Study of the Microcosm as the Convergence Point of Dissimilar Cultures in Taj Mahal
Azadeh Nikouei, Postgraduate Handicraft and Traditional Art, Alzahra University of Tehran
(mellaty1@gmail.com)
Mohammad Taghi Ashouri, Professor and faculty member of Tehran’s Art University
(taghi.ashouri@gmail.com)
Abstract
Among ancient edifices in India, Taj Mahal has obtained a considerable reputation. Although it is
categorized as an Islamic artwork, there are some hidden and apparent characteristics which have
made it noticeably popular among non-Muslims. The reason of stablishing Taj Mahal was paying
respect to a Man. Some hidden and apparent forms and embellishments suggest that the thought
of considering Man as the miniature of the world or the microcosm, which has been common in
many cultures, is materialized in Taj Mahal. The aim of this study is scrutinizing the invisible
relevant signs. To that this essay, it has been tried to study the form and concept of Man as
microcosm, in Taj Mahal, multiculturally and historically and related problems, the death and
renaissance as resurrection.
The hidden proportions and their concordance to the human's dimensions, just as particular
embedded symbols, validate this hypothesis. The conceptual forms on one hand have materialized
criteria of Hindu and Renaissance cultures, and on the other hand observed Islamic rules through
semi-hidden stylized and abstract style. Finally, analyzing discussed matters interculturally,
semiotically and aesthetically, and putting findings together, it showed that Man in the term of
microcosm is a salient convergence point of various ideologies, which has led audiences to
communicate with the building, having any taste, belief and interest, in modernity or tradition.
Accordingly, this quality in Taj Mahal has brought it a huge reputation.
Keywords: Taj Mahal, Man, microcosm, renaissance.
Introduction
The thought of reflecting macrocosm in microcosm or Man has been common from the ancient
eras. Visualizing Man as the best example for understanding the world led to considering and
applying human dimension and symbols in temples (e.g. churches), mausoleums and other
outstanding artifacts such as the last supper. Therefore the matter has a considering representation
in Taj Mahal, which was erected as a monument to respect a Man. The lady of Taj was one of the
three remarkable imperial Persian consorts. Her mausoleum, which was erected between 1030 and
1069 CE, despite of simplicity and little embellishment, compared to other Mughal edifices has
attracted a lot of interest. (Lall, 1998: 71)
Many art-historians have argued over its rank as the best Islamic art-work in the world.
(Gardner, 1959: 308) Furthermore some studies by Priace, Koach, Brend, Blair and Mohammad
Khazaee have tried to present a brief description of Taj Mahal.
However, except of ornaments and golden proportions, far too little attention has been paid to
the concepts of apparent and hidden significant forms and symbols. Two notable publications on
this issue are the book Art of Islam: language and meaning by Titus Burckhardt and the paper "The
1
Myth of The Taj Mahal and A New Theory of Its Symbolic meaning" by Wayne Begley in which
the mystic and theosophical denotations of some forms have been discussed.
Therefore this study deals with the signs and symbols which indicate essential problems in the
human life such as death and resurrection, additionally their representations in microcosm and
other patterns scrutinizing form of embellishments and plans semiotically and intertextually,
adapting them with different believes and cultures, to show that unifying different ideologies might
be caused partly from the collective unconscious plays an outstanding role in the problem of
worldwide reputation of Taj Mahal as the most popular ancient building with 2.58 million visitors
in 2009-2010. (Interim Report Delhi, April 2012, p 10)
One question that needs to be asked, nevertheless is whether presenting architectural features
for example golden proportions and symbolic ornaments is merely sufficient to justify the huge
number of audiences in a wide range, or not. Considering Taj Mahal in the Islamic art category
has caused little attention to multicultural resemblances which connect different believes and
tastes. Meanwhile the issue which has received poor attention is some noteworthy values, which
are not completely visible. Mentioned maters have been described in fallowing sentences.
In designing the site of Taj Mahal, visitors enter from bazaar (market), the symbol of mundane
world, and passing the garden, the mosque and guesthouse leads to mausoleum, the symbol of
cosmos. (Soltanzadeh, 1999, pp 317-319) Though it looks like a miniature of the universe. As the
majority of resources indicate, many artists and artisans from different nationalities got involved
in establishing it. Then the importance of communicating different ideas in the final success of the
monument is undeniable. Among these artist, Amanat Khan Shirazi (Amānat khān Shīrāzī), from
Iran, did the calligraphies of Quran's "surat"s(1) on the different parts of the mausoleum, the only
embellishment which was not done symmetrically pointing the Lord's words are unique. In
addition to ornamental function and the fact that the manuscripts have given the building sacred
quality, the verses are situated on especial positions which altogether indicate a multinational
ideology about the levels of life, death and rebirth and following that, promising the reward and
the punishment. Common point of all these concepts is Man as microcosm. In the sura Fajr which
was written on the main entrance, it is emphasized that Taj Mahal is the representation of the
heaven. Then the sura Zumar on the tomb arch is about creation of Man from the first darkness.
