2.9.2 Time Allocation and Academic Performance
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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA INFLUENCE OF STUDY HABITS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE GOMOA WEST DISTRICT FELICITY AKPENE AKAGAH 2011 UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION INFLUENCE OF STUDY HABITS ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE GOMOA WEST DISTRICT BY FELICITY AKPENE AKAGAH B.ED. (BASIC EDUCATION) A Thesis in the Department of PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION, Faculty of EDUCATIONAL STUDIES, Submitted to the School of Research and Graduate Studies of the University of Education, Winneba, in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING OCTOBER, 2011 ii DECLARATION STUDENT’S DECLARATION I, FELICITY AKPENE AKAGAH, declare that this thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all been identified and acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole for another degree elsewhere. Candidate’s Signature…………………....... Date………………………… SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION I, hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this thesis was supervised in accordance with the guidelines and supervision of thesis laid down by the University of Education, Winneba. Supervisor’s Name: Dr. S. Asare-Amoah Signature……………………………… Date………………………….. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My special thanks go to God almighty, the giver of life for His love and mercy upon my life. I want to appreciate Dr. Pauline B. Eddet and Professor J.K. Talabi, who took their time to supervise and guide me throughout the initial stage of this research. God richly bless you. I wish to thank the Head of Department (Professor J.K. Abooagye) and staff of the Department of Psychology and Education for imparting into me a great knowledge. I say thank you for your support and encouragement. I also extend a special thanks to other supervisors, for their immense assistance and encouragement, Dr. S. Asare-Amoah, Dr. Antwi Danso. Dr. Agu Ngozi. I say thanks for your support. Special thanks go to Dr. Richard Ofori for his continuous guidance and support. I am grateful for your immense assistance and spending valuable time and energy in reorganizing and reshaping my ideas to this far. God bless you all. iii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to God Almighty for how far He has brought me. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Page Declaration … … … … … … … … … ii Acknowledgement … … … … … … … … iii … … … … … … … … … iv Table of Contents … … … … … … … … v List of Tables … … … … … … … … … ix … … … … … … … … … x … … … … … … … … 1 1.2 Background to the Study… … … … … … … 1 1.3 Statement of the Problem… … … … … … … 9 … … … … … … 10 1.5 Objectives of the Study … … … … … … … 10 1.6 Research Hypotheses… … … … … … … … 10 1.7 Significance of the Study… … … … … … … 11 1.8 Delimitation of the Study … … … … … … … 12 1.9 Organization of the Study… … … … … … … 12 … … … … … 13 2.2 Habits Formation and Significance… … … … … … 13 2.2.1 Characteristics of Habits … … … … … … … 15 2.2.2 Importance of Habits …… … … … … … … 15 Dedication Abstract CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction… 1.4 Purpose of the Study… … CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction… … … … v … … … … 16 2. 4 Study Habits of Students and Their Significance… … … … 19 2.4.1 Developing Good Study Habits … … … … 20 … 21 2.3 Concept of Study Habits… … … … … 2.5 Factors Influencing Study Habits of Junior High School Students… 2.5.1 Other Factors that Influence Study Habits of Junior High School Students… 22 2.5.1.1 Gender and Study Habits of Students… … … … 22 2.5.1.2 Study Habits and Socio-economic Status of Parents … … … 22 … … 24 … 2.6 Concept of Academic Performance… … … … 2.7 Factors Influencing Academic Performance of Junior High School Students… 25 2.7.1 Parent’s Level of Education and Academic Performance of Students… 27 2.7.2 Parental Income or Occupation and Academic Performance of Students… 28 2.7.3 Type of Size of Family and Academic Performance of Students... ... 30 2.7.4 Ordinal Position and Academic Performance of Students… … … 32 2.7.5 Gender and Academic Performance of Students … … … … 33 2.7.6 Age and Academic Performance of Students… … … … 36 2.8 Study Habits and Academic Performance of Junior High School Students… … … … 39 2.9.1 Homework/Assignments and Academic Performance… … … 39 2.9.2 Time Allocation and Academic Performance… … … … 43 2.9.3 Reading Note-Taking and Academic Performance… … … … 45 2.9.4 Mental Concentration and Academic Performance… … … … 47 2.10 Theoretical Framework of the Study… … … … … … 48 2.10.1 Thorndike’s Theory of Reinforcement… … … … … 48 2.9 Other Dimensions of Study Habits… … … 37 2.10.1.1 How Thorndike’s Law of Learning Relates to Students’ Study Habits… 52 2.10.2 Hull’s Theory… 2.11 Summary… … … … … … … … … 54 … … … … … … … 56 vi CHAPTER THREE … … … … … … … 57 … … … … … … … 57 3.2 Research Design… … … … … … … … 57 3.3 Population of the Study … … … … … … … 58 3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures… … … … … … 58 3.5 Area of Study… … … … … … … … … 59 3.6 Instrumentation… … … … … … … … … 60 3.6.1 Validity… … … … … … … … … 61 3.6.2 Reliability… … … … … … … … … 63 3.7 Mode of Data Collection … … … … … … … 63 3.8 Data Analysis Procedure … … … … … … … 64 RESULTS ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS… … … … ... 65 … … … … 65 4.2 Biographical Characteristics of Respondents… … … … … 65 METHODOLOGY… 3.1 Introduction… … CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 Introduction… … … 4.3 Analysis of Hypotheses... … … … … … … ... ... 69 Hypothesis One… … … … … … … … … 69 Hypothesis Two… … … … … … … … … 70 Hypothesis Three… … … … … … … … … 72 … … … … … … … … 73 4.4 Discussion of Results … … … … … ... ... ... 74 Hypothesis Four… vii CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS … … 79 5.1 Introduction… … … … … … … … … 79 5.2 Summary… … … … … … … … … 79 5.3 Main Findings… … … … … … … … … 81 … … … … … … … … 81 … … … … … … 82 … … … … … … 82 … … … … … 84 5.4 Conclusions… 5.5 Implication for Counselling… 5.6 Recommendations… … 5.7 Suggestions for Further Studies… REFERENCES… … … … … … … … … 85 APPENDICES… … … … … … … … … 100 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Distribution of student population by circuit and sample … … 58 Table 3.2: Item listings, factor loadings and communalities for the three-factor PC solution… … … … … … ... Table 4.1: Age range of students … … … … … … … 62 Table 4.2: Sex of students… … … … … … … … 66 Table 4.3: Parents’ level of education… … … … … … 67 Table 4.4: Father’s sector of occupation … … … … … … 68 Table 4.5: Mother’s sector of occupation … … … … … … 68 … … 69 Table 4.6: Multiple Regression on study habits of students…. Table 4.7: Independent Samples (t-test) of sex differences in students’ study habits… … … … … … … … … 71 Table 4.8: Independent Samples (t-test) of age differences in students’ study habits… … … … … … … … … 72 Table 4.9: Independent Samples (t-test) of quality of study in students’ academic performance … … … … ix … … … .... 74 ABSTRACT The main objective of this study was to find out the influence of study habits on academic performance of junior high school students. In all, 420 respondents comprising junior high school form two (JSH 2) students were involved in the study. The purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select students for the study. A questionnaire, Study Habits Inventory (SHI) was the main instrument used for data collection. Data from the questionnaire were coded, categorized and analysed using multiple regression and independent samples t-test. The main findings revealed that despite other dimensions of study habits thus; examination, homework and assignment, reading and note-taking, concentration, only time management explains the bulk of the variables that predicts students’ study habits. Therefore, for an excellent performance, there is the need for students to form good study habits in respect of the other dimensions. Also, male students use time management related study habits more than their female counterparts. Based upon the findings, it was recommended that all stake holders in education i.e. parents, teachers and government should encourage students in their respective areas of responsibilities, such as providing study materials, conducive place of study, recognizing excellence, appreciating students hardwork as soon as possible among others. These will help to motivate the students positively towards their study. More so, it is important for female students whose studies are negatively influenced by femininity to be encouraged to work hard as academic is not only reserved for men. x CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Education is the process of developing the capacities and potentials of the individual so as to prepare that individual to be successful in a specific society or culture. From this perspective, education is serving primarily as an individual developmental function. Education begins at birth and continues throughout life. It is constant and ongoing. Schooling generally begins somewhere between the ages of four and six when children are gathered together for the purpose of specific guidance related skills and competencies that society deems important. In the past, once the formal primary and secondary schooling was completed the process was finished. However, in today’s information age, adults are quite often learning in informal setting throughout their working lives and even into retirement. Education, in its broadest sense, may be defined as a process designed to inculcate the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to enable individuals to cope effectively with their environment (Abdulkareem, 1990). Its primary purpose is to foster and promote the fullest individual self-realization for all people. Achieving this goal requires understanding of commitment to the proposition that education is a primary instrument for social and economic advancement of human welfare (Verma, 1990). The world is becoming more and more competitive and quality of performance has become the key factor for personal progress. Parents desire that their children climb the ladder of academic performance to as high a level as possible. This desire for a high level of performance puts a lot of pressure on students, teachers, and schools and in general, the education system itself. It appears as if the whole system of education 1 revolves round the academic performance of students, though various other outcomes are also expected from the system. Thus, a lot of time and effort of the schools are used in helping students to achieve better in their scholastic endeavours. The importance of scholastic and academic performance has raised important questions for educational researchers (Ramaswamy, 1990). Jimoh (2000) also described education as the totality of the experiences made available to individuals in formal or informal situations, to make them develop a rounded personality and to be useful to themselves and the society at large. From what has been said, it can be concluded that education, inculcates the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to enable individuals to cope effectively with their environment. Considering the numerous advantages that are derived from education, no amount of resources expended on it can be described as too much. For that matter, a person’s education is closely linked to life chances, income level and well-being (Battle & Lewis, 2002). Therefore, it is important to have a clear understanding of what benefits or hinders one’s educational attainment. Parents and guardians send their children to school to acquire relevant educational skills, knowledge and good morals so as to be useful to themselves and the society. However, reports on the high rate of poor academic performance in junior high schools are of great concern to many Ghanaians. Although education is not the only road to success in the working world, much is made to identify, evaluate, track and encourage the progress of students in schools. Parents care about their children’s academic performance because they believe good academic results will provide more career choices and job security. Schools invest in fostering good academic performance for the same reason, and are also often 2 influenced by concerns about the school’s reputation and possibility of monetary aid from government institutions which can hinge on the overall academic performance of the schools. Good academic performance usually brings satisfaction and happiness to the individual and to the family as a whole. Research has established that students’ academic performance is the product of an inter-play of factors like good and effective study habits and skills, good teachers, and congenial school and home environment (Onocha & Okpala, 1985; Soyibo, 1986; Odebumni, 1988; Ajayi, 1988). Thus, students’ poor performance in an examination could be attributed to teacher non-performance, poor study habits, and uncongenial learning environment. When good performance is not attained, the individual and other family members experience feelings of anxiety concerning the individual’s academic world. It is expedient to state here that the need to improve academic performance is one of the basic objectives of educating the students. In every school setting, academic performance is what each student strives to achieve, and the attainment of good performance can only be enhanced through good study habits. Several studies (Akinboye, 1980; Adetola 1988; Pinda, 2000) have established that students’ academic performance is highly influenced by their study habits. Specifically, Bakare (1977) stressed that the study habits of students cannot be ignored from their academic performance because success in academic endeavours depends largely on reading in the search of knowledge and facts. Anameze (2001) noted that since education is regarded as an agent of national development, factors that promote academic performance such as effective study habits among students should be encouraged. According to Anameze, the promotion of effective study habits among students should be of profound interest to all stakeholders in the field of education. 3 Akinboye (1980) however, opined that academic performance manifest itself in the type of study habits the junior high school student adapts. In spite of attempts made by teachers and the government of Ghana by committing a third of the nation’s budget to education, students’ study habits have negatively impacted on students’ performance in examinations. Writing on the topic ‘‘Poor Academic Performance among Students in the Ashanti Region’’ in the Friday April 29, 2011 issue of the Ghana News Agency, Agyemang-Mensah (2011, April 29) complained about poor academic performance of public basic schools in the region. According to AgyemangMensah, poor academic performance is as a result of students’ inability to develop good study habit procedures. Elsewhere, in Nigeria, research findings and practical experiences suggest that many secondary school students have defective study habits. For instance, Nwani (1985) noted that poor academic performance is widespread among students in Nigerian schools. According to Nwani, poor academic performance is among those factors that are responsible for students’ maladaptive behaviours especially in schools. This is not different from Ghanaian junior high school in the sense that poor academic performance of students has been of much concern to all and sundry. The problem is so much that it has led to the widely acclaimed fallen standard of education in the Gomoa West District at large. For example, students’ academic performance in both internal and external examinations had been used to determine excellence in the output of work by teachers and methods used in teaching (Ajao, 2001). Many studies have been carried out which make it available today of an important catalogue on study habits (Ogunmakin, 2001; Kumar, 2002; Gbore, 2006). It is argued that study habits have strong relationship with academic performance of students 4 while other researchers (Owolabi, 1996; Whihite & D’ Onofrio, 1993) suggest that it is the combination of the study habits and other factors that could explain students’ academic performance in any course of study. It is believed that when students in the school setting study hard their grades would improve. Consequently, effective study habits are said to promote academic performance among students (Robbins, 2002). It is recognized that the study behaviour adopted by students ultimately bring about the desired performance such as grades in school. Appraising this, Azikiwe (1998, p. 106) describes study habits as “the adopted way and manner a student plans his private readings, after classroom learning so as to attain mastery of the subject.” According to Azikiwe, “good study habits are good assets to learners because they (habits) assist students to attain mastery in areas of specialization and consequent excellent performance, while the opposite constitute constraints to learning and performance leading to failure” (p. 106). Good (1998) on the other hand, defines study habits as the student’s way of study whether systematic, efficient or inefficient. Good, further explains that good study habits produce positive academic performance while inefficient study habits lead to academic failure. Many students perform poorly academically, due to factors other than low intellectual capacity. One such factor is poor study habits, which often result in poor academic performance even among the naturally bright students. So, study habits serve as the vehicle of learning which may be seen as both means and ends of learning and they play a very important role in the life of students. Success or failure of each student depends upon his or her own study habits. Some students study more but they fail to achieve more while others study less but achieve more. Success of each student definitely depends upon ability, intelligence and effort. Study habits are intended to 5 elicit and guide one’s cognitive processes during learning. Study habits are influenced by attitudes, personality traits, and levels of aspirations, teaching methods adopted and material they are to learn. For this matter, it is the effort of teachers to develop good study habits among junior high school students. In contemporary Ghanaian society, there are many factors considered to be influencing the ability of students to cultivate effective and efficient study habits. For instance, Etsey; Amedahe and Edjah (2004) in their study of some private and public schools in Ghana revealed that academic performance is better in private schools due to more effective supervision of work. Thus, effective supervision improves the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom (Neagley & Evans, 1970). Eamon (2005) sees the importance of environmental influence as a major factor in the development of students’ study habits. Jeynes (2002) submits that the environment of most