Data Sources suitable
for use in the National 5
Chemistry Assignment.
Look at each of the sources and decide which you want to use in your
report. You do not need to use them all.
Make sure you select sources that are reliable, relevant or give
different perspectives.
A copy of the file will be available on edmodo in case you want to
make a print out of any of the raw data you choose to process for
your report.
1
http://www.creativechemistry.org.uk/gcse/documents/Module7/Nm07-24.pdf
Scientific education website
This website is written and maintained by Nigel Saunders
“I have written over twenty science books for teenagers,
including a series of twelve books about the Periodic Table
and a series of four books about Energy Resources. I have also
contributed to text books for Key Stage 3 science, and GCSE
and A Level Chemistry.”
Alcohol
Formula
Carbon
Atoms
Energy Released
(kJ/g*)
Methanol
Ethanol
Propanol
Butanol
Pentanol
Hexanol
Heptanol
Octanol
CH3OH
C2H5OH
C3H7OH
C4H9OH
C5H11OH
C6H13OH
C7H15OH
C8H17OH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
22.7
29.7
33.6
36.1
37.7
39.0
39.9
40.6
Energy from fuels source pack
Lorna C. Webster, Armadale Academy (edited JD)
2
Extract from SQA Chemistry data book for higher and advanced higher. Published Jan 2008.
The SQA is the national body in Scotland responsible for the development and certification of
qualifications used in schools and colleges.
http://www.sqa.org.uk/files_ccc/NQChemistryDataBooklet_H_AdvH.pdf
3
http://www.odec.ca/projects/2008/rudn8i2/site.php?page=info
By: Ilia Rudnitskiy
This website was created by Ilia Rudnitskiy for the 2008 Canada-Wide Virtual Science Fair. Currently, he is in grade 11 and
attending Walter Murray Collegiate located in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
Project Summary
Ethanol is a liquid alcohol fuel produced from biomass, most commonly corn and sugar cane. Although ethanol
has numerous qualities that justify its position as a viable alternative fuel, how will its continued production affect
the global economy and prices of corn?
Blends
Common blends used to contain only 10% ethanol, but in recent years that number grew to 85% and even 100%.
Ethanol has become a major ingredient in gas. A frequently seen blend of automotive fuel today is E85, which is
composed of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. Since ethanol contains oxygen, engines using it are more effective at
fuel combustion, thus resulting in reduced pollution.
Corn-based Ethanol
Ethanol derived from corn is the most common type of ethanol in the world. Corn-based
ethanol is largely produced in the U.S. since corn grows in cooler climates. The U.S.
accounts for 40% of the global corn harvest and 70% of the global corn export. 90% of
the ethanol produced in the U.S. is derived from corn feedstock, while the remaining
10% is mainly grain sorghum, barley, wheat, cheese whey and potatoes. Corn is valued
among ethanol production because of its low cost. It is also very easily converted into
sugars, which are later fermented and turned into fuel. The two frequent methods used for production of cornbased ethanol are dry-grind and wet-milling. The dry-grind process is used more frequently since it is more cost
effective and requires less equipment than wet milling. However, for ethanol fuel to compete with gasoline, the
production cost must be even lower.
Sugarcane-based Ethanol
The United States is not the only major producer of ethanol. Brazil is also an avid ethanol
manufacturer. However, unlike the U.S., Brazil produces its fuel ethanol from fermented sugarcane
which is fairly abundant due to Brazil's warm climate. Ethanol refineries are built where the cane is
grown, eliminating the need for transport. The ethanol refineries are driven by a sugarcane by-product
called bagasse, instead of petroleum as in the United States. Due to this production efficiency, Brazil is
much more suited for ethanol production than the U.S.
Cellulosic Ethanol
Current ethanol fuel technology is without its serious disadvantages that discourage many scientists from
supporting biofuel production. However, a new type of ethanol may brighten the future for biofuels. Cellulosic
ethanol is produced from the cellulose of plant material rather than the live plant itself. Common materials
include agricultural waste such as corn stalks and wood chips. global economy and prices of corn?