The matter that the grave is situated underground is a sign for the darkness of the mother's abdomen
and the material darkness from which dead people will be revived on the resurrection day.
Therefore the triple darkness concept is embedded symbolically in the mausoleum through
inscribing "surat"s. In short term, they are nonbeing darkness, the abdomen darkness and the grave
darkness. (more information on Table 1)
Table 1) Description of Quran's Passages Inscribed on the Taj Mahal
Gateway
Surat al-Fajr
South arch
[To the righteous it will be said], "O reassured soul,(27)
89
(the main
Return to your Lord, well-pleased and pleasing [to
entrance)
Him],(28) And enter among My [righteous] servants(29)
And enter My Paradise.(30)
Surat concept: Deterring from being brutal with orphans
(a hint to the lady Taj who was an orphan)
2
Surat
93
ad-Duhā
Surat
94
Surat
95
ad-Duhā
Surat
36
Yā-Sīn
Surat
81
Surat
82
Surat
84
Surat
98
at-Takwīr South door
Surat
67
Surat
48
Surat
76
Surat
39
Al-Mulk
North arch
ad-Duhā
North arch
North arch
All arches
al-'Infiţār West door
al'Inshiqāq
Al-`Alaq
Did He not find you an orphan and give [you] refuge?(6)
And He found you poor and made [you] self-sufficient.(8)
(Pointing to the life story of the queen Taj)
The concept of This Surat is alike to ad-Duhā.
Pointing to the creation of Man as the best and superior
creature
Tomb (Exterior)
This surat is called the heart of Quran and it points to
the tomb as the hearth of the Taj Mahal site, and also
the beloved queen in the hearth of the tomb.
Describing the resurrection day and coming back to life
after death
North door
East door
Upper circle,
SE arch
Al-Fatĥ
SE, E, NE, N,
NW, W arches
Al-'Insān W, SW, S
arches
Az-Zumar S arch
Promising rewards and punishments to benefactors and
polytheists
Tomb (Interior)
Attributes of God
Promising the grand victory to benefactors
Creating Man from the semen
Describing the hell and the heaven
The grand judgment in the resurrection day
Giving rewards and punishments
The triple darkness (regarding the situation of the
cenotaph underground, it mentions to coming back
from death and renaissance)
Although obeying Islamic tradition of designing embellishment in a stylized way, apparently does
not agree with Christian and Hindu designs, applying embedded multicultural forms and codes has
been able to cover all thoughts and tastes. Other hand abstract forms are appropriate sufficiently
to materialize abstract concept, "death" and "rebirth".
Man as the microcosm
Since the down of time, Man has been a focused concept, of which many symbols have been made,
solely or in combination with animals or plants, to express ideas and phenomena e.g. death,
fertility, prosperity and so on. Likewise considering Man as the microcosm, the miniature of the
world or macrocosm, internationally, has been prevalent among people. (Tab 2)
Table 2) Man as microcosm in different cultures
Ancient Greece In 2nd century BC, Stoics believed in a resemblance between Man's and
world's components. Therefore, they gave the world the name microcosm.
3
Hindu
Persian
Islamic
(Khorasani, 1997, 263; Zarinkoub, 1989, v 2, 865; Foroughi, 2002, v 1, 6768)
In Sankhya system, Purusha is the first man and the cosmos is his
representation. His head, feet, right hand and left hand are situated on the
east, west, north and south respectively. (Rikhtegaran, 2009, 48-49)
In the religion of Zurvanism (a now-extinct branch of Zoroastrianism) the
cosmos has been perceived as the first man who is Keyumars which literally
means the mortal alive creature. Further the principals of the world and Man
are the same. (Mojtabaei, 1990, 46) As if this approach has been common
in Islamic era;
"Oh! Thou are the transcription of the Lord's letter
Oh! Thou are the mirror reflects the Lord's beauty
This world is not beyond you
Ask yourself whatever you want because whatever is in you"
Rumi (The Outstanding Persian poet, jurist, Islamic scholar, theologian, and
Sufi mystic in 13th century AC)
In addition to what has been said on Quran's verses in the building, for the
first time Al-Qandi expressed his thought about psychological science that
when Man knows himself, he will understand the cosmos, because he has
all the faculties and forces of the world. (Al-Kindi, 1935, 173)
Furthermore Ibn Arabi used in two of his most important publications used
expressions of microcosm and macrocosm. He believed in Man as the body
of the world. (Ibn Arabi, ?, 118) Additionally other intellectual philosopher
like Ikhwan al-Safa (The Brethren of Purity), Ebn Meskavayh, Al-Ghazali
and Suhrawardi confirmed Al-Qandi idea.
