order to respond to the sharp increase
29
in demand. Tokyo Metropolis owns 6.3 million m3 per day of water resources. (as of 2014) http://www.waterprofessionals.metro.tokyo.jp/pdf/wst_03.pdf
http://environmentportal.in/files/Water_Arab_World_full.pdf#page=159 Ueda, S., & Benouahi, M.
(2009). Accountable water and sanitation governance: Japan’s experience. Water in the Arab World, 131.
The water supply system, which would use a modern waterworks infrastructure, was begun in 1898,
with the first phase of construction completed in 1911 (Tokyo Metropolitan Government 1999). At
the beginning of the 20th century, the total amount of water supplied by the system was about 100
liters per day per capita, which was one-quarter of today’s level. The amount of water supply stopped
rising prior to the Second World War, and then started to increase again at a remarkable rate after the
1950s, along with the city’s high-growth rate. In 1972, the water supply system provided for a
maximum consumption of 532 liter per day per person, which then decreased to around 400 l per day
per person.
Otaki, Y., Sakura, O., & Otaki, M. (2007). Water systems and urban sanitation: A historical comparison of
Tokyo
and
Singapore. Journal
of
water
and
health,5(2),
259-265.
http://www.iwaponline.com/jwh/005/0259/0050259.pdf
Since the waterworks in Tokyo started to supply water from the Yodobashi
purification plant in 1898, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government has been
implementing measures to secure water resources and improve and expand
facilities to provide a consistent, stable supply of clean water. As a result, the
waterworks in Tokyo today has evolved into one of the largest facilities in the
world
with
the
highest
level
of
technology.
(http://www.waterworks.metro.tokyo.jp/eng/supply/)
30
http://www.waterprofessionals.metro.tokyo.jp/pdf/wst_02.pdf
http://www.waterprofessionals.metro.tokyo.jp/pdf/wst_02.pdf
1.
After the water shortage during the Tokyo Olympics (1964), a large-scale water shortage has occurred about
once every 10 years.
2.
The nationwide water shortage in 1994 affected about 16 million people due to troubles in tap water supply,
while causing damage to agriculture with product losses of roughly 140 billion yen.
http://www.mlit.go.jp/tochimizushigen/mizsei/water_resources/contents/current_state2.html
Seismic design and preparedness
Water utilities have taken various measures to ensure the best possible water supply for citizens
immediately after earthquakes. Utilities have set high antiseismic design criteria for physical
infrastructure and established emergency operation systems. They also have built auxiliary power
31
plants and emergency water supply basins and tanks to secure water supply during emergencies. http://environmentportal.in/files/Water_Arab_World_full.pdf#page=159
Sanitation
At the beginning of the 20th century, sanitary conditions in Tokyo city were bad, and there was a high
infant mortality rate (192 per 1,000). Cholera was brought under control at the end of 19th century,
when the construction of water supply systems began (Figure 2). The worldwide level of cholera was
also stable until the next epidemic began in the 1960s. Therefore, in Tokyo’s case, it is clear that the
infection rate of cholera is not an adequate indicator for evaluating improvements to public sanitation
resulting from the water supply systems.
Otaki, Y., Sakura, O., & Otaki, M. (2007). Water systems and urban sanitation: A historical comparison of
Tokyo and Singapore. Journal of water and health,5(2), 259-265.
http://www.iwaponline.com/jwh/005/0259/0050259.pdf
http://environmentportal.in/files/Water_Arab_World_full.pdf#page=159 Ueda, S., & Benouahi, M.
(2009). Accountable water and sanitation governance: Japan’s experience. Water in the Arab World, 131.
Significant improvements in the health status of children were noted in Japan during the second half
of the 20th centuary. Improvements were observed in morality, morbidity and anthropometric
indicators in children. The infant mortality rate in Japan declined from 60.1 to 3.2 per 1000 live births
between 1950 and 2000. Between 1955 and 2000, the average height and weight of children in the
first grade increased from 110.1 cm and 18.7 kg to 116.7 cm and 21.8 kg, respectively. Increased
availability of safe water according to the development of sanitation infrastructure, such as water
supply systems, was considered one of the factors contributing to the reduction of adverse
consequences of child survival and healthy development.