4
http://www.midwestenergynews.com/2012/08/03/will-e15-ethanol-blend-really-save-drivers-money/
19/11/2014
Midwest Energy News, launched in 2010, is a nonprofit news site dedicated to passing on information
concerning the shifts from fossil fuels to a clean energy system in the Midwest of the USA.
Will E15 ethanol blend really save drivers money?
As the ethanol industry lobbies to push higher-blend E15 fuel into the marketplace, a common refrain is that it
will save consumers money at the gas pump.
It’s true that ethanol costs less than gasoline, and that E15, which contains 15 percent ethanol, should cost less
per gallon than regular gas or the 10-percent ethanol blend that’s standard in most of the country.
But a gallon of ethanol contains fewer units of energy than gasoline, which means higher ethanol blends lower
a vehicle’s fuel economy.
So, like E85, the fuel will be cheaper. But whether it saves drivers money depends on a lot of variables.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency gave final approval to sell the higher-blend ethanol fuel earlier this
summer, but producers still need to clear some state regulatory hurdles and convince gas station owners to
sell it.
Douglas Tiffany, a University of Minnesota assistant extension professor who has studied the economics of
alternative fuel vehicles, ran some numbers for Midwest Energy News and concluded that E15 should be 1.67
percent cheaper per gallon than E10 (and 5 percent cheaper than pure gasoline) to be equal on a cost-perenergy-unit basis:
One British thermal unit (Btu) = 1055 joules
Douglas Tiffany is University lecturer in the University of Minnesota in
the USA. He specialises in the economics of biofuel production and the
impacts of greenhouse gases on climate change.
http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/02-03/biofuels/what_bioethanol.htm
5
Energy Systems Research Unit (ESRU)
This is part of the department of engineering at Strathclyde University
which specialises in research into energy demands and using
renewable energy.
Bioethanol
What is Bioethanol?
The principle fuel used as a petrol
substitute for road transport vehicles is
bioethanol. Bioethanol fuel is mainly
produced by the sugar fermentation
process, although it can also be
manufactured by the chemical process of
reacting ethene with steam.
Sugarbeet soon to be produced into ethanol
The main sources of sugar required to produce ethanol come from fuel or energy crops. These
crops are grown specifically for energy use and include corn, maize and wheat crops, waste
straw, willow and popular trees, sawdust, reed canary grass, cord grasses, jerusalem artichoke,
myscanthus and sorghum plants. There is also ongoing research and development into the use
of municipal solid wastes to produce ethanol fuel.
Ethanol or ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is a clear colourless liquid, it is biodegradable, low in toxicity
and causes little environmental pollution if spilt. Ethanol burns to produce carbon dioxide and
water. Ethanol is a high octane fuel and has replaced lead as an octane enhancer in petrol. By
blending ethanol with gasoline we can also oxygenate the fuel mixture so it burns more
completely and reduces polluting emissions. Ethanol fuel blends are widely sold in the United
States. The most common blend is 10% ethanol and 90% petrol (E10). Vehicle engines require
no modifications to run on E10 and vehicle warranties are unaffected also. Only flexible fuel
vehicles can run on up to 85% ethanol and 15% petrol blends (E85).
What are the benefits of Bioethanol?
Bioethanol has a number of advantages over conventional fuels. It comes from a renewable
resource i.e. crops and not from a finite resource and the crops it derives from can grow well in
the UK (like cereals, sugar beet and maize). Another benefit over fossil fuels is the greenhouse
gas emissions. The road transport network accounts for 22% (www.foodfen.org.uk) of all
greenhouse gas emissions and through the use of bioethanol, some of these emissions will be
reduced as the fuel crops absorb the CO2 they emit through growing. Also, blending bioethanol
with petrol will help extend the life of the UK’s diminishing oil supplies and ensure greater fuel
security, avoiding heavy reliance on oil producing nations. By encouraging bioethanol’s use, the
rural economy would also receive a boost from growing the necessary crops. Bioethanol is also
biodegradable and far less toxic that fossil fuels. In addition, by using bioethanol in older
engines can help reduce the amount of carbon monoxide produced by the vehicle thus
improving air quality. Another advantage of bioethanol is the ease with which it can be easily
6
integrated into the existing road transport fuel system. In quantities up to 5%, bioethanol can be
blended with conventional fuel without the need of engine modifications (E5) . Bioethanol is
produced using familiar methods, such as fermentation, and it can be distributed using the
same petrol forecourts and transportation systems as before.