students is not conducive for studying. Trawick (1999) posits that problems related to students’ study habits are associated with student’s response to homework and assignments, reading and note-taking, time allocation, study period procedures, students’ concentration towards examination and consultation with teachers. The inability to utilize effectively and positively these sources of study problems may stand in the way of effective study and good performance among junior high school students. In addition to the above Bakare (1977) explained further that there are many factors affecting study orientation expressive of study habits and attitudes of students. Individual differences, effective usage of time, note-taking, study habits training, teacher, family, proper study environment, homework, using library, reading, listening and writing are outstanding common factors. However, interest and will are 6 very important determinant factors of study habits and attitudes. It is revealed that students who have inner control do not need to be controlled too often when they undertake an assignment but students who are controlled with outer factors such as teacher or parents’ encouragement need guidance and encouragement too often to perform academically (Bacanli, 2002). Gender has been identified as one of the variables that are related to differences found in academic performance of students. Different researches have demonstrated the existence of different attribution patterns in boys and girls, such that while girls tend to give more emphasis to effort when explaining their performance (Lightbody, 1996; Georgiou, 1999; Powers & Wagner, 1984), boys appeal more to ability and luck as causes of their academic performance (Burgner & Hewston, 1993). Although the literacy rate is more among boys than girls; it is quite interesting to observe that girls are securing better ranks than boys in almost all competitive examinations. Earlier, some research findings reported that intelligence was the only factor that causes gender variations among high achievers (Robinson, 1970). Later, some attributed familiar factors like parental aspiration, beliefs and their socioeconomic status as the main factors that cause age and gender differences among high achievers (Malathi, 1987).There is increasing evidence that females are outperforming males in secondary education across a range of subjects (Malathi, 1987). Several studies have been undertaken examining the impact of gender on undergraduate engineering performance, ranging from early year performance to that of later years, with conflicting results (Robinson, 1970). Some of the literature suggests that gender differences are dependent on the type of assessment utilized, reporting that females tend to perform better than males in coursework. For many years, educators have been 7 concerned with differences in the enrollments and performances of gender in engineering. Academic performance is affected by many factors such as motivation, student ability, the quality of secondary education received. Grades depend not only on how much students know but also on conformity to institutional demands, such as whether students follow the teacher's directions and turn in assignments on time (Bacanli, 2002). Family background is a key factor to a student’s life outside of school and it is one of the most important influences on students’ learning and includes factors such as socio-economic status, two-parents versus single-parents households, divorce, parenting practices and aspirations, maternal characteristics, family size and neighbourhood (Majoribanks, 1996). The environment at home is a primary socialization agent and influences a student’s interest in school and aspirations for the future. The socio-economic status of a student is most commonly determined by combining parents’ educational level, occupational status and income level (Jeynes, 2002). Intelligence, attitudes, aptitudes and interests are patterned by socio-economic background of the individual. Regarding this phenomenon, Jeynes (2002) noted that socio-economic status includes both the social and economic status of the individual in the group. The variations in performance are also due to the differences in socioeconomic status of students, differential treatment given by parents, parent’s educational level, and influence of the surroundings among others. This view point perfectly supports the argument of Telford and Sawrey (1964) who emphasized that students belonging to higher socio-economic status are not only brilliant but also are provided better opportunities for developing intellectually, physically and 8 emotionally. The type of intellectual environment in the home will definitely have an impact on the student’s academic performance. The enhancement of academic success can be achieved through effective study habits. Lack of effective study habits among students result in poor academic performance. It is believed that better academic performance requires hard work, a sense of commitment, dedication, sacrifice and above all effective study habits. Therefore, serious planning and a positive attitude towards one’s study should be encouraged among students to ensure good academic performance. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Due to the increasing nature of poor academic performance among junior high school students especially in external examinations like the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE), many educationists tend to shift the blame on the teaching methodology adopted by teachers and lack of funds from the government to provide quality textbooks. However, these might not be the main reasons why students perform poorly in examinations. Some factors pointed out by researchers as having impact on students’ study habits and academic performance are lack of good and effective study skills and well equipped libraries. Observations and interactions with students indicate that most junior high school students have poor study habits which might lead to poor academic performance. It is against this background that the study was conducted to determine if study habits significantly have any influence on the academic performance of junior high school students in the Gomoa West District of the Central Region on Ghana. 9 1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence the study habits on academic performance of junior high school students in the Gomoa West district. 1.4 Objectives of the Study The primary aim of this study is to examine the influence of study habits on students’ academic performance. This general aim is expressed in the following specific objectives which are to: 1. Assess the study habits of junior high school students in the Gomoa West district. 2. Examine the relationship between sex differences in study habits of students. 3. Compare the age differences in study habits of students. 4. Assess the relationship between the quality of study habits and academic performance of students. 1.5 Research Hypotheses The following research hypotheses were formulated and tested: 1. There will be a significant effect of students’ study habits on their academic performance. 2. There will be a significant relationship between sex differences in study habits of students. 3. There will be a significant age difference in study habits of students. 4. There will be a significant relationship between quality of study habits and academic performance of students. 10 1.6 Significance of the Study The findings of this research are intended to add to the existing information on the influence of study habits on academic performance of junior high school students. It will be significant to students, teachers, parents, school counsellors, policy makers and the government in assisting and encouraging students to realize the importance of study habits on their academic performance. Students will benefit more from the findings of this study as they will be offered the necessary assistance as and how to develop good study habits which will help to improve upon their academic performance. Students will also be given information on how study habits affect their academic performances and the results of this study will make them aware of the common study habits among other co-students. The study will guide teachers and school counsellors who always have the desire to see their students perform well by giving them the right techniques of developing study habits. It will again help teachers in understanding better the diversity of learning in students and as such, develop more effective methodologies in teaching their subject matter for better understanding of students. Parents on the other hand will be accorded the opportunity to play their roles in providing motivation and rewards to students to encourage the formation and maintenance of good study habits among students at the family level. Also, the study will help the government to provide the needed learning materials and facilities to motivate students to enhance the development of good study habits. 11 More so, the study will serve as a guide and resource document to policy makers and stakeholders in developing curriculum materials and text books, taking into consideration students’ needs and aspirations as they study to pass their examinations both at the secondary and tertiary levels. 1.7 Delimitations of the Study Even though the study involved all junior high schools in the Gomoa West District, it was limited to only junior high school form two (JHS 2) students. The sample size consisted of 420 students from selected schools within the district. 1.8 Organization of the Study The study was presented in five chapters. The first chapter constituted the introduction, and comprised the background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research hypotheses, significance of the study, as well as delimitation of the study. The second chapter constituted a review of related literature on concept of study habits, factors influencing study habits of students, concept of academic performance, factors influencing academic performance of students, other dimensions of study habits as well as theoretical framework and summary of the literature reviewed. In chapter three, the methodology for the study was explained. This comprised the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, instrumentation, validity, reliability and mode of collecting data and its analysis. Chapter four dealt with data presentation and analysis, and finally, the fifth chapter discussed summary of findings, conclusions, recommendations, and suggestions for further research. 12 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the review of related literature and contains information gathered from books and other periodicals, on-line sources and varied unpublished materials that provided the researcher with the necessary background knowledge to follow the study. It was organized under the following sub-themes: Habit Formation and Significance Concept of Study Habits Study Habits of Students and their Significance Factors Influencing Study Habits of Junior High School Students Other Factors that Influence Study Habits of Junior High School Students Concept of Academic Performance Factors Influencing Academic Performance of Junior High School Students Study Habits and Academic Performance of Junior High School Students Other Dimensions of Study Habits Theoretical Framework of the Study Summary 2.2 Habits Formation and Significance Habit refers to a practice or usual behaviour that cannot be easily given up. A researcher such as Onyejiaku (1987) equates habit formation to learning. Despite the disparity in meaning and conceptualization, one central issue is that habits are practices or usual behaviours that cannot be easily given up. Bernard (1990) defined habit as an act or patterns of behaviour that have outcome so easy, through practice, 13 that they occur spontaneously or automatically in a given situation without conscious thought or concentration. Habits save time and make for economy of action, devotion of time and thoughts in order to obtain knowledge and have a close examination of a subject especially from books (Denga, 1998). It is argued that behaviour that is reinforced tends to become habitual. Reinforcement increases the probability that any given response will be repeated (Iheanacho, 2002). Given the above position, habit formation can best be appreciated and understood when one considers that a motivated behaviour needs to be sustained for a considerable period of time before one can rightly say that it is a habit. Forming and maintaining good study habits, therefore, demands a greater degree of competence and an exact knowledge of what to do when students read. Regarding this phenomenon, Hornby (1998) noted that “study” is a special type of reading that requires devotion of time and especially, attention to acquiring knowledge from books. Students’ attributions to failure are also important influences on habit formation. When students have a history of failure in school, it however, encourages them to sustain the motivation to keep trying. Students who believe that their poor performance is caused by factors out of their control are unlikely to see any reason to hope for an improvement in study habit formation. In contrast, if students attribute their poor performance to a lack of important skills or to poor study habits formation, they are more likely to persist in the future. Teachers can communicate a range of attitudes about whether ability is fixed or modifiable and their expectations for individual students through their instructional practices (Graham, 1990). This would 14 enable students to develop good attitude towards study habit formation which in turn influence their academic performance. 2.2.1 Characteristics of Habits Habits are not innate or inherited. They are performed every time in the same way. Habitual actions are performed with great ease and facility. Habit brings accuracy in the action. Habitual acts are performed with least attention or no attention. Nervous system is the principle factor in the formation of habits. 2.2.2 Importance of Habits Through habit formation it is impossible to do more than one thing at a time. It is therefore essential that, proper care should be taken to develop desirable habits of work, thought and feeling in children from the very beginning. In the field of education too, habits exercise a strong impact. The student who is habitual in concentration in studies for hours in school as well as at home is not easily overcome by fatigue. Habits of thinking regularity, proper reasoning and punctuality help the students in their proper adjustment and in learning and in achieving all the essential knowledge and skills in a short time with great facility. The habit of reading journals, newspapers, listening to radio, making analysis and also reading of classics, fictions among others, must be cultivated in the student at school and carried through in the college and later in life. 15 2.3 Concept of Study Habits Study habits elicit and guide one's cognitive processes during learning and it plays a very crucial role in the academic performance of students. In view of this, some researchers (Bernard, 1990; Kendler, 1995; Onotsa & Okpala, 1985) have shown that students’ academic performance is the product of an inter-play of factors like good and effective study habits and skills, teachers’ relationship with students and conducive school and home environment. Available literature on study habits however, indicates that successful studying and understanding what is taught in schools are paramount to obtaining good academic performance and participating fully in society. Asaqwara (1994) opined that a good study habit means overcoming all the competing attractions with the study environment both internal and external such as watching movies while studying, noise, reading other books, discussions and the state of mind of the learner. Mazuar (2000), Asaqwara (1994) and Iheanacho (2002) further stressed the effect of bad study habits and postulated that bad study habits make studies rigorous and painful. Amongst other drawbacks in the system of education, the study habits of students play a vital role in reflecting the standard of education and the student’s individual performance. Sorenson (1991) while outlining the good basic study habits stated that one must study with the primary intention of understanding. This requires one not to hurry in getting through, instead sustained concentration is necessary. Crow and Crow (1992) opined that effective habits of study include plan/place, a definite time table and taking brief of well-organized notes. According to Patel (1976), study habits include: 16 Home environment and planning of work Reading and note-taking habits Planning of subjects Habits of concentration Preparation for examination General habits and attitudes School environment Effective study habits result in positive learning outcomes while defective study habits result in poor learning outcomes (Ezewu, 1987). Making a similar point, Kemjika (1998) said for study habit to be considered effective, the following fundamental components and more should be evidently present; drawing up and abiding to daily study schedule, full involvement in teaching and learning processes, inculcating good reading habits, promptly doing and turning in class work and assignment, jotting down points while the teacher is teaching and during private studies. Good study habits are essential ingredients for excellent academic performances for every student. This observation is in line with Onyejiaku (1987) who suggested that ineffective study techniques are among the major factors responsible for poor grades or academic failures. Azikiwe (1998, p. 106) on the other hand, sees study habits as “the adopted way and manner a student plans his private readings, after classroom learning so as to master the subject. According to Azikiwe, good study habits are “good asset to learners because they (habits) assist students to attain mastery in areas of specialization and consequent excellent performance, while the opposite constitute constraints to learning and performance leading to failure.” The main purpose of instruction is to 17 enable students to learn, whereas the teacher’s task is to facilitate the learning process and help students develop study habits and right attitude towards learning. Another point reasonably expressed is by Bojuwoye (1993) who asserted that one major area in which students need preparation in order to improve their performance is in learning how to study and that lack of effective study habits is a common educational problem among junior high school students. Jacobson (1980) contended that students who allotted greater amount of time to study exhibit greater performance gains. Although Svensson (1997) agreed that the relationship between study habits and academic performance of students is paramount. Svensson criticized earlier research efforts based on the fact that the variables used were theoretically imposed on the phenomena. For study to be effective, Freeman and Morss (1993) have observed that it should be regular, intense and should cover long periods. The habits of studying must be a sustainable one, for that matter students must see the need to develop good study habits. It is believed that good study habits and positive attitude towards learning proven in many studies enhance the processes of learning particular skills, including reasoning skills. Good study habits lead to enhancement in learning, as “ability improves and sharpens through mastery of principles and by means of training, exercise and constancy of application” (Ortinero, 2000, p. 56). Weiner’s (1972) study postulates that ability, as well as effort given by students to their studies, affects the acquisition of thinking skills and academic performance. Study habits are important as they influence the academic performance of students so parents and teachers must help in improving the study habits of students. Some investigators have sought to determine what study habits are characteristically used by 18 students when left to work by themselves with little or no direction hence, teachers in schools should be facilitators of learning. The finite treasure within every learner should be discovered and nurtured for the purpose of improving effective study skills. Learning improves with planning of where, when and how much to study. 