Ishitani, S., Nakamura, K., Fukuda, Y., Kizuki, M., Seino, K., & Inose, T. (2005). Critical contribution of
sanitation infrastructure and primary medical care to child health status in Japan from 1955 to
2000. Journal of medical and dental sciences, 52(4), 213.
http://lib.tmd.ac.jp/jmd/5204/07_ishitani.pdf
------------------------In order to distinguish the relationship between water systems and prevalence of enteric fever, we
could divide Tokyo history into five periods as follows:
1st stage (1881–1898): No treated water supply. No modern sewage treatment.
2nd stage (1899–1909): Percentage of treated water supply = 70%. No modern sewage treatment. The
percentage of people who can use treated water increased year by year.
3rd stage (1910–1940): Percentage of treated water supply = 70%. No modern sewage treatment. The
percentage of people who can use treated water stopped increasing.
4th stage (1946–1968): Percentage of treated water supply = 70%. Percentage of modern sewage
treatment = 40%.
5th stage (1969– ): Percentage of treated water supply = 70%. Percentage of modern sewage treatment
= 40%.
32
The average enteric fever infection rate was 0.090% in the 1st stage, 0.084% in the 2nd stage, and
0.080% in the 3rd stage. Results of the Aspin-Welch-test (level of significance ,0.01) do not show a
significant difference between the infection rates across these three historical stages. Therefore, it is
clear that the introduction of treated water supply systems was insufficient to contain the spread of
water-borne diseases.
Otaki, Y., Sakura, O., & Otaki, M. (2007). Water systems and urban sanitation: A historical comparison of
Tokyo and Singapore. Journal of water and health,5(2), 259-265.
http://www.iwaponline.com/jwh/005/0259/0050259.pdf
------------------------------
Sewerage system
Japan's modern sewerage system construction started in early Meiji era about 130 years ago, to
prevent inundation by urban rainfall and outbreaks of infectious diseases caused by stagnating
untreated wastewater. However, it was not defined as a major infrastructure until the revised
Sewerage Law was amended in 1958, and the percentage of the population served by the sewerage
system did not exceed 6% at that time. Since then, sewerage system construction focused on large
cities and developed actively with the objective to improve the urban environment and to contribute to
sound urban development and enhancement of public sanitation, as defined by the Law.
Until the late 1980s, on-site sanitation, with night soil (or black water) and sludge collection, was the
main way to treat wastewater in Japan. The public sewerage system quickly spread in densely
populated urban areas to become the main sanitation system from the late 1980s, and today, it covers
more than 70% of the population. However, even now on-site sanitation systems are widely used in
Japan, accounting for about 30% of the total sanitation coverage. Night soil collection from vault
toilets and sludge from septic tanks is regularly conducted using vacuum trucks, in compliance with
the Johkasou Law. To date, 1,100 night soil/sludge treatment plants are in operation in Japan, playing
an important role in the preservation of water resources. Currently, only 0.2% of the total population
is not covered by either on-site or off-site systems. In about 40 years, Japanese sanitation has achieved
outstanding results and rapid growth, while developing a tremendous amount of technologies and
know-how.
http://www.jsanic.org/inasia/japanhistoryx.html
http://environmentportal.in/files/Water_Arab_World_full.pdf#page=159 Ueda, S., & Benouahi, M.
(2009). Accountable water and sanitation governance: Japan’s experience. Water in the Arab World, 131.
Future trends
In the future, Japan plans to further develop the foundations for water, energy and reuse/recycling.
Sanitation can also play an important role in mitigation of global warming. By using biomass and
natural energies such as solar, hydro and wind power, greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced in
wastewater treatment, which has led to the development and application of new technologies.