This archetype has been repeated in many artworks: Vitruvius's pattern (Fig.5), Vitrovian man
by Davinci (Fig.6) and Shiva Nataraaja (Fig.7).The thought has its roots in Democritus and
Anaximander approach. (Zarinkoub, 1989, v 1, 545) Then Plato in Timaeus perceived the world
as the compound of four basic elements and the fifth one was Aither (fire sphere) which is the
substance of spirit too. (Plato, (35 a-b)).
(Read et al, 1956, 16)In Atharva Vada the first man burdens the world, considered as the cosmic
culumn "skambha" that functions as a band which protects the cosmos and mundane creatures, and
finally unifies with Brahman. It reassembles the verse "Innā lillāh va innā ilaihi rāje'un" (We are
Allah's and we shall surely return to him). Returning spirit to God which indicates death is an
important archetype which has been demonstrated in abstract way through stylized pattern such as
returning form of swastika and calligraphic verses. As well as Pythagoras believed that numbers
express phenomenon, here applying sacred numbers, shapes and proportions reinforces the death
concept. To that, Taj Mahal is more than a simple mausoleum, when historians are not sure about
the exact function of one of two other red buildings in the site: Mehmankhana (hostel).
Microcosm manifestations
The square and circle are two basic forms the human has used them to construct his temples.
Ziggurats, basilica, mandalas, and finally Kaaba are consisted in this rang. The square as the
symbol of the earth and terrestrial world is restricted to four sides and is assumed with red whereas
4
the circle stands for cosmos, Infinity (without any corner), and celestial world. (Chevalier &
Gherbrant, 2005, v 4, 64; v 5, 194)
Meeting square and circle shows the sacred matrimony of the earth and the heaven which many
times has been depicted in the color of Mary’s costume; red and blue. (Hall, 2004, 9)
Furthermore, considering Kaaba as a square form surrounded by a circle of pilgrims, an
apparent similarity will be perceived. There is also the sacred place beside the Kaaba where Hagar,
Abraham’s concubine was buried. (Fig. 1)
Fig 1) left: Kaaba; right: Mandala, the brief and laconic description of the world, 17th century ac.
(www.abna.ir, http://www.schoyencollection.com)
The marriage of circle and square has been manifested as the form swastika which is one of the
few embellishments, and geometrically is provided by squaring a circle. (fig 2)
Fig 3) The motif of counterclockwise swastika in Taj Mahal, from left: beneath the main tomb,
beneath the mosque tomb, the wall of mausoleum.
(www.abna.ir; http://www.schoyencollection.com)
The square stands for its assertive and limited quality, despite of the circle as the symbol of
dynamism, weightlessness and infinite circling of time periods. These two forms meet each other
in the point "Man".(Zekrgou, 2000, 95)
This description is akin to the Hindu concept "Sadarshia" which means "seeing the heavens on
the earth. In other words, it is the Parjinamatra or Bahutamatra, indicates putting celestial
proportions, dimensions and measures (Meters) into those of terrestrial world." (Rikhtegaran,
5
2009, 35; Coomaraswamy, 2010, 213, 242) Moreover "the counter-clockwise swastika indicates
feminine quality and resurrection" (Hall, 2004, 6) two subjects which are in harmony with the lady
Mumtaz.