2.4 Study Habits of Students and their Significance The student’s approach to learning is highly individualistic with a wide variation of techniques. One student may prefer the quiet library, another student the lounge, one may underline a text, another takes note, one may study intensively for several hours, another may take several breaks Onyejiaku (1987). The variations are endless and the education felt that the study process could be more productive if learners were taught specific skills and techniques which would formalize the study process and thereby make it more efficient. In the process of learning, habitual ways of exercising and practicing their abilities of learning are considered as study habits of learners. The pattern of behaviour adopted by students in the pursuit of their studies is considered under the caption of their study habits (Jacobson, 1980)). The efficient acquisition of knowledge depends upon the methods of acquiring study habits. It is important and desirable that a probe into the pattern of study habits of students be made. Kholi (1997) researched into the difference between Indian and Euro- American students in their study habits and indicated that Indian student needs to be spoon-fed, but the Euro-American student prefers independent study under the supervision of his or her teacher or master. 19 2.4.1 Developing Good Study Habits Students in their childhood have more interest and self-discipline in everything and if parents and teachers inculcate in them good habits, it will be useful in their future studies. According to Kemjika (1998), these are some points to be used in developing good study habits among students: Prepare a plan of action and budget the time properly for a day and a week as well. Give more time for studying difficult subjects in the time schedule and follow it as sincerely. Favourable environment gives good concentration. While studying, hold the book at an angle and about 25cm distance. Break the whole material into small paragraphs, practice summarizing each paragraph quickly in the mind. Develop the attitude of questioning yourself and others about the point that you have read. Prepare brief notes of what you read, besides noting down the name of the book and page numbers in it, if using other books. For rechecking, it is better you underline the important points, topics and questions. Memorize the formula, principles, symbols and rules that are needed again and again. 20 2.5 Factors Influencing Study Habits of Junior High School Students Etsey (2004) suggest that the important factors that influence study habits of students are: Home is the first school for every child and the mother is the first teacher. If the home environment is good, automatically the child’s nature in school will be good as well. Hence, the relationship with family members such as parents, brothers and sisters influence the child’s performance. After the home, the child spends more time in school and for that matter the school environment should be good. The teachers and the peer group also play an important role in the child’s study habits. Parents should keep an eye on the friends of their children because with good friends, the child learns good habits. Curriculum is also one of the factors for developing good study habits. Curriculum should be constructed on the standards of the child. Besides the above, personality of the student is a very important factor in developing good study habits. If the student gets easily adjusted with the environment, that student develops good study habits. If personality factors are good, the intelligence factors are also good. Intelligence also plays a pivotal role in developing good study habits of the student. It is general observation that intelligent students stand in top positions. Community is another important factor for developing good study habits. Community has to arrange the community centres such as library facilities, community resource centres, and information centres among others. A good 21 community provides necessary facilities for the development of good study habits. Apart from all the above factors, sex, caste, physical and social environment of the students also influence their study habits. 2.5.1 Other Factors that Influence Study Habits of Junior High School Students 2.5.1.1 Gender and Study Habits of Students The study habits of males and females in junior high schools have been widely studied, in part because schools try to improve student’s success and retention rates. A recent study done in Iowa by a nationally recognized consulting firm specializing in higher education (Noel-Levitz, 2007) indicated that first-year females bring stronger study habits to college, whereas first-year males bring more confidence to their math and science classes. Wrenn and Humber (1991) in their study on low and high scholarship found that women are poorer than men in study skills. Vedavalli (1994) found that male college students had better study habits than female college students. Florence and Ronald (1994) on the other hand, observed that the SSHA scores of elementary boys differed from that of the girls and study habits are more popular in girls than boys. Patel (1981) however, suggested that girls of both rural and urban areas were far better in study habits than boys of those areas. To sum the literature up, some studies reveal that sex has an independent effect on study habits. 2.5.1.2 Study Habits and Socio-economic Status of Parents Socio-economic status refers to the position that an individual and family occupies with reference to prevailing average standards, cultural possession and participation in group activity of community. According to Caudhari (1998), socio-economic status includes both the social and economic status of the individual in the group. The 22 variations in performance of students are also due to the differences in socioeconomic status of students, differential treatment given by parents, parent’s educational level, and influence of the surroundings and so on. Vijayalaxmi and Natesan (1992) studied factors influencing academic performance of students from Coimbatore, 100 students studying in XI standard were selected for the study of which 50 were boys and 50 were girls. To assess the socio-economic status of the subjects, the socio-economic status scale developed by Vendal (1981) was used. To assess the academic performance of the students, the total marks obtained by the students in the quarterly and half yearly examination was taken. Findings showed that girls had a higher mean academic performance compared to boys. The type of intellectual environment in the home will definitely have an impact on the performance of the student and this intellectual environment in turn is determined by intellectual level of parents, parent’s education, occupation, income, size of the family. Adolescents are highly influenced by society, socio-economic status, selfconcept, study habits, emotional maturity, which may enhance their academic performance or may disturb their academic performance during high school period. Manchala (1996) reported in a study that there was no significant influence of mother’s occupation on study habits of students, but father’s occupation had significant influence on the study habits of students. Rao (1998) also in a research found that there existed no difference either between students of employed and nonemployed mothers in their study habits. 23 2.6 Concept of Academic Performance In educational situation, success is measured by academic performance or how well a student meets standards set out by the local government and the institution itself. As career competition grows ever fiercer in the working world, the importance of students doing well has caught the attention of parents, legislators, and government departments alike. In the past, academic performance was often measured more by ear than today. Teachers’ observations made up the bulk of the assessment, and today’s summation, or numerical, method of determining how well a student is performing is a fairly recent intervention. The tracking of academic performance fulfills a number of purposes. Areas of achievement and failure in a student's academic performance need to be evaluated in order to foster improvement and make full use of the learning process. Results provide a framework for talking about how students fare in school, and a constant standard to which all students are held. Academic performance also allow students to be ranked and sorted on a scale that is numerically obvious, minimizing complaints by holding teachers and schools accountable for the components of each and every grade (http://www.ehow.com/about_4740750defineacademic-performance.html#ixzz1F1aSG waE). In Ghana, high cost of living and the rate of unemployment in the country contributed to the decline in education which affects the performance of students’ results. In the late eighties, the PNDC’s implementation policy on Structural Adjustment Programme led to retrenchment and deployment of many Ghanaians. The policy brought many untold hardships, to parents especially those who were under privileged. This made some parents poor and unable to afford good quality of education for their ward. 24 Aniagyei (2004, p.6) posits that, “many parents and guardians tend to exploit their children in income generating activities to the extent that instead of sending them to school, they send them to farm to convey cocoa during harvest seasons.” Such treatments are the major contributory factors leading to low performance in schools. Aniagyei further points out that these children when they reached school are unable to put in their best due to tiredness, because they get dull before they reach school in the morning. Tamakloe (2001, p. 88) puts it that “though the grade for junior high school is 30, those who are able to make an average grade of 20, find it very difficult to enter senior high school.” This is an indication that students must have time for their books to learn in order to gain better grades in their school exams. Tamakloe urges teachers to put in more efforts to teach effectively to lift their images and position as professional teachers. In the Gomoa West District, most of the students are unable to enter senior high schools due to poor academic performance and this could be attributed to number of factors like emotional stress and strain, unhappy homes, gender issues, parents’ attitude and frustrations which students pass through which discourage them to perform well. 2.7 Factors Influencing Academic Performance of Junior High School Students Several factors have been identified as hampering academic work and students’ performance in junior high schools. For instance, Etsey; Amedahe; & Edzah (2005) in their study of some private and public schools in Ghana revealed that academic performance is better in private schools due to more effective supervision of work. Thus, effective supervision improves the quality of teaching and learning in the classroom (Neagley & Evans, 1970). Also, the attitude of some public school teachers and authorities to their duties does not engender good learning process for the 25 students. Some teachers leave the classroom at will without attending to their students because there is insufficient supervision by circuit supervisors. This lack of supervision gives the teachers ample room to do as they please. Another factor is lack of motivation and professional commitment to work by teachers (Young, 1989). This produces poor attendance and unprofessional attitudes towards students by the teachers, which in turn affect the performance of the students academically (Lockheed & Verspoor, 1991). Apart from all the aforementioned, most public schools lack adequate infrastructure and educational facilities. For instance, reading and learning materials are mostly hardly available, especially in rural areas. Also the size of each class forms a critical determinant of students’ academic performance (Cochran-Smith, 2006). For example, Kraft (1994) in his study of the ideal class size found that class sizes above 40 students have negative effects on students’ academic performance. This is because of the possible differences in interests and abilities of students, particularly in commanding attention in class (Asiedu-Akrofi, 1978). Parents and role models also form a very important aspect of a child‘s training, especially in their formative years of life (Weiss & Schwarz, 1996). Some pundits have argued that a student’s performance at school is indicative on the sort of parents or role models they have (Ausubel, 1973; Bucher, 1997; Loh, 2009; Weiss & Schwarz, 1996). The usefulness of modeling to a child is that it bridges the gap between theory and practice, as abstract ideas become realities before the very eyes of students (Ausubel, 1973). Bucher (1997), for example, revealed from a study among some Austrian and German students (N = 1150) that those personalities of social nearness to students (for example, parents) have greater model effect compared with religious models and media personalities such as movie and television stars and sports 26 figures (Bucher, 1997). It is evident from this review that finding effective solution to improving academic performance of students in Ghana is imperative (Okyerefo, 2005). 2.7.1 Parent’s Level of Education and Academic Performance of Students Even though majority of the literature on parents’ education pertains to the direct, positive influence on performance (Jimerson, Egeland, & Teo, 1999; Kohn, 1963; Luster, Rhoades, & Haas, 1989), the literature also suggests that it influences the beliefs and behaviours of the parent, leading to positive outcomes for children and youth (Eccles, 1993). For example, Alexander, Entwisle and Bedinger (1994) found that parents of moderate to high income and educational background held beliefs and expectations that were closer than those of low-income families to the actual performance of their children, Low-income families instead had high expectations and performance beliefs that did not correlate well with their children’s actual school performance. Alexander et al. suggested that the parents’ abilities to form accurate beliefs and expectations regarding their children’s performance are essential in structuring the home and educational environment so that they can excel in post schooling endeavors. Similarly, Halle, Kurtz-Costes and Mahoney (1997) using a sample of low-income minority families, also found that mothers with higher education had higher expectations for their children’s academic performance and that these expectations were related to their children’s subsequent performance in mathematics and reading. Halle et al., found that these more positive beliefs and expectations predicted higher amounts of performance-related behaviour by mothers in the home as well as more positive perceptions of performance by the children. 27 Research on parenting also has shown that parent education is related to a warm, social climate in the home. Smith and Klebanov (1997) found that both mothers’ education and family income were important predictors of the physical environment and learning experiences in the home but that mothers’ education alone was predictive of parental warmth. Smith and Klebanov (1997) again found that the association of family income and parents’ education with children’s academic performance was mediated by the home environment. The mediation effect was stronger for maternal education than for family income. Thus, these authors posited that education might be linked to specific performance behaviours in the home (for instance, reading, playing). In the same way, Corwyn and Bradley (2002) also found that maternal education had the most consistent direct influence on children’s cognitive and behavioral outcomes with some indirect influence through a cognitively stimulating home environment. Corwyn and Bradley, however, examined only two quite broad aspects of family mediators: learning stimulation and parental responsibility. Mediation might have emerged if other parent behaviours and attitudes were examined. 2.7.2 Parental Income or Occupation and Academic Performance of Students Sundararajan and Lilly (1991) analyzed the study habits of 9th standard 480 (210 females and 270 males) students who were selected by using cluster sample technique from two urban and two rural schools in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. Study Habit Inventory of Mukopadhyaya and Sansanwal (1983) were used in this study. The test of significance revealed that girls had significantly better study habits than boys. But no significant difference was found between rural and urban students with respect to their study habits. Mallika and Katyal (1993) found in another study that daughters 28 of working mothers exhibited more frustration as compared to the daughters of nonworking mothers. The first possible reason for such findings could be that the mother who is working loses of lot of valuable time due to employment, which otherwise would have devoted to her girl child. Muller (1995) examined how parental involvement intervenes in the relationship between maternal employment status and mathematics achievement in terms of educational adjustment of 8th grade students. Data on 13,831 students and their parents from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS, 1988), base year and 1st year followed up were analyzed. The findings showed that part time employed mothers generally had the highest levels of involvement. Children performed better on base year tests when mothers were employed part time or not employed. Singh (1996) studied personality characteristics of school adolescents in relation to their mother’s employment and sampled 200 students from schools of Agra (Bihar) of age 18 – 21 years and found that 100 students were of working mother’s group and 100 of housewives. Hindi adaptation of 16 PF questionnaires was used. The results revealed that subjects of working groups of mothers generally seemed to be out going, open minded, emotionally more stable, bold, venture some, adaptive to change, independent in decision making and active, while students of non-working group mothers were found more reserved, less out going, emotional, shy, conservative, withdrawing, traditional oriented and depending. Budhdev (1999) also conducted a study, which was designed to compare academic performance among students of working and non-working mothers studying in secondary schools of Saurashtra region. Sample included 307 girls of non-working mothers. Academic performance of 29 the students of working mothers was greater than the students of non-working mothers. 