33
http://www.jsanic.org/inasia/japanhistoryx.html
Wastewater treatment standards
The water quality of discharged effluent from sewerage treatment plants is regulated by the Sewerage
Law. Among many parameters, the limit for the BOD of effluents is set at 20 mg/l. For most sewerage
treatment plants, the BOD of treated effluents outflow is below 5 mg/l—much lower than the
regulatory limits. The BOD of inflowing raw effluents typically ranges between 100 mg–200 mg/liter.
http://environmentportal.in/files/Water_Arab_World_full.pdf#page=159
Subsidence
Subsidence was first detected in Tokyo after 1910. Over the ensuing decades the water table
dropped, falling to as low as 58 meters below sea level in 1965. The volume of groundwater
pumped out continued to grow until 1970, when it peaked at close to 1.5 million cubic meters
per day (m3/d). The depth of subsidence increased over the decades and the area affected
continued to expand. At some places the ground surface was dropping over 10 centimeters
per year (cm/yr), peaking at about 24 cm/yr in 1968. (Land Subsidence And Groundwater
Management In Tokyo, International Review for Environmental Strategies (IRES) Volume6 Number2,
Chikafusa
Sato;
Michiko
Haga
and
Jiro
Nishino
2006)
http://pub.iges.or.jp/modules/envirolib/view.php?docid=2128
In 1923, a severe earthquake occurred near Tokyo, causing widespread damage in the Koto
region, east of the city of Tokyo. In order to study the crustal disturbance which might have
accompanied this severe earthquake, a precise leveling was rerun in this region. As a result, it
was found that the land subsidence was as a whole increasing gradually year by year. It was
also found that the extent of the region where the land subsidence was then advancing
occupied an area of about 100 km2, situated between the Sumida and the Arakawa rivers,
which flow through the region from north to south. The areas in Tokyo where land
subsidence has taken place are the Musashino upland and the alluvial lowland. There are two
groups of aquifers, shallow and deep ones. The main shallow aquifer on the lowland (Koto) is
Holocene sand and gravels and that on the upland area is Musashino gravel which is
extensively distributed.
The large scale ground water development started in 1914 in Tokyo. After that time, the
number of deep wells with large diameters increased rapidly. Land subsidence has occurred
in the Koto district since around 1900 and in the eastern part of the alluvial lowland
(Edogawa Ward) since 1920. On the other hand, in the Musashino upland, land subsidence
began to occur in the latter half of the 1950’s. The maximum subsidence in Tokyo is about
4.6 m and the maximum rate is 27 cm/yr (Figure 9.4.7). The total subsiding area in the Kanto
region (Tokyo, Chaiba, Kanagawa, and Saitama) amounts to 2420 km2, and the area where
the subsidence is occurring at a rate of more than 10 cm/yr is still about 100 km2. However,
since the pumping of ground water was restricted as stated above, the rate has dropped year
after year since 1972. (Case History No. 9.4. Tokyo, Japan, by Soki Yamamoto, Rissho University,
Tokyo, Japan - http://wwwrcamnl.wr.usgs.gov/rgws/Unesco/PDF-Chapters/Chapter9-4.pdf)
34
Land subsidence resumed in the middle of the 1950’s when industries began pumping up
large quantities of groundwater to support increased production activity. The cumulative land
subsidence at the benchmark of No.9832 amounted to over 4.5 m from 1918 to 2000. Land
subsidence in Tokyo has been rapidly reduced since about 1973 due to the legal restrictions
and ordinances for extraction of groundwater.
(Tadashi Tanaka; Groundwater Resources, Development and Management in the Kanto Plain, Japan,
http://www.nourin.tsukuba.ac.jp/~tasae/2004/Tadashi%20Tanaka.pdf)
Groundwater resources are widely used in the region. One tenth of the water used to supply
Tokyo metropolis is from groundwater resources. Groundwater resources make up 22.8
percent of total water use inland, and 13.1 percent in seaside areas. About 45 percent of
households and industries rely on groundwater. So as to prevent land subsidence,
groundwater withdrawals have been regulated. Limits on withdrawals of groundwater come
in the form of two laws: the Industrial Water Law, which targets groundwater used for
industrial purposes, and the Law Concerning the Regula tion of Pumping-up of Groundwater
for Use in Buildings, which targets groundwater used for cooling and other building-related
purposes. Groundwater withdrawal in the northern part of the Kanto plain has decreased from
13.1 bm3 in 1985 to 9.6 bm3 in 1999 (Water Resources Department, MLIT, 2001). As a
result, the rate of land subsidence has stabilized (see figure 22.3)
http://waterwiki.net/images/c/ca/Japanfull.pdf
Countermeasures to prevent the land subsidence
Two groundwater laws are effective in Japan, but practical application of the laws to specific areas is
decided by the local government. The Tokyo Metropolitan Government has succeeded in reducing
the rate of land subsidence by converting water resources from groundwater to surface water and
by making legislative guidance in order to save groundwater resources in factories and buildings.