In another view, in the prominent sketch of Marcus Vitruvius Polio from Man (fig 4), the male
essence sign ♂ is clockwise and the female essence sign ♀ is counter-clockwise. Hence "Man and
his body" has been a considerable matter in the East and West. "During the era of Hellenistic
architecture, the human body was...served as an inspiration and a model to the architects for the
composition of his plans. The Greeks loved to put into evidence a parallel between the proportions
of human body and that of the ideal temple. (Segher, Longacre and Destefano, 1964: 362) Then
Christians used to think that the perfect body belongs to Jesus and it should be a pattern for crossdesigned churches. (Hall, 2004, 230)
Also achieving the form of pentagram on the vertical plan, the part of the main arch, is not
irrelevant to this thought, because in itself indicates microcosm and Man. Previously in Vitruvius
sketch (The 1st century BC), Man was surrounded with a pentagram and in Da Vinci’s Vitruvian
Man (1490 AD) with a couple of square and circle (the fundamental pattern of the cosmic order)
(www.Leonardodavinci.stanford.edu) (fig 5). Additionally it shows sacred marriage symbolically
resulted by unifying man (as 3) and woman (as 2), and also the celestial origin of mother. (Cirlot,
2010, 147, 180) (more info on tab 3)
Fig 4) The achieved pentagram on the vertical plan (www.archgeom.blogspot.com)
6
Fig 5) Vitruvius Man by Marcus Vitruvius Polio, the first century BC
Fig 6) Vitruvian man by Leonardo da Vinci, 1490 AD
Fig 7) Siva Ntaraja statues performing the cosmic dance, between 11th and 12th AD
(Campbell, The Power of Myth, p. 22; Gardener, Art through the ages, 2009, 695)
7
Besides Shiva Nataraaja in the cosmic dance tradition presents in a human shape which in many
ways resembles the Vitrovian man, an effigy of the Renaissance era. (fig 7) Aside from form
similarities, in both of them, the navel is center of the circles and again shows the spiritual quality
and rebirth in spite of genial limb which is the center of square in the Da Vinci's sketch and is
concerned with carnal and mundane quality. Another remarkable similarity conceptually is the
issue that Nataraaja formally is a dynamic Vitrovian man regarding the fact that in Hindu culture
dance is a high priority and the main art whereas the Renascence culture fallowing classic Greek
criteria emphasizes on stability and glory. Additionally each arm of Siva has a distinct meaning;
the right and clockwise one which holds the creation instruments indicates security and the left
and counter-clockwise, holding the flame of destruction, stands for liberation from agony, An
iconic metaphor for death and rebirth. (Cooper, 2000, 49)
Table 3) The concept of five and pentagram in different cultures
Ancient Greece As in the Renaissance era the classic Greek values were restored, the
pentagram of Pythagoreans influenced Gothic churches. Besides, in Hermes
symbolism, there is a pentagram and five-petaled flower at the center of a
cross which indicates four basic elements and the pentagram indicates the fifth
one that is aither (spirit). Comparing to six as the sign of macrocosm, five
indicates microcosm and Man. (Chevalier & Gheerbrant, 2005, v II, 242-243)
Five in Hindu culture suggests five principals of life. It is the number of
Hindu
Bhairava (a fierce manifestation of Shiva) and also pentagram is the symbol
of Shiva while is surrounded by the ring of fire [Ntaraja]. Sometimes he is
depicted with five faces. (Ibid)
In ancient Mesopotamia the form pentagram was the symbol of Inanna
Persian
(Īnānæ), or Nahid (Nāhīd) the goddess of love. Her other versions are mana
(mānā) or Nana Khatun (Nanæ Khātūn). The star associated with her,
revealing at sunset, is also the sign of love. In artifacts it has depicted with the
moon crescent as the dawn star. (Momeni, 2005, 509-510)
In Soltaniyeh (Solţānīyeh) tomb (13th AD) in Zanjan Which people have
described the architecture of the building as “anticipating the Taj Mahal”, the
pentagram can be seen on the ceiling.
Islamic
(whc.unesco.org)
Five symbolic meanings has not been mentioned individually in Islamic
resources, but indicates five prayers (Salāt), five keys of Quaran, and five
finger of blessed Fatima hand (which stands for protection and security).
(Massignon, 1947, 163)
Moreover coincidence of 5 (as Man) and 8 is a metaphor of death. Their
product indicates the age of 40, which is the number of death.