2.7.3 Type or Size of Family and Academic Performance of Students There are different types of family structures and the size of the family has been found to play an important role in the child’s academic performance. The structures are based on whether both parents are involved in children's training or whether only one of the parents is involved in the training of the children. In the light of the above assumption, the following family structure types have been identified (Colernan, 1988): Single parent families in which either of the father or mother is engaged in the training of the children. This situation could arise as a result of death of either of the parents, divorce or as a result of pregnancy arising from irresponsible sex or sex before marriages. Both-parent families: Here, the fathers and the mothers are involved, in the training of the children. However the type of relationships that exist between the fathers and the mothers go a long way in determining the performance of the children in school. Amato (1987) is of the view that both parents may be living together but not intact in their engagements or commitments towards child general training of children. Step-parent families: - This situation could arise from instances where either of the parents dies and the remaining partner remarried so that the children are being taken care of by the new partner. This is common where the mother dies and the father remarries. The new wife now acts as the mother to the children of the first wife. It is the same when a father dies and the wife re-marries. The new husband now acts as the father to the children of the first husband. 30 As a result, the size of the family has been found to play an important role in the student’s academic performance. Raj and Krishnan (1980) carried out a study to determine the relationship between academic performances with family size. The sample consisted of 300 pupils (149 boys and 151 girls) studying in standard IX of 8 secondary schools in Trivendrum city. The results revealed that the correlation between academic performance and family size was negative and significant. Similarly, Cherian (1990) in a study revealed a negative relationship between family size of students and their academic performance. The sample consisted of 369 boys 652 girls in the age range of 13 to 17 years who represented total 7 standard external examination conducted by the Department of Education of the Government of Transkei was taken. Many studies have revealed that children who grow up in single-parent families are less likely to complete high school or even attend college than the children who grow up with both parents (Amato, 1987). Bumpass (1984) posited that this relationship has aroused considerable concern among policymakers and scholars. Especially in light of recent projections that half of all children born in the last decade will spend some time living in a single-parent family before reaching age 18. Education is a key factor which determines long-time economic success and the association between family disruption and lower educational attainment raises the question of the sharp increase in a family instability during the past two decades will have lasting negative consequences on educational attainment of next generation (Chase-Landale, Lindsey & Hetherington, 1988). Garfinkel and Melanahan (1986) asserted that one reason why children from singleparent families are less likely to finish high school is the precarious economic position of their families. Mother-only families are more likely than other families to be poor, and their poverty is more extreme than that of other groups (Beane & David, 1983). 31 Bumpass (1984) posited that even among single-parent families living above the poverty line, income insecurity is a common place. Previous research into the intergenerational effects of family disruption indicates that income account for between 30 and 50 percent of the difference in high school among children from intact and non-intact families. Sociologists have to ask how child rearing practices and parent-child relationship are affected by family position and single parenthood and how these affect the longtime wellbeing of children. Children growing up in a non-intact family are more likely to drop out of school (high school). This disengagement from school is associated with the low education aspirations, since high aspirations are a critical factor predicting education achievement (Sewell & Shah, 1968). A good measure of behavioural disengagement is the student's attendance record; attitude towards working hard in school and going to college are good indicators of the effective aspect of disengagement. 2.7.4 Ordinal Position and Academic Performance of Students Ordinal position is another variable which affects the academic performance of junior school students. The first born child occupies a unique position in the family structure. For at least a year and probably more, he or she is the only child and receives all the attention that would normally be disturbing among the children in the family. Due to increased contact with adults and expected responsibility, one might expect the first born to have a high performance (Miner, 1968). Miner (1968) conducted a study to find the relationship between birth order and the academic performance of the students. The results revealed that first born children and children in small families achieved a higher level than later born children in large families. Another study was conducted by Munroe and Munroe (1984) on birth order and intellectual performance in three east African societies. The sample consisted of 32 147 secondary school girls in the Gursii, Kipsigis and Logli tribal areas in East Africa. The results indicated that overall school grades and performance were negatively related to birth order in all the 3 societies indicating that birth order was negatively related to academic performance of students. Sputa (1995) also conducted a study on birth order and family size and its influence on adolescent and related parenting behaviours. The samples were 195 IX grade boys and girls and their parents from urban, sub-urban and rural communities in south east and Midwest Asia. Questionnaires of adolescents and parent’s perception of parenting style and parental involvement were used. Results showed that birth order and family size influence adolescent academic performance. 2.7.5 Gender and Academic Performance of Students Sex differences are given a “right” from creation (Denga, 1988). The influence of expected sex difference in any society is felt right from the moment of birth (Pringle, 1974). Pringle emphasizes this by saying that “one of the first questions asked at the birth of a baby is whether the child is a boy or girl” and from then onwards parental attitude and expectations become different according to the answer given and the way the child will be treated. Clothes, toys, subtle punishments, and parental example surround the child with a world which clearly distinguished behaviour expected from boys and girls. In the larger society, different problems of abilities are seen as gender appropriate in any culture and these relate to the expectations and stereotypes that the culture holds about gender roles. Children learn to behave in the way their own society expects their gender to behave. Even the home setting gives a lot of support to gender role 33 differentiation. As noted above, parents behave differently to children of different sexes with Siann and Ugwegbu (1980) observing that even parents have been more responsive to boys than to girls. Also, in African traditional beliefs, the girls are expected to be mothers and as such, restricted while the boys are given more freedom to explore. Regarding students’ attitude and behaviour toward study, gender role differentiation and gender stereotyping have been found to be of significance. Bower (1979) contends that in this matter, the female sex tends to be the most obvious victim. According to Bower, this is so because society sees women primarily as wives and mothers while men are seen as husbands and fathers. As a result, growing girls and boys make many critical decisions during their developmental periods that would make them unsuitable. Further, Kagan and Moss (1992) maintained that the issue of sex differentiation affects academic competitiveness. They conclude that matters pertaining to academic exercise are viewed as unfeminine and therefore seen to decline somewhat in girls from teenage to adulthood. In addition, Brower (1979) maintains that sex, roles influence on changes in relative academic performance and study is even more striking as it is noted that even when girls usually outperform the boys at the age of nine or ten, such performance declines significantly behind by late adolescence arguing that even school activities and subjects are also categorized to reflect gender differences. Hence differences in students’ gender tend to influence students’ behaviour toward study and attitude to learning. Researchers such as Onyejiaku (1982) have studied the influence of sex difference on learning and particularly on the study habits of students. In the study Onyejiaku conducted a study to determine the effect of students’ existing cognitive 34 structure on initial learning and retention of mathematics tasks, and found out that there was a significant relationship between cognitive style and performance. In the study however, there was the influence of sex difference in the pattern of performance in problem solving tasks like mathematics. Explaining such differences, Onyejiaku noted that early socialization process whereby girls in their early development interact more with their mothers and spend most of their life in the kitchen or home affect their spatial and verbal abilities tend to be encouraged whereas, boys who are permitted to go out and mix freely tend to develop a higher spatial ability. Secondly, Onyejiaku attributed the difference in performance to motivation which differentiates between boys and girls in their mathematics task ability. Also, Benz (1981) assessed the effect of the variables of students’ sex, grade level and performance on teachers’ sex-role expectations. Two hundred (200) responses from 70 classroom teachers on the teacher sex-role perception inventory (an adaptation of the Ben sex role inventory) were analyzed. Of the four variables considered, student performance alone was a highly significant predictor. High-achieving students were classified androgynous and masculine. Low achieving students were classified as permissive and undifferentiated. Ben concluded that this negative relationship between the feminine sex-role and high performances may be a factor in decline in female performance over grade level and study activities. In addition, Bower (1979) contended that role can be changed and can only be changed with some difficulties and an individual can change his study behaviour and thereby changes both the way other people perceive him or her and his social role 35 through modification, motivations and reinforcement. The performance of every individual is not equal. There is a lot of variability and dispersion. The variability cannot be attributed to a single factor, but it is the outcome of number of factors as intelligence, study habits, self-concept, creativity, aptitude interests, socio-economic factors, area among others. Along with these gender of the child is also an influencing factor on Academic achievement of the child. Singh (1984) made a survey on the study habits of high, middle and low achieving adolescents in relation to their sex, intelligence and socioeconomic status and found that study habits of boys and girls differed significantly at different levels of academic performance. However, Kaur and Gill (1993) revealed that performance in English and total performance of students was independent of sex, but boys scored higher than girls in Mathematics and Science. 2.7.6 Age and Academic Performance of Students When referring to age in academic performance, it is relation between students at one age and students at another age. Previous research has produced missed results between age and performance (Ng & Feldman, 2008). According to Ng and Feldman, there are three most cited quantitative review of this literature: one researcher found a moderate positive relationship between age and performance (Waldman, 1986). McEyoy and Cascio (1989) on the other hand, found that age was largely unrelated to performance while Sturman (2003) found that the age and performance relationship took an inverted U-shape. In another study, Fodor and Carver (2000) examined undergraduate students of both sexes in engineering and science from Clarkson University, a predominantly technological university. Students completed the Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT), which was scored for achievement motivation 36 and creativity and CGPA was used for educational evaluation. The statistical data analysis shows that there is no difference in the overall creativity scores between boys and girls. 2.8 Study Habits and Academic Performance of Junior High School Students Individual study habits play a pivotal role in determining a student’s academic performance. A student’s progress or failure in the classroom depends upon several factors namely; interest in the subject, study facilities, own study habits and so on. In Wrenn’s (1933) first study habits inventory, the items were based on the responses of the high achieving and the low achieving students who were matched with regard to their intelligence and major fields of study. Cuff (1937) used a questionnaire to survey the study habits of grades IV to XII students. Half of the total students (samples) were defective in their performance due to lack of study habits. Wrenn and Humber (1941) showed that the study habits are associated with scholastic performance. Statistically significant differences were reported between the study habits of the most successful and the least successful students between the bright and the dull students. Carter (1950) in another study conducted two study method tests on 800 Educational Psychology students. He compared the study habit scores with the composite measures of performance. The correlation ranged from 0.46 to 0.51. Burnette (1951) reported that the students taking how to study course increased their cumulative grade point averages. Christian (1983) in a study studied the academic performance and study habits of students in relation to sex, socio economic status, age and school type using Patel (1976) Study Habits Inventory and TAT test of Mehta on a sample of 79 girls and 68 boys. The analysis of variance revealed that girls and boys had equally good study 37 habits. The study suggested that study habits are one of the important factors, which is helpful to achieve more in the promising field. Agarwal (1983) also made a study on reading ability in relation to certain cognitive and non-cognitive factors of students on a sample of 200 males and 200 female students of XI grade selected from high schools in Bihar, India. The students completed a battery of reading ability tests, study habits inventory, general intelligence and non-verbal intelligence tests anxiety. The results indicated that males had a greater predisposition to better study habits, neuroticism, extroversion, favorable parental attitude and a better ideal self than females. However, females showed a higher reading ability and academic performance than males. There were significant and positive correlations in both males and females between reading ability and their study habits. Survey of study habits and attitudes by Brown and Holtzman (1994) was used to measure study habits and academic performance of students. The study reported a positive and significant correlation between study habits and academic performance. To determine study habits of students, Wrenn’s (1991) Study Habits Inventory was used and total marks obtained in annual examination was used to know the relationship between the independent and dependent variables and it revealed significant and positive correlation between study habits and academic performance. In another study, Tymms and Libbon (1992) examined the relationship between times spent on homework and examination grades among approximately 3000 students from schools and colleges in Northeast England. The average time spent was 5 hrs per week and girls reported spending approximately 30 minutes per week more than boys. The study revealed that students who worked for long hours gained slightly better grades than those who worked for modest periods. 38 Panda (1992) investigated study habits of disadvantaged and non-disadvantaged adolescents in relation to sex and academic performance of 50 disadvantaged boys and 50 non-disadvantaged girls of 9th and 10th classes in Orissa, India. The subjects were selected randomly and matched with age, sex, area of living and birth order. Patel’s (1976) Study Habit Inventory was used in the study and it was revealed that boys had significantly better study habits than girls. Again, Aluede and Onolemhemhen (2001) studied the effect of study habit counseling on the academic performance of secondary school students in English language. The 108 senior secondary school form one and two students of Lumen Christ secondary school, Uromi, Edo State, Nigeria using (Bakare, 1977) study habits inventory and the findings of the study revealed that, counselling students on good study habits can bring about improvement in the students’ academic performance. Significant to this study is Suneetha and Mayuri (2001) who opined that age and gender differences and factors affecting study habits and high academic performance of school children showed that boys and girls differ significantly in drilling, interaction, sets and language dimensions of study habit inventory. General habits and attitudes, planning of subjects, reading and note-taking habits, habits of concentration were also found to be significant. 2.9 Other Dimensions of Study Habits 2.9.1 Homework/Assignments and Academic Performance The link between homework and student performance is far from clear. There is no conclusive evidence that homework increases students’ performance in schools but some studies show positive effects on homework under certain conditions and for certain students, some show no effects, and some suggest negative effects. 