Bioethanol Production
Ethanol can be produced from biomass by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation processes.
Biomass wastes contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers from the plant cell walls
known as cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin. In order to produce sugars from the biomass, the
biomass is pre-treated with acids or enzymes in order to reduce the size of the feedstock and to
open up the plant structure. The cellulose and the hemi cellulose portions are broken down
(hydrolysed) by enzymes or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into ethanol.
The lignin which is also present in the biomass is normally used as a fuel for the ethanol
production plants boilers. There are three principle methods of extracting sugars from biomass.
These are concentrated acid hydrolysis, dilute acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis.
Sugar Fermentation Process
The hydrolysis process breaks down the cellulose part of the biomass or corn into sugar
solutions that can then be fermented into ethanol. Yeast is added to the solution, which is then
heated. The yeast contains an enzyme called invertase, which acts as a catalyst and helps to
convert the sucrose sugars into glucose and fructose (both C6H12O6).
The chemical reaction is shown below:
The fructose and glucose sugars then react with another enzyme called zymase, which is also
contained in the yeast to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.
The chemical reaction is shown below:
The fermentation process takes around three days to complete and is carried out at a
temperature of between 250°C and 300°C.
Fractional Distillation Process
The ethanol, which is produced from the fermentation process, still contains a significant
quantity of water, which must be removed. This is achieved by using the fractional distillation
process. The distillation process works by boiling the water and ethanol mixture. Since ethanol
has a lower boiling point (78.3°C) compared to that of water (100°C), the ethanol turns into the
vapour state before the water and can be condensed and separated.
7
http://www.theaa.com/motoring_advice/news/biofuel
s.html
06/02/14
Biodiesel and Bioethanol
The AA is a motoring organization which continues
to promote road safety and public awareness by
highlighting issues and promoting drivers interests.
Information and advice from AA Public Affairs
UK motorists and the AA understand the need for development of car fuel
technologies to reduce harmful emissions. More than a third of cars in Britain
run on diesel, mainly because it offers significantly better fuel consumption, but
also because that better fuel efficiency cuts CO2 emissions.
In the search for alternative fuels or ways to improve existing fuels, fuel
technologies have looked to bio-sources, alongside other technologies such as fuel
cells, hydrogen and LPG. By virtue of development and use in other countries, two
particular biofuels are being offered in the UK: bioethanol and biodiesel.
The introduction of these fuels is set against the experience of "greener" Liquid
Petroleum Gasoline (LPG) in recent years, when the extra cost of the vehicles, and
the eventual removal of grants and reductions in fuel duty concessions, undermined
confidence in a proven fuel amongst motorists and particularly fleets.
Although the application of biofuels has been successful in other countries,
motorists are presented with a number of options: improved diesel engines, direct
injection petrol engines, electric hybrids and biofuels. The key questions that
motorists ask are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
does it work?
does it suit my circumstances?
when will it be available, along with adequate refuelling facilities? and
how much will it cost me?
8
Bioethanol
At the moment bioethanol is available in some areas of the country, including
Somerset where it is being tested by the county council, local police force and other
users. The AA Driving School also evaluated some bioethanol cars in that area as
fuel availability is good.
Some branches of Morrisons, mainly in the Norfolk area, used to sell bioethanol but
stopped doing so at the end of 2010. Morrison's decision is a reaction to the
withdrawal of government subsidies for biofuels, meaning that the cost of biofuels
is set to rise - the current 20p tax relief on B30 and other biofuels on the forecourts
is to be removed in April 2011.
Blends of Bioethanol
Bioethanol comes in two blends: E5 and E85, differentiating between the
percentage blend of ethanol with petrol. E85 is the higher concentration used to
power "flex-fuel" vehicles, which are also capable of running on standard unleaded
petrol. E5 is a low blend of bioethanol and petrol, for use in conventional petrol
engines, although this kind of fuel is usually marketed as normal unleaded petrol.