(Lings, 2012, 34)
Rebirth and renascence
8
In Christian religion, baptism is "rebirth in God", therefore the birth of Venus evokes the hope of
rebirth from which the name renaissance was taken. (Jonson, 2001, 509-511) (Fig 8) In the Middle
Ages, classical myths had been interpreted as the Christian effigies which showed religious
concepts. (Ibid) At that time, Marsilino Ficino's thoughts was a combination of Plato's ideas and
Plotinus's mysticism, following Neo-Platonists believed in both of celestial Venus and the Virgin
Mary as the sources of heaven love. Furthermore the universe life, covering human life, has been
linked to the Lord through a spiritual circuit includes ascending and descending process. In this
painting which takes its theme from the Homer's poem, a woman has been shown on the right,
who pours water of life on Venus which suggests baptizing Jesus. (Fig 9) Four figures around
Venus are the symbols of four seasons and the birth of Venus is the sign for rebirth of the nature
and returning of spring. Similarly, five octagons in horizontal plan of Taj Mahal have the
mentioned idea. Eight is the symbolic number for rebirth in the Middle Ages as the word baptism
literally means that. Then the octagon is the medium between the earth and heaven. (Cirlot, 2010,
148)
Fig 8) The birth of Venus, Sandro Botticelli, 1484–1486 AD
(Gardner, 2009, V II, 469)
Fig 9) Baptism of Jesus, Renier de Huy, baptismal font, Liège, Belgium, 12 AD
(Gardner, 2009, xxxiv)
9
On the vertical plan of mausoleum (fig 10) the proportion between line segments BC and AB
is equal with 1.6, the golden ratio. If two symmetrical spirals are drawn from points B and D, the
form of the scallop and the pearl will be obtained.
Fig 10) The vertical plan of mausoleum, geometrical drawings to achieve the form of the scallop
and the pearl
Also "An Indian creation myth relates that the god Brahma, standing on a huge, thousandpetaled lotus, turned his eyes to the four points of the compass. This fourfold survey from the circle
of the lotus was a kind of preliminary orientation, an indispensable taking of bearings, before he
began his work of creation." (Jung et al, 1964, 240) This statement suggests the mandala's form,
the couple of circle and square. Besides, conceptually according to Burckhardt, "This theme
derives from a celebrated hadīth(2)… evokes the image of an immense dome made of white pearl
and supported by four corner-pillars on which are inscribed the four letters of the Divine Name
“the All-Merciful” (ar-Rahman): R, H, M, N [‫ ن‬،‫ م‬،‫ ح‬،‫ …]ر‬The white pearl is the symbol of the
substance from which the world was created, the Universal Spirit or the First Intellect in its aspect
of infinitely malleable or receptive substance, and that is in reality the supreme prototype of the
nature of woman." (Burckhardt, 1976, 197)
Above, the convergence among the cultures, on the matter of microcosm and Man has led to
the fact that using especial hidden forms on the plan makes the building acquitted to the wide
ranges of visitors. The details are described in table 4.
Table 4) The details of microcosm metaphors on the vertical plan in cultures
The couple of circle and square, the symbol of microcosm
The circle metaphore
The square metaphor
The scallop beneath Venus feet
Four seasons
Ancient Greece
(and renaissance) (The spirit of nature)
10
Hindu
Islamic
A thousand-petaled lotus
Four directions
(The creation)
The white pearl
four pillars of the immense dome
(the Universal Spirit or the First
Intellect, and supreme prototype of
the nature of woman)
Conclusion
Scrutinizing the microcosm signs and symbols showed that there are some ideological images of
world in every culture which are associated with Man as the microcosm. Participating artists and
artisans from different nationalities in the process of constructing Taj Mahal has caused these
various cultures and believes to be immerged as especial forms and symbols which suggests the
concept of Man as the microcosm. Therefore Taj Mahal not only includes Islamic characteristics
but also covers other religion in itself. In addition to Man symbols, utilizing ancient acquainted
signs and patterns such as counter-clockwise swastika, pearl and scallop hints to the femininity
and womanliness problem and then the great concept of rebirth which has made the mausoleum
compatible with the contemporary approach in the Renaissance in the Europe. Furthermore the
harmony and coincidence of forms and concepts is considerable. The symmetry which is visible
in whole of Taj Mahal points indirectly to the fairness of God which will be revealed completely
in the resurrection day, in addition to mentioning the balance between, life and death pans. The
only exception was the verses as embellishments which are not symmetrical a metaphor of the
issue that the word of God does not have any counterpart. Promoting these abstract Ideas through
stylized forms, has made a convergence among Hindu, ancient European and Islamic-Persian
approaches. All these criteria together have resulted in the fact that Taj Mahal, in its final form,
has been presented an acquainted perspective to its audiences, irrespective of their religions,
cultures or nationalities. Since no artifact is completed without the audience, the role of
comprehensive communication with a wide range of people, in Taj Mahal huge fortune and fame,
cannot be ignored.
Notes:
(1) There are 114 chapters in Qur'an, each one divided into verses and named surat.