39 Nevertheless, reviews of students, teachers, and parents perceptions reveal that homework and assignments help students achieve better grades. In addition, some recent studies have uncovered a more positive relationship between homework and students performance. For example, increased time for doing homework resulted in higher grades for high school seniors of all ability levels. Moreover, through increased study, lower ability students achieve grades commensurate with those of brighter peers. Students spending more than two hours a night on homework frequently showed higher performance levels than students that made little use of homework. Homework and assignments are integral part of instructional programs and life-long learning experience. For a new skill to become automatic or for a new knowledge to become long-lasting, sustained and distributed, practice is necessary. Homework provides reinforcement, practice, application, transference, and enrichment of what is taught in class and requires students to integrate skills included in curricula. It also prepares students for meaningful class participation and fosters a closer home or school connection and ongoing parental involvement in the student’s education. As students complete their assignments, they become more interested in and responsible for their learning. Homework places demands on students and helps in their developmental skills such as concentrating, following directions, organizing material, solving problems and working independently. It offers a way for students to develop a sense of competency and independency. The most helpful homework and assignments are carefully planned by teachers and have direct meaning to students. 40 Bempechat (2004) however, indicates varying effects of homework for different age levels. The benefit of homework at the secondary level is to assist students in developing time organization, independent problem solving and information processing skills. Homework helps students develop benefits about good performance and study habits, including the value of effort and the ability to cope with mistakes and difficulty. Relative to other instructional techniques, homework can produce a substantial, positive effect on an adolescent’s performance in school (Bempechat, 2004). Relative to this is Marzano (2001) who opined that homework can raise a student’s Grade Point Average by one-half point for 30 minutes of homework per night. In support of this, Bempechat (2004) has shown how parent’s positive attitude can be a major factor on how students view homework. Parents who model and provide guidelines to help students do homework or help their students manage homework time or break down long-term projects contribute to their children’s adaptive motivational skills which foster confidence, persistence, goal setting, planning and delayed gratification skills (coping with difficulties and setback). Activities such as explaining what is seen or read in class, comparing, relating and experimenting with ideas, and analyzing principles are examples of assignments that are more interesting and thought provoking to students. They also teach students to be independent learners. The homework and assignments is useful diagnostic tool for teachers in that they provide information on the level of students’ understanding and are means of monitoring students’ progress. 41 The same could be said by Cooper (2007) who suggested that assignment variations are sometimes hard to interpret. In support of this assertion, two studies conducted in the 1980 suggested that longer assignments in one instance twice as long, in the other, three times as long were no more effective than shorter assignments. A more recent study also favoured shorter assignments, but the difference was not statistically significant. All three of these studies involved mathematics homework (http://www.nctm.org/news/content). A review of research by Walberg (1999) found two studies that looked at commenting as feedback and three that looked at grading. These studies suggested that homework is much more effective when feedback is used. Importantly, little difference was observed in the relative effects of comments and grades. The more homework students complete, especially from grades six to twelve, the better they do in school. The research also demonstrated that parental attitudes toward homework play an important role in their students’ education. Although the benefits of studying at home for young students may not be immediately evident, teachers support assigning homework to younger elementary school students due to the potential long-term developmental impact, for it helps elementary school students develop proper study skills, which, in turn, influence grades (Cooper, 2007). However, it is advisable that teachers should attempt to ensure that outside assignments are of a proper length for the developmental level of their students, since too much homework can lead to fatigue and academic disinterest. Too much homework may diminish its effectiveness. While research on the optimum amount of time students should spend on homework is limited, there are indications that for high school students, 1½ to 2 ½ hours per night is the optimum. Middle school students 42 appear to benefit from smaller amounts (less than 1 hour per night). When students spend more time than this on homework, the positive relationship with students’ performance diminishes (Cooper, 2007). The amount of homework completed by students seems to be more positively associated with students’ performance than the amount of homework assigned by teachers. Nonetheless, Kohn (2006) pointed out that student who spends more time on homework scores higher on measures of performance and attitude than students who spend little or no time at all. Studies that have delved more deeply into this topic suggest, however, that the amount of homework assigned by teachers is unrelated to students’ performance while the amount of homework actually completed by students is associated with higher performance (Cooper, 2007). 2.9.2 Time Allocation and Academic Performance Time allocation for what to study enables the student to plan carefully so as to cover the academic task ahead and also help to organize one’s time for academic work. Before students begin to think about the process of studying, a schedule must be developed. Atkinson (2003) conducted a survey on meta-analysis, and found out how “mixed findings are about the degree to which time influences student learning” (p. 78). These findings suggest that it is not the extra time itself that makes a difference, it’s how that extra time is used by students: Allocated time – the total number of days and hours students are required to attend school, including both instructional time and non-instructional time (example: time spent at recess, lunch, making transitions, attending assemblies and other non-classroom activities). 43 Engaged time – the time when students are actually “engaged” in learning activities, which is much harder to quantify and document. Academic learning time – the “precise period when an instructional activity is perfectly aligned with a student’s readiness and learning occurs.” The analyses show that: There is little or no relationship between allocated time and student academic performance. There is some relationship between engaged time and academic performance. There is a larger relationship between academic learning time and academic performance. At Boston’s Roxbury Preparatory Charter School, students attend classes for eight hours each day and have double the instructional time for mathematics and language arts (Farbman & Kaplan, 2005). As a result, the percentage of students passing the state’s standardized test `increased dramatically. Only 70 percent of the students in the class of 2020 (who did not have double mathematics class until the eighth grade year) passed the eighth grade, yet 100 percent of those in the class (who had three years of double mathematics) passed (Farbman & Kaplan, 2005). Farbman and Kaplan noted that teachers in the target schools were able to divide the class into groups, with each group working on different activities based on its specific needs. Although teachers work between six and 18 extra hours per week, not all the additional time is spent in the classroom; generally teachers spend much of the extra time tutoring students, supervising enrichment activities, participating in professional development, and planning their own classes. 44 2.9.3 Reading, Note-Taking and Academic Performance Note-taking is an important dimension of study habits. Students who use proper study habits containing note-taking and studying that notes, preserve knowledge for longer time (Wolfe, 2001). Students are helped through educational guidance, to know how to take notes by using methods or techniques as themes (Taylor & Buku, 2006). Notetaking is a complex activity involving active listening, sorting out, organizing and recording information which is received through listening and reading. The message to be recorded could be received from teachers in the classroom (Odoom, 2007). Ferret (2000) cited in Odoom (2007), identifies some models of note-taking. These are: Format outline Creative outline Mind Map Template Cornell Method Students are to take time to write or copy notes written on the chalkboard so as not to make mistakes. Notes copied mistakenly would deviate from the important meaning attached to it. This would affect what the note is meant to be. Magsu (1980) carried out the experiments to find out the effects of note-taking of students which he termed immediate and long-term recall. In the experiment he found out that, the effects for note-taking had facilitative effects on both immediate and long-term recall. As students grow and come to take more responsibility for their own learning so good study habits become increasingly important. The amount of reading required of students in developing good study habits is very important. The act of reading is designed to increase students’ knowledge and open up new ways of thinking. It helps students to achieve new levels of understanding and get them thinking more broadly 45 about the world. If students develop good reading strategies, it increases their horizon in understanding retention of things read to enhance good academic performance. It is however significant for teachers to see the need for academic performance in students as a goal which students need to pursue thereby guiding them in the teaching and learning of skills and techniques which will help in developing study habits. Robinson (1970) developed a five-step techniques he called SQ3R method of studying. The “S” stands for survey; he says before diving into actual reading, there is the need to glance over the topic headings in the chapter and try to get a general overview of the material. The “Q” means Question. This involves asking questions about what is to be read and turning the various headings. Robinson says asking these questions gets one actively involved in the study about to be done. Reading must be done with an eye toward answering the question just formulated. This is the first “R” in the method, read it and read it, if necessary until you can answer that question. The next “R” is Recite. Recite the answer aloud in your own words. It is important to use one’s own words because that requires understanding rather than simple memorization of the text. The third “R” and the fifth stage of the method is Review. After reading, test and refresh memory by going back over the key points. Repeat questions and try to answer them without consulting the book or note. The review signifies memory of the main idea and helps indicate over all relations to another. The SQ3R technique actively gets one involved when studying. It is said to have a proven track in that what makes it successful is the breaking of reading assignments down into manageable segments, and requires understanding of one stage before one moves on to the next stage. Further experiments on study habits have showed that the SQ3R 46 method has the main features of effective studies particularly when the purpose is thoroughly understanding of content (Robinson, 1970). 2.9.4 Mental Concentration and Academic Performance Concentration ability has developmental components and experiential learning factors that are considered instrumental to the development of attention, especially those factors associated with interactions between the students and adults in the environment. The ability to concentrate in learning situations is a construct that is commonly used in educational research. The term concentration stresses the positive aspects of attention. It includes, among other things, the concept of sustained attention, which refers to the ability to concentrate on stimuli over a period of time. In structured settings such as the classroom, the ability to sustain attention is necessary for learning to occur. Students, often find concentration difficult because of noise, outside interruptions or an uncomfortable environment. Knowing where to find a quiet, comfortable, and distraction-free place to study is one of the simplest and most effective means of facilitating concentration. The library is an old favourite, and sometimes the study room in the hall or an empty lounge, classroom, or meeting room can work well too. Irregular sleep, exercise, and eating patterns can be the unsuspected cause of concentration difficulties. Many students do not realize the strong connection between physical health and intellectual functioning. Time management strategies such as planning study periods around the body’s energy will ensure the physical ability to concentrate at its best. “Self-Talk” can be motivating, praising accomplishments, helping to sort out what to do next, monitoring progress and performance. Comparing abilities to that of other students and having unrealistic expectations about how long 47 or well to concentrate can contribute to negative self-talk. Many factors such as depression can affect academic performance. To elaborate this process, information processing theory (Atkinson, 1968) is employed to explain the effect of depression on concentration. According to this theory, when concentration and attention are impaired, short term memory could not transfer information to long term memory. As mentioned above, depression prevents the transferring of information from short-term memory to long-term memory. In other words, for transformation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory; students must focus attention and concentrate. 2.10 Theoretical Framework for the Study It can be seen from the literature that study habits of students have significant influence on their academic performance. In this study two theories are used as the background of the study. They include: i. Thorndike’s theory of reinforcement. ii. Hull’s theory. 2.10.1 Thorndike’s Theory of Reinforcement This theory was propounded by an American psychologist, Edward Lee Thorndike in 1913. He carried out experiments to study how non-reflexive behaviour can be modified from experiences. He was considered by Anderson (1990) as one of the foremost educational psychologists the world has ever produced in the field of learning, genetic psychology, testing and social psychology, as well as psychology of learning and arithmetic. 48 Thorndike in his study considered the strengthening of connection between stimulus and response as being responsible for the formulation of habits. Such habits are broken when connections or bonds are weakened. In the light of this, Thorndike formulated some basic principles of learning which are: i. The law of effect, ii. The law of exercise, iii. The law of readiness. For the purpose of this study the first two principles are considered. Thorndike, in his principle of effect observed that learning consists of forming association, bonds or relationship between stimulus and response and further asserted that such “association” or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of stimulus response pairing. Thorndike stressed environmental stimulus as one of the tools for modifying behaviour and increasing task performance. This theory states that responses which were unpleasant or brought little or no satisfaction would not recur. In effect, this is the rationale behind rewards and punishment. When a student performs well in school he or she is rewarded hence, the satisfaction for learning hard, so as to obtain the reward in future. The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct relationship to motivation. This explains that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The student will strive to continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, so the instructor should recognize and commend improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the students 49 positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction. Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the classroom. One of the important obligations of the instructor is to set up the learning situation in such a manner that each trainee will be able to see evidence of progress and achieve some degree of success. Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student. If, for example, an instructor attempts to teach advanced concepts on the initial engagement, the student is likely to feel inferior and be frustrated. Impressing upon students the difficulty of a task to be learned can make the teaching task difficult. Usually, it is better to tell students that a problem or task, although difficult, is within their capability to understand or perform. Every learning experience does not have to be entirely successful, nor does the student have to master each lesson completely. However, every learning experience should contain elements that leave the student with some good feelings. A student’s chance of success is definitely increased if the learning experience is a pleasant one. More so, this principle of effect, states that the consequence or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened. Responses closely followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated. Wood (2005) suggested that it was “unnecessary to invoke reasoning” to explain how learning took place. Given the above position in Thorndike’s law of effect, it can be deduced that students’ study habits can be strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of stimulus response received from the learner’s environment, which include all those around him or her, such as parents, peers, teacher’s relation, facilities, motivates the child positively or 50 negatively in his/her study. These can stimulate the learner to respond positively or negatively to his or her study and task performance. Similarly, Thorndike in his principle of exercise holds that repeating a habit increases its strength since “practice makes perfect”. The law has two parts (1) use and (2) disuse. The use of connection increases its strength, while disuse of connection weakens its strength. Thorndike found the law inconsistent with the law of effect, and interpreted “use” as correct use that was rewarded. Thorndike sees motivation and reinforcement as an agent of habit formation and one of the factors that can influence a learner’s study habit and task performance. Iheanacho (2002) supported this view and suggested that behaviour that is reinforced tend to become habitual and reinforcement increases the probability that any given response will be repeated. Siann and Ugwuegbu (1994) recognized that parents attitude towards a child’s school work strengthens the way the child approaches school and studies. This is supported by Mbillni (1970) who contended that parental attitude affects the child’s school attendance and performance at school work. For instance, parents might arrange for extra coaching for their children if they believe that school performance is very important. Thus, the nature and frequency of environmental stimuli can affect positively or negatively a student’s study habits. The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback. 51 In relation to the principle of readiness, Thorndike proposed that when a response is ready to be linked to a particular stimulus (ready in the sense of the necessary nerve structures being connected) discomfort would be the result. Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the instructor’s responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation. Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health, and physical ability. Basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning. Students who are exhausted or in ill health obviously cannot learn much. If outside responsibilities, interests, or worries weigh too heavily on students’ minds, if their schedules are overcrowded, or if their personal problems seem insoluble, students may have little interest in learning. These notwithstanding, Thorndike’s law of effect deduced that a student’s study habit can be strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of stimulus response he or she receives from his or her environment which can stimulate the student to respond positively or negatively to his or her study and task performance. 2.10.1.1 How Thorndike’s Law of Learning Relates to Students’ Study Habits Thorndike’s principle of exercise emphasized that practice, without perfection will be ineffective, only rewarded practice will strengthen a bond. Many studies (Ogunmakin, 2001; Kumar, 2002; Gbore, 2006) have suggested that learning is better acquired and 52 mastered as soon as the learner attends to it. On the other hand, it is easier to remember recent events and hence, put them into practice. In application to learning process, immediate and regular study periods and doing school requirements tend to result in a better performance than delayed and erratic study periods do. Diverse study techniques, even for the improvement of memory stress the importance of immediacy in remembering and learning. The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical elements in the original and new learning situations as transfer is always specific, never general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of "belongingness" was introduced; connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go together. Another concept introduced was “polarity” which specifies that connections occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the opposite. Thorndike also introduced the “spread of effect” idea, thus, rewards affect not only the connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well. Thorndike’s principle of exercise further supports this kind of law asserting that, other things being equal, the more frequent a modifiable connection between a situation and response is used, the stronger the connection. When a modifiable connection between a situation and response is not being used over a period of time, the strength of that connection is weakened. A behaviour that is stimulated over regular periods will tend to be repeated leading to habit formation. 53 2.10.2 Hull’s Theory This theory was also propounded by an American psychologist, Clark Leonard Hull in (1943). Hull’s work covers such areas as hypnosis, concept formation, test and measurement, learning and motivation. Hull was mostly known as behaviourist theorist in the field of learning and motivation. This theory was described by Anderson (1990) as the most “elegant” of all the theories of learning. Hull’s theory focused mainly on habit strengthening, drive reduction, and intervening. Hull related learning to the need of the organism. This theory of learning is called drive-reduction theory. The organism in order to release tension is motivated to do some action and in the course of the action, the organism encounters many stimuli and makes a continuous series of responses. When these stimuli occur with a response, there is a chance for an association but, the association does not take place unless the association is followed by a reward or punishment, which is motivation (Chauham, 1992). The term motivation has been used by psychologists to mean drives and incentives which account for behaviour and subsequently habit formation. Hull classified reinforcement into primary and secondary levels. Primary reinforcement is the condition of need reduction and secondary reinforcement is the involvement of a stimulus aggregate that has been closely associated with need reduction stimulus. Generalization occurs as other stimuli can evoke a learned response reserved for original stimulus in terms of intensive or quality. In that case, the technique applied in learning can cause stimulus reinforcement which can result in better responses. That is today, if appropriate study skills are applied by the learner, there will be better task performance. 54 Parents and teachers can help learners develop positive study habits by injecting stimuli that can help elicit the learner’s interest such as praises, helping the child arrange study materials, creation of a conducive atmosphere for study, providing necessary learning materials for studies among other things. Hull rightly observed some of the reinforcement that can stimulate the learner to study making the classroom environment inviting, setting aside space for students to work independently. This can be done by creating a comfortable corner equipped with books, magazines, cassettes and other resources that can help extend learning beyond class work. According to Hull, when a stimulus emits a certain type of response and it is accompanied by a reinforcer, (capable of reducing the drive or drive stimuli) the association between the stimulus and that response is strengthened. Repetition of the reinforcement then helps to progressively strengthen the association formed. Eventually, it brings about an organization in the nervous system known as 'habit' or a particular response to a particular stimulus and when this happens it is said that the behaviour is learned. In this way, Hull deduced learning to habit formation. The success of this learning behaviour is measured through a concept termed as habit strength and symbolized as sHr. By definition Hull considers habit strength as the strength of the association between a stimulus and a response. It goes up with the number of trials (pairing between a stimulus and a response) provided there is reinforcement in every trial. Another concept in Hull's theory is stimulus generalization. This means that if there are two or more similar stimuli, they can elicit the same or nearly the same response from the organism as was elicited by the original stimulus. For example, a child who fears a snake also fears a rope or any other thing which looks like a snake. Based on 55 the characteristic of stimulus generalization, the habit strength sHr will generalize from one stimulus to another to the extent to which the two stimuli are similar. Hull provided the term 'generalized habit strength' symbolized to describe the generalization of habit strength through the phenomenon of stimulus generalization. With this type of the generalization of habit strength Hull tried to explain the phenomenon of transfer of training (on the lines of Thorndike's identical element theory) by emphasizing that learning performed under similar conditions would be likely transferred to the new learning situation. 2.11 Summary The chapter reviewed available literature on concept of study habits and its influence on academic performance of students, concept of academic performance and factors influencing it. It also reflected on the various contributions of psychologists on study habits and academic performance of students and other study habit procedures. Hence, students’ study habits and academic performance is interplay of factors influencing it and therefore, effective study habits result in good academic performance while defective study habits result in poor academic performance. 56 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on the general procedure for the conduct of the study. It explains the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, area of study, instrumentation, mode of data collection, as well as data analysis. 3.2 Research Design Research design as defined by Kerlinger (1995) is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain answer to research questions. The survey design was followed, employing the quantitative approach in conducting this research. Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2002, p. 372) define the survey as a “research technique in which data are gathered by asking questions of a group of individuals called respondents.” Another justification for the choice of this design was made clear by Passer, Smith, Atkinson and Muir (2003) who observed that surveys are an efficient method for collecting large amount of information about people’s opinions and lifestyles. This kind of research design was best suited to collect the data since it gave the researcher a chance to collect primary data from the students. In this regard the researcher was able to interact with the students in the schools which made it possible to understand the dynamic factors of the research by having a firsthand experience of the problems at stake. One advantage of the survey research design is that the researcher had a chance of experiencing the culture of the school in practice rather than getting it from the secondary sources. 57 3.3 Population of the Study The estimated population of 8,854 comprised all junior high school students in the seven circuits of the Gomoa West district of the Central region of Ghana. The accessible population was, however, 7,582. The number of students as well as the circuits who participated in the study is shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Distribution of Students’ Population by Circuit and Sample Circuit Sample 1. Apam 60 2. Ankamu 60 3. Dawurampong 60 4. Tarkwa 60 5. Odinaa-Ogua 60 6. Adaa-Ngyiresi 60 7. Eshiem 60 Total 420 3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures The sample comprised 420 junior high school form 2 students selected from the accessible population using the purposive sampling technique These group of students were considered appropriate because, they were preparing to enter junior high school form 3 (JHS 3) and they were getting ready to write the Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). Their study habits were therefore of great importance to the researcher. According to Osuala (2005), purposive sampling is ideal when using questionnaire and other research instruments. For purposive sampling, the researcher handpicked the cases to be included in the sample on the basis of their judgment. 58 To ensure that a representative sample is selected, the simple random sampling technique was adopted in selecting the sampled schools. 21 schools were randomly selected from each of the seven circuits within the study area using the lucky-deep method. The purposive sampling technique was used to select twenty (20) students from each class to engage in the study. Nesbyry (2000) opines that the larger the sample size, the greater the probability that the research will reflect the general population. 3.5 Area of Study The Gomoa West District is one of the 12 districts within the Central Region of Ghana. It lies within latitude 514 north and 535 north and longitude 0.22 west and 054 west on the eastern part of the Central Region of Ghana. It is bounded on the north by Agona West Municipal, on the north-east and east by Effutu Municipal, on the west and north-west by Mfantseman Municipal and Ajumako-Enyan-Essiam Districts respectively, and on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and larger part of the dissected Awutu-Senya District. The Gomoa West District covers a total land area of 514.2 square kilometres. The 2000 Population and Housing Census recorded 92,091 as the population of the then Gomoa West district. The population of the Gomoa West district is estimated at 109,207 using a growth rate of 2.5%. Apam is the District Capital of the Gomoa District and is about 68km from Cape Coast and 69km from Accra the Regional and National capitals respectively. There are seven (7) circuits in the district. These are Apam, Ankamu, Adaa –Ngyiresi, Odinaa-Oguaa, Dawurampong, Tarkwa and Eshiem. The major language spoken by the people is “fanti”. Though, the people have different settlements, their culture bear striking similarities. These can be seen in their way of dressing, music, drumming, 59 dance and traditional practices. There is also a common traditional festival celebrated by the people in their various respective traditional areas called “Akwambo” which literally means clearing the path to the sacred forest, which is celebrated between July and September every year. The major occupation of the people is subsistence farming in which crops such as cassava, plantain, pineapple, pepper, garden eggs, cocoyam, okra, and oranges are grown. There are also a great number of indigenes who engage in fishing, especially those found along the coast. There is a major market centre at Dawurampong where most people do their buying and selling and which provides job for those who engage in trading. Also, there are civil servants, some engaging in teaching, nursing and policing among others. In terms of education, there are many nursery schools, primary schools, junior high schools both public and private in the district. The Junior High Schools number up to 65, Senior High Schools 3, and one Vocational Institute. There are no tertiary institutions in the district, so most people access higher education in other parts of the country. In terms of health care, the district has only one hospital namely; St Jude’s Catholic Hospital at Apam the district capital, which serves the health needs of the people. There are also minor health centers in the various communities such as Dawurampong, Eshiem, Onyadze, Adaa, Assin, Oguaa, Odinaa, and Tarkwa, which all provide good health care to the people. 3.6 Instrumentation The instrument adapted for data collection was Bakare’s (1977) Study Habits Inventory (SHI) questionnaire and output of work for one term in English Language, Science, Mathematics and Social Studies were used to compute with the responses on the questionnaire to run the analysis. The reason for using questionnaire was that it 60 provided a quick way of collecting data from the respondents. The Study Habits Inventory is a self reporting inventory which enables the individual student to describe the situations, habits and conditions which affect his use of study time and his subsequent performance on tests and examinations (Bakare, 1977). The inventory which consists of 34 items in form of direct questions to which the student is required to provide answers includes sections on: (i) homework and assignments; (ii) time allocation; (iii) reading and note taking; (iv) concentration; (v) time management. It required the respondents to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement. Thus, Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Neutral (N), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). The researcher assigned numerical values to the options such that SA = 5, A = 4, N = 3, D = 2, and SD =1 since all the 34 items were positive statements. 3.6.1 Validity Validity according to Davidson (1995) is based on the view that a particular instrument actually measures what it purports to measure. It has most commonly been associated with quantitative research. Hamersley (1992) quoted in Ary, Jacobs and Razavieh (2002) has thus noted, “an account is valid or true if it represents accurately those features of the phenomena that it is intended to describe, explain, or theorize” (p. 452). Study Habits Inventory (SHI) developed by Bakare (1977) was used. According to Bakare (1977), a number of investigations were conducted to investigate the validity of the inventory using high performing students and a group of “failing” students. A 34 item questionnaire designed to tap the constructs of study habits on academic performance of students was factor analysed to ascertain its factor structure. Prior to analysis, z- scores for all the variables (i.e. items in the questionnaire) were computed to examine whether there were univariate outliers but none of the values 61 had more than +/-3 standard deviations from the mean of the variables, suggesting that there were no univariate outliers. Tests of significance for skewness and kurtosis suggested that majority of the variables were normally distributed. The items were subjected to principal component with varimax rotation using SPSS, to ascertain the appropriateness of the hypothesized four-factor model. Factors were accepted based on the content of the items with loadings exceeding .30. Inspection of the anti-image correlation matrix after the initial run indicated that items 11, 13, 31, 17 and 4 had a KMO of 4.82, 4.83, 4.76, 4.69, 4.89 respectively which was below the .50 cut-off suggesting that the construct validity of these statements are questionable. The statements were eliminated from the questionnaire and the analysis re-run with 29 statements left. Rotation converged in this run after 17 iterations with the extraction of thirteen components with eigenvalues above 1.0. It shows that items 23, 28 and 27 loaded highly on factor 1, items 22, 21 and 11 loaded highly on factor 2, and items 2, 10 and 12 loaded highly on factor 3. The final 13 items are shown in Table 3.2. Table 3.2: Item listings, factor loadings and communalities for the three-factor PC solution Factor Loading 1 2 3 Communalities Factor 1- Expectancy for success (alpha=.94 ) 23. I find that day dreaming distracts my attention .66 .56 28. I can only study when a place is completely quiet .65 .59 27. I feel sleepy and drowsy whenever I want to study .60 .46 11. I complete and submit my assignments on time .38 .55 from lessons while studying Factor 2- Academic preparedness (alpha=.79 ) 22. I read only books prescribed by my teacher for his/her subject .70 .57 21. I pronounce words to myself as I read .63 .63 13. I read my notes only once, before the examination starts .41 .45 62 17. I have to re-read material several times because the words don’t have much meaning the first time I go over them .39 .57 11. I complete and submit my assignments on time .58 .55 Factor 3-Academic worry (alpha=.87) 2. I get nervous and confused when taking a test and therefore fail to answer the questions 10. I put off doing written assignments until the last minute .56 .39 .56 .56 12. I begin my assignments as soon as the teacher gives them to me and not allow them to pile up 4. I am careful about spelling, punctuation and grammar .53 .53 .45 .59 3.6.2 Reliability In order to establish the reliability of the research instrument, a pilot study was carried out on thirty respondents of the JHS students in another school within the research area. A test re-test reliability method was adopted. Here the questionnaire was administered on the respondents and after one week the questionnaire was again administered on the same respondents and the data obtained from it was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment correlation. Correlation coefficient of .80 was obtained and a significant at the 0.05 level. 