The bioethanol, currently imported, will soon be produced from UK-grown grain
and sugar beet, and is mixed with petrol in the ratio 85% bioethanol, 15% petrol.
A 100% ethanol fuel is not suitable for use in this country – ethanol does not
vaporise well so petrol is needed to aid cold starting.
Ethanol blended petrol in France
A new type of fuel, SP95-E10 (Sans Plomb 95 Octane, Ethanol 10% = Lead Free
95 Octane containing 10% of Ethanol) is now being sold throughout France.
This fuel is not suitable for use in all cars and you should check compatibility with
your vehicle manufacturer before using it. If in doubt use the standard SP95 or
SP98 Octane unleaded fuel which continues to be available alongside the new fuel.
Car manufacturers producing 'flex-fuel' models
Saab (its whole range of new vehicles) and Ford (Focus Flex-Fuel) manufacture cars
which are suitable to run on bioethanol E85. Others, including Citroen, Volvo and
Renault are also introducing flex-fuel vehicles. The fuel systems of these vehicles
are treated to resist the corrosive effects of bioethanol and the electronic control
units (ECU) of the engine management system is re-programmed to take
advantage of the higher octane rating of bioethanol. You can't use bioethanol E85
in a car with a fuel system designed for existing petrol engines.
Take-up of this fuel will depend on its availability, the cars themselves do not cost
very much more than the equivalent petrol model. However, conversion of an
existing car which was not designed to run on bioethanol E85 is not really
economically viable.
9
Performance and MPG
Although the octane rating (that's its resistance to damaging engine 'knock' or
pinking) of ethanol is higher than petrol – so engine performance may be better,
the energy content is lower so vehicles which run on E85 (the bioethanol mix) will
do fewer miles to the gallon.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is manufactured from oil seed rape, waste cooking oil, palm oil etc.
Modern (HDi) diesel engine pumps run at very high pressures. All diesel pumps
depend on the fuel itself for lubrication – diesel is oily, biodiesel has very good
lubricating properties.
However, viscosity of the fuel is critical for correct pump operation. Many pumps,
especially those fitted to the latest HDi engines will not run for very long on pure
biodiesel. Biodiesel has a higher water content than conventional, fossil fuel
diesel so the engine oil and filters will need changing more frequently to avoid
corrosion. A small amount of this water may be left in the biodiesel by the
production process, but it is more likely to be absorbed by the fuel during storage.
Energy content is again lower than that of conventional diesel and consequently
fuel consumption is higher.
Biodiesel blends
Biodiesel is being produced in three main blends: B5, the five per cent mix with
diesel, B30, the 30 per cent mix, and B100, which is pure biodiesel, containing no
'fossil fuel' diesel. B5 is already being retailed on many UK filling station forecourts,
but B30 is a more specialist fuel and is not as widely available. Whichever blend,
the biodiesel should meet the standards of BS14214.
Some diesel engines will run on biodiesel, but if you choose to use this fuel it is
essential you check with the vehicle manufacturer that biodiesel is suitable for
your car.
Future legal requirements for biofuels
Currently fuel companies are permitted and, from 2010, will be legally obliged to
mix five per cent bioethanol with 95 per cent petrol and five per cent biodiesel with
95 per cent conventional diesel. Mixes at these levels will not do any damage to
fuel systems, nor require any adjustments, and will be a standard ingredient of the
fuel. Renault and Peugeot-Citroen are now offering some of their vehicles with the
ability to use B30 - a 30 per cent biodiesel/70 per cent conventional diesel mix.
Biofuels may help to ease our reliance on fossil fuels and biodiesel is an excellent
way of reusing waste cooking oil, but at current rates of fuel use they are not the
complete answer. There is simply not sufficient land to grow enough crops for both
food and fuel.