However, bordering prefectures such as Saitama, Chiba and Ibaraki, which are also in the Kanto
Plain, are still suffering from the land subsidence. (Tadashi Tanaka; Groundwater Resources,
Development
and
Management
in
the
Kanto
Plain,
Japan,
http://www.nourin.tsukuba.ac.jp/~tasae/2004/Tadashi%20Tanaka.pdf)
35
Pumpage declined and the rate of subsidence slowed dramatically. The water table began to
rise again in the early 1970s and is now at 6-10 meters (m) below sea level. Even in the areas
that were most affected, the rate of subsidence has slowed to about 1 cm/yr in the past five
years. (Land Subsidence And Groundwater Management In Tokyo, International Review for
Environmental Strategies (IRES) Volume6 Number2, Chikafusa Sato; Michiko Haga and Jiro Nishino
2006) http://pub.iges.or.jp/modules/envirolib/view.php?docid=2128
4.3 Energy (1.5 pages)
adaptive qualities of management regimes:
mandates in legislation, attitudes and skill levels of staff
access to technology
appropriateness of budget lines
scope for learning and responseiveness in management culture
degree to which there are effective relationshsips with other sectors/agencies.
the degree of a sector that is influenced by state planning
(1) An overview of each sector’s management regime, its strengths and weaknesses.
Nature of electric power in Tokyo as originally controlled by TEPCO, but increasingly being
deregulated: ref. 4
Dissatisfaction with TEPCO
Cap and trade system implemented
Strong citizen opposition to nuclear as conflicting with government plans
(2) An account of past adpatations in respsone to disaster events or predicted risk.
Response of business sector to Fukushima: ref. 6
Concept of administrative guidance in Japan
Reliance on greenspaces ref. 20
(3) A characterization of adaptation status for each infrastructure type (CRRT), with examples
in the text to support your judgement.
Resistance in the sense of “electricity system built to be infallible”
Resilience: as demonstrated by response to Fukushima
Willingness to pay references 8 (nuclear power), 11 (tsunami),
(4) A judgement on the management regimes position in the CRRT table
4.4 Transport (1.5 pages)
(1) An overview of each sector’s management regime, its strengths and weaknesses.
Ambulance research: ref. 12,
Motor vehicle collisions related to high temperature and precipitation ref. 16
Access to grocery shopping ref. 23
(2) An account of past adpatations in respsone to disaster events or predicted risk.
Measures to prevent flooding of subways
Air circulation in subways?
Hibiya accident and response
36
(3) A characterization of adaptation status for each infrastructure type (CRRT), with examples
(4) A judgement on the management regimes position in the CRRT table
4.5 Communications (1.5 pages)
[telephone, internet connections, mobile phone coverage]
For the Whole of Japan
The commercial use of the Internet in Japan began in 1993, and the number of users
continues to increase. The number of people who used the Internet over the last year
(individuals who are 6 years of age and older; Internet-connected equipment covers any and
all types of Internet connection devices used, including PCs, cell phones, personal
handyphone systems, smartphones, tablet terminals, and game machines) was 100.44
million people as of the end of 2013, which is 82.8 percent of the population 6 years of age
and older. Observation by age group shows that the individual Internet usage rate exceeded
90 percent among people in each age group between 13 and 59, although the rate drops as
the age increases.
According to the status of Internet use by terminal at the end of 2013, the usage rate of
home PCs was the highest (58.4 percent), followed by smartphones (42.4 percent), and PCs
outside the home (27.9 percent). Figures for the rate of Internet use by terminal by age
group show that over 70 percent of people in each age group of between 13 and 49 use
home PCs. In the 20-39 age groups, usage of smartphones surpassed that of home PCs.