(2) A quote by the prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) and Islam's Saints.
Sources:
1. Al Kindi, Yaghoub. (1953). Rasa'il al-Kindi al-Falsafiya. Edited by Muhammad 'Abd al-Hadi
Abu Rida. Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-Arabi.
2. Blair, Sheila S., Bloom, Jonathan M. (2002).The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250 – 1800.
Translated to Persian by Ardeshir Naraghi. Tehran: Soroush.
3. Burckhardt, Titus. (1976). Art of Islam: language and meaning. Translated to Persian by
Masoud Rajabnia.
4. Chevalier, J., & Gheerbrant, A. (2005). Dictionnaire des Symboles : Mythes, Rêves, Coutumes,
Gestes, Formes, Figures, Couleurs, Nombres. Translated to Persian by Soudabeh Fazaeli,
Farhang-e Namāh-hā, Tehran: Jeihoon.
11
5. Cirlot, Juan Eduardo. (2010). A Dictionary of Symbols. Translated to Persian by Mehrangiz
Ohadi. Tehran: Dastan.
6. Coomaraswamy, Ananda Kentish. (2010).Traditional art and symbolism. Translated to Persian
by Saleh Tabatabaei. Tehran: Matn Institute.
7. Cooper, Jane C. (2012). An illustrated encyclopaedia of traditional symbols. Translated to
Persian by Maliheh Karbasian. Tehran: Farshad.
8. Foroughi, Mohmmad Ali. (2002). The History of Philosophy in Europe. Vol 1. Tehran: Zavvar.
9. Gardner, Helen. (1959). Art through the Ages. NewYork: Harcourt Brace & world.
10.
Government of Ministry of Tourism. (April 2012). Identification of Tourism Circuits
across India. Delhi: Interim Report.
11.
Hall, J. (2004). Illustrated Dictionary Of Symbols In Eastern And Western Art. Translated
to Persian by Roqia Behzadi, Farhang-e Negārei-i Namād-hā dar Honar Sharq va Gharb,
Tehran: Farhang Mo'aser.
12.
Ibn Arabi, Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Ali. (?). Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyah [Meccan
Revelations]. Beirut: Dar Sader.
13.
Khorasani, Sharafoddin. (1997). "Ikhwan al-safa"[ Brethren of Purity]. The Great Islamic
Encyclopaedia. Vol VII. Edited by by Kazem Bojnourdi. Tehran: Markaz Nashr Daerat alMa'aref Bozorg Eslami[Great Islamic Encyclopaedia publish center].
14.
Lall, John. (1998). Taj Mahal and the saga of the great Mughals. Delhi: Lustre Press.
15.
Lings, Martin, (2012),"Symbol & archetype: a study of the meaning of existence", the
journal of Ketab Mah Honar. Translated to Persian by Zahra Abollah. vol 172. 24-35.
16.
Massignon, Louis. (1947). Islam et L'Occident. France: Les Cahiers du Sud.
17.
Mojtabaei, Fathollah. (1990). "Man in Judaism". The Great Islamic Encyclopaedia. Vol I.
Tehran: Markaz Nashr Daerat al-Ma'aref Bozorg Eslami[Great Islamic Encyclopaedia publish
center].
18.
Momeni, Khorshid. (2004). "Mesopotamia, Sumeria civilization and the Most Enciant
verse of the world composed by Ur druid: Enheduanna". the journal of Chista. vol 216. 508520.
19.
Plato. The Timaeus. (1965). Translated to English by H.D.P. Lee. Harmondsworth:
Penguin books.
20.
Rikhtegaran, Mohammad Reza. (2009). Art and Aesthetic in the East of Asia. Tehran:
Farhangestan Honar [Academy of Art]
21.
Seghers, M., Longacre, J., & Destefano, G. A. (1964). "The Golden Proportion and
Beauty". Plastic and Reconstructive Sergeory, vol 34, 382-386.
22.
Soltanzadeh, H. (1999), Continuation of Iranian Garden Design in Taj Mahal, published
by Cultural Research Office, Tehran.
23.
Zarinkoub, Abdol Hossein. (1989). Reed's secret, Tehran: Elmi va Farhangi.
24.
Zekrgou, Amir Hossein. (2000). "Mandala: the Representation of Metaphysics in Indian
Ritual Art". The journal of Honar va Memari [Art and Architecture]. vol 46. 89-100.
25.
www.Leonardodavinci.stanford.edu (accessed on 27/11/2013 6:30 pm).
12