10
http://www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk/portal/page?_pageid=75,163182&_dad=portal&_schem
a=PORTAL
Excerpts from website 6 / Feb 2014
The Biomass Energy Centre is the UK government
information centre for the use of biomass for energy in the
UK emission on combustion
Carbon emissions of different fuels
Fuel
Net calorific
value (MJ/kg)
Carbon
emission on
combustion
g/litre
Petrol
44
635
Diesel
42.8
713
LPG
(mainly propane)
46
418
Bioethanol
(from sugar beet)
27
410
Bioethanol
(from wheat)
27
410
Biodiesel
(from rapeseed oil)
37
678
Biodiesel
(from waste vegetable
oil)
37
678
Note 44 MJ/Kg is the same as 44 J/g
11
Common ethanol fuel
mixtures
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ethanol_fuel_mixtures
Several common ethanol fuel mixtures are in use around the world. The use of pure hydrous or
anhydrous ethanol in internal combustion engines (ICEs) is only possible if the engines are designed or
modified for that purpose. Anhydrous ethanol can be blended with gasoline (petrol) for use in gasoline
engines, but with high ethanol content only after minor engine modifications. On the other hand, the
ethanol destroys plastic fuel tanks and fuel lines in many motorcycles and aircraft using aviation
approved fuel systems, resulting in dangerous fuel system failures.
Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol fuel in the mixture by
volume, for example, E85 is 85% anhydrous ethanol and 15% gasoline. Low-ethanol blends, from E5 to
E25, are also known as gasohol, though internationally the most common use of the term refers to the
E10 blend.
12
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37135.pdf
This newletter is written by the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). This is a
USA government supported organisation which promotes the use of clean energy and helping develop
the market for areas such as sustainable transport and energy saving homes.
13
14
http://ethanolrfa.org/pages/World-Fuel-Ethanol-Production
Since 1981, the Renewable Fuels Association (RFA) has been committed to
helping the USA become cleaner, safer, and more energy independent by
promoting and providing information about the use of bio fuels.
World Fuel Ethanol Production
2013 World Fuel Ethanol Production
2011 World Fuel Ethanol Production
Continent
Continent
Millions of
Gallons
United States
13,300
Millions of
Gallons
Brazil
6,267
North & Central
America
14,401.34
Europe
1,371
South America
5,771.90
China
696
Brazil
5,573.24
India
545
Europe
1,167.64
Canada
523
Asia
889.70
727
China
554.76
Canada
462.30
Rest of World
Source: USDA-FAS
2012 World Fuel Ethanol Production
Continent
Australia
87.20
Africa
38.31
Source: RFA, F.O. Lichts
2010 World Fuel Ethanol Production
Millions of
Gallons
Continent
Millions of
Gallons
North & Central
America
13,768
5,800
North & Central
America
13,720.99
South America
Brazil
5,577
South America
7,121.76
Europe
1,139
Europe
1,208.58
Asia
952
Asia
China
555
Australia
66.04
Canada
449
Oceania
66.04
43.59
Australia
71
Africa
Africa
42
Source: F.O. Lichts
Source: RFA, F.O. Lichts
Source: F.O. Lichts
15
785.91
2009 World Fuel Ethanol
Production
2007 World Fuel Ethanol
Production
Country /
Continent
Country /
Continent
Millions of
Gallons
USA
10,600.00
Millions of
Gallons
USA
6498.6
Brazil
6577.89
Brazil
5019.2
Europe
1039.52
Europe
570.3
China
541.55
China
486.0
Thailand
435.20
Canada
211.3
Canada
290.59
Thailand
79.2
Other
247.27
Colombia
74.9
Colombia
83.21
India
52.8
India
91.67
Central America
39.6
Australia
56.80
Australia
26.4
Turkey
15.8
Pakistan
9.2
Peru
7.9
Argentina
5.2
Total
19,534.99
Source: RFA, F.O. Lichts
2008 World Fuel Ethanol
Production
Country /
Continent
Millions of
Gallons
USA
9000.0
Brazil
6472.2
European Union
733.6
China
501.9
Canada
237.7
Other
128.4
Thailand
89.8
Colombia
79.29
India
Australia
Total
66.0
26.4
17,335.2
Source: RFA, F.O. Lichts 2008 Estimates
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