]
Progress of Communication Technologies
37
The number of broadband (connection) subscribers as of the end of March 2014 was 89.73
million. Among the number of broadband subscribers, those with subscriptions for 3.9G
mobile phones (LTE) were the highest, amounting to 46.41 million subscriptions and
accounting for 51.7 percent of the total. Compared to the previous year, 3.9G mobile phones
(LTE) increased by 128 percent, and it is clear that they are popularizing rapidly. Those with
FTTH (Fiber To The Home: enables for ultra-high-speed Internet access of several dozen to
a maximum of 1 Gbps) using optical fiber was the second highest, with 25.35 million
subscribers (6 percent increase as compared to the previous year), making up 28.3 percent
of the total.
In addition, although its percentage within the total number of broadband subscribers is
small, in recent years, the number of subscribers of BWA (Broadband Wireless Access)
service (access service connecting to networks via broadband wireless access systems
using the 2.5 GHz band [WiMAX, etc.]) has been increasing. As of the end of March 2014,
the number of BWA subscribers was 7.46 million (up 40 percent as compared to the
previous year).
Telephone
The number of fixed phone service subscription contracts has continued to decrease in
recent years. As of the end of March 2014, the number of fixed phone subscribers was 26.09
million (down 8.3 percent from the previous year). Meanwhile, the number of mobile phone
subscribers (cell phones and personal handyphone systems) totaled 141.13 million at the
38
end of March 2013, marking a rise by 6.0 percent year-on-year to 149.56 million at the end
of March 2014
Postal Service
As of the end of March 2014, Japan Post Co., Ltd. had 24,511 post offices nationwide. In
fiscal 2013, post offices handled 22.28 billion pieces of domestic mail (including parcels),
which was a 0.1 percent decrease from the previous fiscal year. Furthermore, the total
quantity of international mail (letters, express mail services [EMS], and parcels) sent in fiscal
2013 amounted to 47.16 million pieces (a decrease of 1.5 percent from the previous fiscal
year).
http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/handbook/c0117.htm
39
http://ppq.sagepub.com/content/9/1/105.full.pdf+html Leslie M. Tkach-Kawasaki
Politics@Japan: Party Competition on the Internet in JapanParty Politics January 2003 9: 105123, doi:10.1177/135406880391006
Internet Usage and Population Statistics:
http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia/jp.htm
YEAR
Users
2000
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
47,080,000
78,050,000
87,540,000
94,000,000
95,979,000
99,143,700
Population
126,925,843
128,137,485
128,389,000
127,288,419
127,078,679
126,804,433
% Pop.
37.1 %
60.9 %
68.0 %
73.8 %
73.8 %
78.2 %
Usage Source
ITU
C+I+A
ITU
ITU
ITU
ITU
Additional readings
1. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/japnc3.pdf - Japan’s Third National Communication
Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, The Government of
Japan 2002
2. http://www.worldinternetproject.com/_files/_Published/_oldis/Japan_Report_2002.pdf
3. Yoshio Arai, Mobile Internet and local information: a case in Japan. http://repository.dl.itc.utokyo.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2261/18506/1/jinbun_1803.pdf
4. http://iwparchives.jp/files/pdf/iwp2014/iwp2014-ch01-06-p083.pdf
For the Tokyo region
Internet
A survey by Fujitsu Research Institute revealed that at the end of February 2001, 1541
Internet companies were located in the 23 wards of Tokyo, and almost 70% of all Internet
companies were located in the 5 wards in the city center: Shibuya, Minato, Shinjuku,
Chiyoda, and Chuo.