3.7 Mode of Data Collection The researcher went to the various schools with an introductory letter from the Head of Department of Psychology and Education from the University of Education, Winneba and made personal contacts with school heads and assistants to be allowed to administer questionnaire in their schools. The researcher visited the sampled schools and administered the questionnaire, with the help of class teachers. Normal classroom sitting arrangements were maintained. The researcher explained each of the statements on the questionnaire to the respondents. With this arrangement, students 63 started at the same time and ended at the same time. They were given enough time to be able to complete and provide answers to the items in the questionnaire. The researcher thereafter retrieved all questionnaires from the students. 3.8 Data Analysis Procedure In order to determine the relationship between students’ study habits and their academic performance, descriptive and inferential statistics were used. The hypotheses stated were also analysed using multiple regression and independent samples (t-test). 64 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Introduction This part of the research focuses on the information gathered from the questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed to find out the views on influence of study habits on academic performance of junior high school students. The responses from the questionnaires were coded and analyzed using the SPSS. Scores in four subjects (English Language, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies) for one term were collected from students’ output of work and scaled to GPA were used to correspond with the scores from the questionnaire. The chapter four presents the findings into two sections. Section A presents the demographic characteristics of respondents. Section B also presented the findings based on the hypotheses posed for the study. The analysis centered on testing the three hypotheses to determine and describe the influence of study habits on students’ academic performance. Section A 4.2 Biographical Characteristics The respondents are Junior High School form 2 students’ in the Gomoa West District. The characteristics discussed under the demographic data of the respondents include, age, sex, parents’ level of education, fathers’ sector of occupation and mothers’ sector of occupation. 65 Table 4.1: Age range of students Age range of students Frequency Percentage 10-13 42 10.0 14-17 356 84.8 18-21 22 5.2 Total 420 100 Source: Author’s Computations from Survey Data April, 2011 The data in Table 4.1 revealed that, 5.2% of the respondents were within the age range of 18 – 21 years, 42, that is 10.0% were within the age range of 10 - 13 years, and 84.8% were between 14-17 years. Most children in Ghana begin their education at the age of three or four. They first enter nursery school which is then followed by two years in kindergarten. After kindergarten, the child then continues to primary school, junior high school, senior high school and then finally university. On average by 20 years a child should complete the SHS level. With this one could say that majority of the respondents fall within the age range of 14-17 representing 84.8% which is the average age to be in junior high school form two and are appropriate for the study. Table 4.2: Sex of students Sex of students Male Female Total Frequency Percentage 229 54.5 191 45.5 420 100 Source: Author’s Computations from Survey Data April, 2011 Data in Table 4.2 shows that 54.5% of the students were males whereas, 45.5% were females. It is clear that majority of the respondents were males. Earlier some 66 researchers reported that intelligence was the only factor that causes gender variations among high achievers. Education aspiration in case of females was almost negligible causing very poor enrolment of female children in schools. Table 4.3: Parents’ level of education Parents’ level of education Frequency Percentage University 57 13.6 ‘O’ Level 26 6.2 SSS 80 19.0 ‘A’ Level 29 6.9 Middle School 74 17.6 JSS 115 27.4 Other 39 9.3 Total 420 100 Data in Table 4.3 indicated that 13.6% of the respondents’ parents’ attained University degree, 6.2% attained ‘O’ level, 19.0% attained Secondary School, 6.9% attained ‘A’ level, and 17.6% attained Middle school. The rest are 27.4% Junior Secondary School and 9.3% being other. One can realize that a greater number of parents (115) representing 27.4% went to Junior High School. Some research on status attainment have shown that high educational aspirations of parents are associated with high aspirations in children, and that this association account for a significant part of the association of father's and son's educational attainment (Sewell and Shah, 1968). 67 Table 4.4: Father’s sector of occupation Father’s sector of occupation Percentage Frequency Government 117 27.9 Private 303 72.1 Total 420 100 Source: Author’s Computations from Survey Data, April 2011 Data in Table 4.4 reveals that 27.9% which forms majority of the respondents’ fathers work in the government sector while 72.1% had their fathers working in the private sector with many of them being farmers, fishermen, self-employed, while others were unemployed. Table 4.5: Mother’s sector of occupation Mother’s sector of occupation Frequency Percentage Government 45 10.7 Private 375 89.3 Total 420 100 Results from Table 4.5 shows that 10.7% of the respondents’ mothers work in the government sector whist 89.3% of respondents’ mothers commonly found in the private sector of the economy being traders, dressmakers, hairdressers with others being unemployed. 68 Section B 4.3 Analysis of Hypotheses Hypothesis 1: There will be a significant effect of students’ study habits on their academic performance Multiple regression was used to asses how students’ study habits influence their academic performance. As shown in Table 4.6 the result of the analysis showed that there was no significant effect of students’ study habits on their academic performance. Table 4.6: Multiple Regression on study habits of students Variable b Constant 39.824 Examination .140 Beta R R2 t Sig(t) 10.292 .000 0.56 1.078 .282 Homework and Assignments -.112 -0.45 -.620 .413 Reading and Note-Taking .067 .041 .744 .457 Concentration .008 .003 .061 .952 Time Management .292 .112 2.065 .040 .141 .020 Regression analysis using the forced entry method was performed using SPSS to assess the relative contribution of Examination, Homework and Assignments, Reading and Note-Taking, Concentration and Time Management in the prediction of the extent to which study habits influence students’ academic performance. Table 4.6 displays unstandardized (b) and standardized (beta) regression coefficients, the multiple correlation coefficients (R), adjusted R2 and the value of t and its associated p-value for each variable that entered into the equation. As shown in Table 4.6, Examination, Homework and Assignments, Reading and Note-Taking, Concentration and Time Management collectively explained 2% (adjusted R2 =2%) of the variable 69 in Study Habits. This would suggest that the present regression model is a good predictor of Study Habits. Based upon the order of entry chosen for the present sample, it would appear that Time Management explained the bulk of the 2% variance in academic performance than the others (beta = .112, t=2.065, p = 0.04). As can be seen in Table 4.6, the contributions of Examination, Homework and Assignment, Reading and Note-Taking, Concentration and Time Management to the variable in Study Habits was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. However, Time Management (Beta = .112) was a better predictor of academic performance than the others, although this interpretation is tentative as there appeared to be a violation of the assumption of multicollinearity in the relationship between Study Habits and Academic Performance. In summary, it would appear that Time Management emerged as the single best predictor of the extent to which students’ study habits influence their academic performance though the effect is a minimal one (very small) in the sense that the academic performance of a student depends on the amount of time students spend in learning and managing their school activities. Hypothesis 2: There will be a significant relationship between sex differences in study habits of students Independent samples (t-test) of sex differences in students’ study habits was used to examine how study habits of students influence their academic performance. As shown in Table 4.7 the result of the analysis showed that there was a significant difference in sex of students’ study habits. 70 Table 4.7: Independent Samples (t-test) of Sex differences in Students’ Study Habits Gender N F Male 229 Female 191 Homework and Male 229 Assignment Female 191 Reading and Male 229 Note-Taking Female Concentration Examination T Df Sig 3.979 21.03 1.978 418 .049 20.31 1.945 368.792 .053 21.03 .446 418 .656 20.86 .444 394.099 .657 33.88 1.188 418 .236 191 33.22 1.183 394.379 .238 Male 229 1.135 19.52 1.669 418 .096 Female 191 18.92 1.682 414.307 .093 19.42 2.852 418 .005 18.45 2.851 403.986 .005 Time Management Male Female 229 Mean .162 .112 .043 191 Table 4.7 presents the results of the independent samples t-test performed on the sex differences in study habits of students. As can be seen in this table, comparison of the mean in sex would suggest that males used Examination related study habits (mean=21.03) than females (mean= 20.31), Homework and Assignment related study habits (mean=21.03) than females (mean=20.86), Reading and Note-Taking related study habits (mean= 33.88) than females (mean=33.22), Concentration related study habits (mean=19.52) than females (mean=18.92) and Time Management related study habits (mean=19.42) than females (mean=18.45) . To test whether the difference in mean of the variables was statistically significant, independent sample t-rest was performed. The results of this test (Table 4.7) revealed that there was a significant difference in the mean of sex in Examination, Homework and Assignments, Reading and Note-Taking, Concentration and Time Management (t=1.978, df=418, t=.446, df=418, t= 1.188, df=418, t=1.669, df=418, t=2.852, df=418). Therefore, the study hypothesis that there will be a significant difference in sex of study habits of students 71 is accepted. It can however be seen that the issue of sex differentiation affects academic competitiveness, hence matters pertaining to academic exercise are viewed as challenging to both males and females. Hypothesis 3: There will be a significant age difference in students’ study habits Independent samples (t-test) of age differences in students’ study habits was used to compare how students’ study habits influence their academic performance. As shown in Table 4.3.4 the result of the analysis showed that there was a significant difference in age of students’ study habits. Table 4.8: Independent Samples (t-test) of Age Differences in Students’ Study Habits Age Difference Examination T N Younger -1.300 42 Older -1.246 378 Homework and Assigmt. Younger Older -.357 42 -.349 378 Reading and Note-Taking Younger -1.272 Concentration Time Management 42 Older -1.213 378 Younger .641 42 Older .563 378 Younger -.221 Older 42 -.193 378 F Mean Df Sig .126 20.10 418 .194 20.83 49.555 .219 20.74 418 .721 20.93 49.990 .728 31.74 418 .204 32.83 49.432 .231 19.83 418 .522 19.43 47.813 .576 19.07 418 .826 19.20 47.752 .848 .640 .088 .330 1.359 Table 4.8 presents the results of the independent samples t-test performed on the age differences in study habits of students. As can be seen in this table, comparison of the mean in age would suggest that older students used Examination related study habits 72 (mean=20.38) than younger students (mean=20.10), Homework and Assignment related study habits (mean=20.93) than younger students (mean=20.74), Reading and Note-Taking related study habits (mean=32.83) than younger student (mean=31.74), Time Management related study habits (mean=19.20) than younger students (mean=19.07). However, Concentration related study habits saw a reverse in the pattern whereby younger students had a higher mark (mean=19.83) than older students (mean=19.43). To test whether the difference in mean of the variables was statistically significant, independent sample t-test was performed. The results of this test (Table 4.8) revealed that there was a significant difference in the mean of age in Examination, Homework and Assignments, Reading and Note-Taking, Concentration and Time Management (t=-1.246, df=49.555, t=-.349, df=49.990, t=-1.213, df=49.432, t=-.193, df=47.752).Therefore, the study hypothesis that there will be a significant difference in age of study habits of students is accepted. Hypothesis 4: There will be a significant relationship between quality of study habits and academic performance of students Independent samples (t-test) was used to ascertain the relationship between the quality of study habit and academic performance of students. As shown in Table 4.9 the result of the analysis showed that there was a significant difference in sex of students’ study habits. 73 Table 4.9: Independent samples (t-test) of Quality of Study Habits on Students’ Academic Performance Quality of study GPA habits N F Mean T Df Sig Young 59 .867 46.8263 -1.339 418 .181 Old 361 48.5533 -1.371 79.629 .174 Table 4.9 presents the results of the independent samples t-test performed on quality of study habits on academic performance of students. As can be seen in this table, comparison of the mean from the two independent groups would suggest that older students perform better academically (mean=48.5533) than the younger students (mean= 46.8263). To test whether the difference in mean performance between the two groups was statistically significant, independent samples t-test was performed. The results of this test (Table 4.9) revealed that there was a statistically significant difference in the mean of quality of study and the groups (t=-1.339,df=418,p=.174), so older students perform well academically in the subjects than younger students. Therefore, the study hypothesis that there will be a significant difference in quality of study and academic performance of students is accepted. 4.4 Discussion of Results In this study, discussion of the result is presented according to the hypotheses stated for the study and are presented as follows: There will a significant effect of students’ study habits on their academic performance The result of this hypothesis revealed that there exist positive significant relationships between the effects of students’ study habits on their academic performance. This is 74 because the model accounted for 2% of the variability in time management (Beta=.112) which indicates that the model was statistically significant although majority of the predictors used in developing the model thus; examination, homework and assignments, reading and note-taking and concentration were insignificantly related to academic performance of the students. This suggests that the amount of time a student spends in studying will determine his/her academic outcome. To support the above findings, Atkinson (2003) observed that time allocation for what to study enables the student to plan carefully so as to cover the academic task ahead and also help to organize one’s time for academic work. Before students begin to think about the process of studying, a schedule must be developed. The study also revealed that the number of hours that students learned at home was relative to their educational level. Timing is an important indicator for effective studies in the universities. Both period and duration of studies are of serious considerations in the student’s ability to manage his or her time and cope with the volume of studies expected at this level. There will be a significant relationship between sex differences in study habits of students In this study, the finding revealed that there was a significant positive relationship in respect of sex differences and study habits among students. This implies that male and female respondents differ from each other in terms of their attitudes toward developing study habits. This is evidenced in the fact that the male has a significantly higher mean. In a related study Asiedu-Akrofi (1978) observed that male adolescents get more involved in deviant behaviours than their female counterparts. According to Denga (1988) sex difference is given the right place from creation and that the 75 influence of expected sex differences in any society is felt right from the moment of birth. Pringle (1974) in supports of this assertion emphasize that one of the first questions when a baby is born is about the sex of the baby. And from a given answer, parental attitude and expectations become different. Ogwuegbu (1980) observed and to the support of the finding of this study that parents have been more responsive to males than females and this would definitely affect their study habits. Denga (1988) maintains that the issue of sex differentiation affects academic competences. Previous study also mentioned that males and females are different in academic performance. According to (MehrAfza, 2004)’s study there was a significant difference between males and females. MehrAfza’s study shows the average of academic performance in females was more than in males. Nori (2002) also found the significant difference in academic performance of males and females. Academic performance was more in females than in males. Given the sex differences observed in this study, it may be suggested that females who achieve poorly in school especially deserve even more educational attention. Bower (1999) in his findings maintain that sex role influences academic performance and study even though females may tend to perform better in learning sometimes in their developmental age of nine or ten. Such performance often decline significantly behind by late adolescence arguing that even school activities and subjects are also categorized to reflect gender differences. Hence differences