40
Yukawa, K. (2003). A Cluster of Internet Companies in Tokyo—Review of Bit Valley—. Journal of
Korean Regional Science, 18(3), 111-126.
http://jp.fujitsu.com/group/fri/downloads/en/economic/no3.pdf
PARTICIPANTS IN INTERNET USE BY GENDER AND AGE GROUP (2006)
（単位　千人）
(In thousands of persons)
Paticipants
画像・動画・ 商品やサービス
ホームペー 情報検索及
電子メール 掲示板・チ
音楽データ、 の予約・購入、
ジ、ブログの びニュース等
その他
ャット
ソフトウェアの 支払い等の利
開設・更新 の情報入手
入手
用
E-mail
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Other
行　動　者　数
男　女　年　齢　階　級
10歳以上
推定人口
総　数
Gender and age group
a)
男
Male
Total
5,718
4,210
3,643
1,094
617
3,476
2,212
2,019
1,296
10～14歳 years old
15～24
25～34
35～44
45～54
55～64
65～74
75歳以上 and over
250
725
1,070
1,032
771
866
627
377
190
686
989
911
631
500
226
77
112
620
897
826
566
401
167
55
38
318
310
241
114
53
19
1
8
157
186
133
41
52
36
3
153
558
873
778
523
397
159
34
98
535
637
493
251
147
42
9
17
350
524
537
322
180
67
21
63
271
312
301
187
98
49
16
女 Female
5,770
3,928
3,525
956
625
2,989
1,606
1,899
1,218
10～14歳 years old
15～24
25～34
35～44
45～54
55～64
65～74
75歳以上 and over
238
673
1,007
963
730
877
714
567
202
639
958
878
581
432
193
44
128
606
928
814
509
345
158
36
46
313
339
152
58
37
12
-
27
198
234
98
40
22
5
-
137
563
855
702
412
260
55
5
54
475
526
322
154
66
7
3
23
313
655
474
251
146
32
6
52
264
394
274
110
73
34
17
a) Population 10 years and over
b) Bulletin board / chat service
c) Building or updating website or blog
d) Information retrieval and acquisition of information such as news
e) Acquisition of images, moving images, music data of software
f) Reservations, purchases , payments for goods or services
資料：都総務局統計部人口統計課「社会生活基本調査結果概要-都民の生活行動と生活時間-」
Source : Bureau of General Affairs , TMG
http://www.toukei.metro.tokyo.jp/tnenkan/2012/tn12q3i005.htm
41
POST OFFICES BY DISTRICT (End of Fiscal Years 2011 and 2012)
郵
便
局 Post offices
郵
年 度 末 及 び 地 域
総
数
End of fiscal year and district
Total
平 成 23 年 度 FY
24
区
千代田区
中央区
港 区
新宿区
文京区
台東区
墨田区
江東区
品川区
目黒区
大田区
世田谷区
渋谷区
中野区
杉並区
豊島区
北 区
荒川区
板橋区
練馬区
足立区
葛飾区
江戸川区
部
All ku
Chiyoda-ku
Chuo-ku
Minato-ku
Shinjuku-ku
Bunkyo-ku
Taito-ku
Sumida-ku
Koto-ku
Shinagawa-ku
Meguro-ku
Ota-ku
Setagaya-ku
Shibuya-ku
Nakano-ku
Suginami-ku
Toshima-ku
Kita-ku
Arakawa-ku
Itabashi-ku
Nerima-ku
Adachi-ku
Katsushika-ku
Edogawa-ku
2011
2012
郵 便 局
（直 営）
簡
易
郵便局
便
郵便切手類
差出箱
販 売 所
Stamp
and
Post offices
Postal
Mail
revenue
(direct management)
agencies
boxes
stamp
shops
1,511
1,504
7
11,401
9,692
1,512
1,506
6
11,017
10,334
1,067
1,066
1
7,723
7,590
53
51
55
56
34
34
26
43
43
24
72
80
37
30
52
36
42
20
48
62
68
45
56
53
51
55
56
34
34
26
43
43
24
72
80
37
30
52
35
42
20
48
62
68
45
56
1
-
419
405
508
399
238
265
213
361
311
198
490
574
313
206
367
223
367
133
338
394
385
270
346
405
311
574
474
200
229
211
372
324
230
455
524
386
211
317
272
239
124
326
352
400
270
384
42
SUBSCRIPTIONS OF TELEPHONES, PUBLIC TELEPHONES, AND INTERNET SERVICES
(End of Fiscal Years 2003～2012)
（単位　千件）
年
度
(In thousand subscriptions)
一般加入電話　Number of subscriber telephones
末
End of fiscal year
総数
単独
Total
Individual
一般加入電話
住宅用比率
事業所集団
Percentage of telephones
for residential use
Establishments
平成 15
年度 FY 2003
6,624
6,606
18
（％）
70.8
16
2004
6,447
6,430
17
71.8
17
2005
5,883
5,867
16
71.3
18
2006
5,317
5,303
14
71.1
19
2007
5,034
5,021
13
69.3
20
2008
4,286
4,286
-
70.9
21
2009
3,845
3,835
10
70.6
22
2010
3,451
3,442
10
70.2
23
2011
3,124
3,114
9
69.8
24
2012
2,826
2,817
9
69.9
年
度
I　S　D　N　契約数
末
移動体通信ｻｰﾋﾞｽ加入数 a)
Number of ISDN subscriptions
End of fiscal year
携 帯
PHS
Personal handy-
ISDNﾈｯﾄ64
ISDNﾈｯﾄ1500
電 話
64kb/s
1500kb/s
c)
公衆電話 b)　総数
うちデジタ
ル電話d)
Total
phone system
ブロードバンド契約数 e)
CATV
DSL
FTTH
Digital Subscriber
Fiber to
Line
The Home
f)
平成 15
年度 FY 2003
1,353
22
11,544
1,477
67
29
356
1,822
…
16
2004
1,490
23
11,348
1,492
58
26
397
2,065
663
17
2005
1,197
23
12,268
1,663
51
23
437
2,087
1,171
18
2006
1,077
23
13,351
1,788
47
22
475
1,928
1,749
19
2007
982
22
15,007
…
42
21
518
1,688
2,243
20
2008
882
20
16,770
…
39
20
568
1,424
2,584
21
2009
777
18
18,247
…
36
19
784
1,209
2,930
22
2010
682
16
20,456
…
32
17
872
995
3,159
23
2011
612
14
23,277
…
29
16
937
820
3,349
24
2012
549
13
26,177
…
26
14
976
672
3,431
注) 「単独」 には 「構内交換」 を含む。
資料： 東日本電信電話株式会社東京支店，総務省関東総合通信局
Note: “Individual” includes PBX.
a) Number of mobile communication service subscriptions b) Public telephones
c) Cellular phone d) of which are digital payphones e) Number of broadband subscriptions f) Cable television
Source : Nippon Telegraph and Telephone East Corp.　Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
CABLE BROADCASTING FACILITIES (End of Fiscal Years 2008～2012)
ラ
ジ
オ
Radio broadcasting facilities
テ
共同聴取，
年　度　末
総　数
告知放送用
End of fiscal year
告知放送用
街頭放送用
共同聴取用
For joint
For notice
For street
listening
announcement announcement
and notice
announcement
Total
レ
ビ TV broadcasting facilities
登録設備 Registered
総 数
For joint
listening
Total
自主放送
を行う
もの
Supplies
original
program
自主放送
を行わな
いもの
No
original
program
届出設備　Filed
自主放送
を行う
もの
Supplies
original
program
平成
20 年度 ＦＹ2008
1,052(61)
17(10)
76(51)
316
643
6,561
216
6,345
21
2009
1,048(64)
20(12)
86(52)
192
750
6,602
213
6,389
22
2010
975(49)
12(9)
69(40)
156
738
6,583
209
6,374
23
2011
-
-
-
-
-
5,473
115
5,358
24
2012
-
-
-
-
-
5,000
78
4,922
自主放送
を行わな
いもの
No original
program
注 1) (　) 内は， 有線音楽放送施設の再掲である。
2) 平成23年６月の放送法改正により有線ラジオの取り扱いが変わり，施設数の把握はできない。
資料：総務省情報流通行政局地域放送推進室
Note:1) Number in parentheses is a relisting of cable broadcasting facilities for music
2) Number of cable radio facilities is unknown due to revision of the Broadcast Act in June 2011
Source : Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications
43
4.6 Green and blue space and biodiversity (1.5 pages)
Tokyo metropolitan area used to be a huge wetland, which was
regularly flooded by the Tone River whose drainage area is the
largest in Japan. To change the wetland to into the Edo capital
area, the first Tokugawa Shogun started a civil engineering work
to change the direction of the river from flowing into Tokyo Bay
into flowing to Pacific Ocean. This project was completed by the
third Tokugawa Shogun. Thus, the original biodiversity of
wetland in Tokyo had disappeared in 17th century.
Some wetland dependent species remained in river sides,
ponds and rice paddies, but they have mostly disappeared in
accordance with the rapid economic growth starting in mid
1950’s. As the urbanization and centralization of population
progressed after 1950’s, the use of surface water decreased the Fig. 4-6-1 Typical small river at
water volume of small rivers, and they eventually dried up. In central Tokyo during 1970’s.
contrast, downstreams suffered from the waste water of the
urbanized area, which transformed streams into smelly ditches (Fig. 4-6-1, 東京都の公害風景
http://www2.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/kouhou/fuukei/top.html). To hide the smell and ugly
scenery, many rivers were transformed into underground drainage (Fig. 4-6-2).
Fig, 4-6-2 Rivers at central Tokyo. Blue line: rivers and canals; Brown dot: rivers and canals that
have disappeared; Orange line: recovered canals. From “Water of Mega-city Tokyo ~past,
present and future” coordinated by M. Yamamuro in Civil Engineering, vol. 98-1, 8-13.
44
Due to the warm waste water from sewages, the water temperature of the Tama River is
artificially higher in the downstream area. This enables the introduced tropical freshwater fishes
to survive even in winter at the Tama River. There are many species of fish from the Amazon
River living in the Tama River, and the Tama River is sometimes called “Tamazon River” as a
joke. Vacant lots in the Tokyo metropolitan area are mostly covered by exotic plants i.e. Solidago
canadensis var. scabra. In summer of 2014, 160 people suffered from dengue fever. They were
infected by tropical mosquitoes, suggesting that global warming may already be threatening the
biodiversity at Tokyo metropolitan area.
Most of the green areas in central Tokyo are related to the Imperial Family (Fig. 4-6-3).
Akasaka Detached Palace Ara River
Palace
Meiji Shrine
Hama Imperial Villa
Tama River
Fig. 4-6-3 Green area in central Tokyo (From Google Earth modified by M. Yamamuro)
4.7 Health services, especially for the elderly (1.5 pages)
To be completed later.
4.8 Social care, especially for the elderly (1.5 pages)
[pension rights, community development and elderly care homes and care at home service
provision]
To be completed later.
4.9 Emergency management (1.5 pages)
[Emergency services, civil defence, community based risk management, resilience planning as a
specific sector]
To be completed later.
45
5.0 Synthesis: Development, Risk and Adaptation at the City and Borough Scales – 6
pages
[This section is both a synthesis and feeds inot analysis of the future oriented Risk Model outputs. The
synthesis can draw on Section 2 and also the development and adaptation narratives produced by City
Workshop 1. To inform analysis of the Risk Modellling output structure text around 1990, 2000, 2015,
2035 and 2050. Try to idenitify specific distinctions in development trends for your city that could
be brought forward to enable comparison with the other cities.
5.1 City scale (2 pages)
[This sub-section will provide context for the Borough level analyses of risk and adaptive
capacity, for example if there is a large amount of dynamism or stability across the city or in
specific places. This can help us to explain the line of comparison across the city core (more
stable?) and periphery (more dynamic?) sites.]
To be completed later.
5.2 Urban core location (2 pages)
[If there is a clear candidate site based on local and expert judgement this shuld be rveiwed in
full. For some cities it might only be posisle to complete this sectionimmediately following the
confirmation of the local case study at the June meeting in Stattgart.]
To be completed later.
5.3 Urban periphery location (2 pages)
[If there is a clear candidate site based on local and expert judgement this shuld be rveiwed in
full. For some cities it might only be posisle to complete this sectionimmediately following the
confirmation of the local case study at the June meeting in Stattgart.]
To be completed later.
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------------------
51
Appendix: Section 5, Critical infrastrcure CRRT narrative descriptions
Actor
viewpoint
Object of
interest
Water and Waste
Water
Energy
Public Health
Social Care and
Services
Green/Blue
space (ecosystem
services)
Housing
Transport
Communications
DRM
CCA
Collapse
Resistant
Resilient
Transformative
Narrative Summary
52