in student’s sex tend to influence the students’ behaviour towards study habits and attitude to study and learning. Onyejiaku’s (1982) findings on sex differences and study habits is in support of the findings of this study, that there exist a significant positive relationship between sex differences and the students’ study habits. Also Benz (1981) found out a 76 significant positive relationship between sex differences and the students’ study habits. Bower (1999) contended that roles can be changed, and that they can only be changed with some difficulties. According to Bower, an individual can change study behaviour and thereby change both the way other people perceive him and his/her social role through modification, motivation and reinforcement. There will be a significant age difference between students’ study habits The result of the hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship between students’ age and their study habits. This is because there is a variation in the mean scores for both older and younger students in the dimensions of study habits and age was found to be a significant factor in learning. In most cases age is an index of maturity and maturity aids learning. This explanation was supported by the work of previous researchers (Waldman, 1986; Sturman, 2003; and Kumar, 2002) who found a significant moderate positive relationship between age and academic performance. The factor age is proved to be important in explaining academic performance of students and age appears as an explaining variable in the development of study habits among students. As students get older they perform better in their studies. There will be a significant relationship between quality of study habits and academic performance of students Bradley (1999) in support of this finding found out that students with the highest performance relate positively with their school activities and also had attitudes and values like those of their teachers, whereas those with low performance had attitudes and values that are different. This certainly puts a lot of challenge to the younger students to learn and perform better in school. The findings are consistent with an experimental study reported by Van Rossum and Schenk (1984). These investigators 77 asked college students to study a 400-line historical passage. Like students who scored high on compulsiveness scale, about half those in the Van Rossum and Schenk sample tried to memorize content so they could reproduce it (the authors referred to such activity as “surface-level” processing). Others, like those who scored high on inquisitiveness scale, tried to understand the material, develop insights, and think about how the information might be used (i.e., “deep-level” processing). Not surprisingly, students in both groups did about equally well on test questions of a factual nature. But those who were “deep-level” processors, like inquisitive subjects, did better on questions that required “insight.” It is likely the students encountered courses requiring insightful production. Those who are deep level studiers (i.e., more inquisitive) should get better grades. Study skills such as systematic previewing, reciting subheadings, re-reading for the purpose of finding important details in support of main ideas, re-reading sub-headings, and re-hearsing information, probably do facilitate the academic performance of college students. They certainly help younger students perform better in school. Other results (and those of others) suggest, however, that such methods should not be applied mindlessly, and, they can be easily overdone. More importantly, they cannot substitute for a serious attempt to understand subject matter at a deeper level. Thus, the higher a student’s educational level (as in JHS1, JHS2 or JHS3), the more hours spent on studies at home in order to enhance academic performance. Most studies are done during the weekdays at night and for 2-4 hours at a sitting by students. Also, the findings of this research suggest that the better the study habits, the higher the academic performance. 78 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction The main objective of the study was to find out the influence of study habits on academic performance of junior high school students in the Gomoa West district of the Central Region of Ghana. To achieve these objectives, questionnaire was used to elicit the views of respondents. In all 420 respondents comprising junior high school form two students were involved in the study. This chapter looks at the discussion, summary of findings, conclusions, recommendations and suggestions for further research. 5.2 Summary This study was designed to investigate the influence of study habits on academic performance of junior high school students in the Gomoa West District of Central Region, Ghana. Some theories that form the basis for the study were consulted. These theories are: 1. Thorndike’s theory of re-enforcement 2. Hull’s theory Four research hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. Hence it was hypothesized that: 1. There will be a significant effect of students’ study habits on their academic performance. 2. There will be a significant relationship between sex differences in study habits of students. 79 3. There will be a significant age differences in students’ study habits. 4. There will be a significant relationship between quality of study on academic performance of students. To test these hypotheses a 34 item questionnaire developed Bakare (1977) Study Habits Inventory (SHI) was adapted by the researcher for analyzing the data. The questionnaire was made up of two sections: Section A and Section B. Section A had five (6) items that sought personal information from the respondents. Section B consists of 34 items seeking information based on the variables of the research study. The respondents were required to indicate the extent of agreement or disagreement with the items in the questionnaire using a likert scale of measurement. Validity of the instrument was ascertained through factor analysis and a test re-test reliability method was employed in estimating the reliability of the research. The instrument was then used on 30 sampled respondents selected from 3 schools in other schools that were not involved in the study. After generating the data they were coded and scored and were used for the analysis of all the hypotheses formulated for the study. Analyses were done using the Regression analysis and the Independent samples t-test statistical analysis. The purpose of this study was to identify the influence of study habits on academic performance of junior high school students and to come out with measures that will help them to improve upon their academic performance. In view of this, the researcher used questionnaire to elicit responses from students. Demographic information was also presented and discussed in details. The study reviewed literature regarding concept of study habits, factors influencing study habits of students, concept of academic performance, factors influencing academic performance of students, other dimensions of study habits among others. 80 The conceptual framework used in this study was also outlined. The study is a quantitative research and the main instrument was questionnaire. A sample size of four-hundred and twenty respondents was selected using purposive, simple random and convenient sampling techniques. Percentages and tables were used to analyse the data collected. 5.3 Main Findings From the analysis it was found out that: Time Management explains the bulk of the variables that predicts students’ academic performance. Productive study habits require learners to prepare personal time-table for themselves allocating a certain length of time for a particular subject, depending on how difficult each subject is. Male students used examination, homework and assignment, reading and note-taking, concentration and time management related study habits more than their female counterparts. Older students develop study habits than their younger counterparts and hence, perform better academically than their younger students. Study habits were found to be insignificantly related to all socio-economic variables (such sex, age, parent’s level of education, father’s and mother’s sector of occupation) of a student. 5.4 Conclusions Study habits and academic performance are bed-fellows. Therefore, the formation of effective study habits in students is an outcome of good guidance and counselling programme. Students who are well guided and counselled are result oriented and thus perform well in tests and examinations. The findings suggest that the better the study 81 habits, the higher the academic performance of students. Poor study habits will result in a poor academic performance whereas good study habits will result in good academic performance. The formation of effective study habits will create the awareness for regular and steady learning. In an attempt to assist students to improve on their academic performance, it is important that counseling psychologists give adequate research considerations to students’ study habits. 5.5 Implication for Counselling Counselling we say it for all and the junior high school student is one of the people who also need counselling. Therefore, the government should train more counsellors and post them to all junior high schools so that they would be of help to all students and teachers. One point to note is that, counselling psychologists should give considerable research attention to the importance role of students' personal factors in the students' academic performance. With particular reference to this study, school counsellors in the area of research should give cognisance to students' study habits, in terms of homework and assignment, time allocated to study, reading and note-taking, concentration and teacher consultation. Concerning the academic performance of students that were involved in this study, teachers should involve students in a lot of extra-curricular reading activities. 5.6 Recommendations A number of recommendations were made in this study. The following recommendations will be necessary for the improvement of study habits and academic performance of students in the junior high schools: 82 It would be worthwhile for all stake holders in education i.e. parents, teachers and government to encourage students in their respective areas of responsibilities, such as providing study materials, conducive place of study, recognizing excellence, appreciating students hardwork as soon as possible among others. These will help to motivate the students positively towards their study. It is also important for female students whose studies are negatively influenced by femininity to be encouraged to work hard as academic is not only reserved for men. Students should be taught study skills so that they can cultivate good and effective study skills. As age has been found to be a significant factor in learning and developing study habits among students, there is the need for curriculum developers and teachers to take the age of students into account when developing curriculum and designing instructions. All dimensions of study habits (such as Homework and Assignments-related, Concentration-related, Time management-related, Reading and Note-taking related, and Examinations-related) should be given consideration when planning any programme for junior high school students in the country particularly in the District. Parents should improve the level of control and care of their children, show more interest and concern in the academic work of their wards by way of providing conducive atmosphere for studies, proving materials for studies and helping students in their studies. It is necessary for students and teachers to maintain a warm and cordial relationship as this will enhance students’ easy approach to the teacher for the 83 solving of academic problems. Also, teachers should endeavour to be good models to their students. These recommendations can be achieved by talking to parents and teachers on the issues raised in a forum like the P.T.A i.e. Parent-Teachers’-Association. Group counselling can also be organized for students on good study habits and gender equality. School administrators i.e. the headteachers should forward the needs and problems affecting students study habits to government for intervention. 5.7 Suggestions for Future Research It is important that the findings of this research are not generalized to all junior high schools in the country. The sample for this study though fairly large was from only one district in the Central Region of Ghana. 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Information empowerment: power to the people through automation. Young, B. I. (1989). Teacher job satisfaction: a study of the overall job satisfaction and work facet of K – 8 teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International (DAI). 49: 7. 99 APPENDIX A UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION Questionnaire on students’ study habits and performance. This questionnaire is strictly for an academic exercise, and you are please requested to provide accurate and frank information that will assist the researcher in obtaining the correct data for this exercise. Your responses will be treated in strict confidence. You are please requested to tick (√) on the column that best describes your habit. Thank you. STUDY HABITS INVENTORY SECTION A: Biographical Data 1. Name of school……….………………………………………………… 2. Sex: (i) Male (ii) Female 3. Age: (i) 10-13 (ii) 14- 17 (iii) 18-21 (iv) Other (specify)……..................................................................................... 4. Parents’ level of education (Tick one): (i) University (ii) ‘A’ Level (iii) O’ Level 100 (iv) Middle School (v) SSS (vi) JSS (vii) Other (Specify)………………………………………………………………. 5. Father’s occupation: (i) Government (ii) Private (iii) Specify……….………………………………………………………… 6. Mother’s occupation: (i) Government (ii) Private (iii) Specify……………………………………………..…………………… Instructions The following is a list of questions concerning your habits and method of study. Read each statement carefully and answer it as accurately as possible. Put a tick (√) or a circle under the column that best describes your habit. Thank you. SECTION B: Examination-related Study Habits Strongly Statement 1. I do poorly in tests because I Agree Uncertain Disagree Agree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 find it hard to think clearly. 2. I get nervous and confused when taking a test and therefore fail to answer the questions. 3. When getting ready for a test, I arrange facts to be learned in some planned order. 101 4. I am careful about spelling, 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 punctuation and grammar when answering test questions. 5. I am able to finish tests within the time allowed. 6. I finish my examination papers and hand them in before time during examination. Total Score For Section B SECTION C: Homework and Assignments-related Study Habits Statement Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 7. When my assigned homework is too long or hard, I either stop or 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 study only the easier parts of the lesson. 8. If I am absent from class, I make up missed lessons and notes immediately. 9. Even though an assignment is dull and boring I stick to it until it is completed. 10. I put off doing written assignments until the last minute. 11. I complete and submit my assignments on time. 12. I begin my assignments as soon as the teacher gives them to me and not allow them to pile up. Total Score For Section C 102 SECTION D: Reading and Note-Taking- related Study Habits Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Statement Agree 13. I read my notes only once, Disagree 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 reading 5 4 3 2 1 16. When reading a long assignment 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 before the examination starts. 14. After reading several pages of an assignment, I find it easy to remember what I have read. 15. I find it easy to pick out the important points of a assignment. I stop now and then to try to remember what I have read. 17. I have to re-read material several times because the words don’t have much meaning the first time I go over them. 18. I have trouble picking out the important points in the material I read or studied. 19. I go back and recite to myself the material I have studied, rechecking any points I find doubtful. 20. I miss important points in class while copying down notes. 21. I pronounce words to myself as I read. 22. I read only books prescribed by my teacher for his/her subjects. Total Score For Section D 103 SECTION E: Concentration-related Study Habits Statement Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 23. I find that day dreaming distracts my attention from lessons while studying. 5 4 3 2 1 24. I find it hard to keep my mind on what I am studying for any length of time. 5 4 3 2 1 25. Outside interruptions disturb me while am studying. 5 4 3 2 1 26. I focus entirely on my work when I am studying. 5 4 3 2 1 27. I feel sleepy and drowsy whenever I want to study. 5 4 3 2 1 28. I can only study when a place is completely quiet. 5 4 3 2 1 Total Score For Section E SECTION F: Time Management-related Study Habits Statement Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 29. I waste too much time talking, watching TV or listening to the radio instead of studying. 5 4 3 2 1 30. I find that having many other things to do cause me to get behind in my school work 5 4 3 2 1 31. Problems outside the classroom, with other students or at home cause me to neglect my school work. 5 4 3 2 1 32. I study for at least three hours each day after classes. 5 4 3 2 1 33. I spend too much time on some subjects and not enough on others. 5 4 3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 34. I spend too much time reading other books, or going out for the good of my school work. Total Score For Section F 104 APPENDIX B LETTER OF INTRODUCTION UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION Tel.: (03323) 20026 EXT. 123 Email: psychology@uew.edu,gh 31st March, 2011 Dear Sir/Madam, LETTER OF INTRODUCTION The bearer of this letter, Felicity Akpene Akagah is a student of the Department of Psychology and Education of the University of Education, Winneba pursuing an M Phil programme in Guidance and Counselling. She is undertaking a research in partial fulfilment of the award of a Master of Philosophy Degree in Guidance and Counselling on the topic: ‘Influence of Study Habits on Academic Performance of Junior High School Students in the Gomoa West District of the Central Region of Ghana’. She needs to administer questionnaires to enable her gather information for the said research and she has chosen to do so in your school. We shall be grateful if your institution gives her the necessary assistance she may require. Yours faithfully, Prof. J. K. Aboagye Head of Department Distribution Apam Presby JHS Apam Methodist JHS Salvation Army JHS, Apam Ankamu Islamic JHS Ankamu D/A JHS Simbrofo D/A JHS Dawurampong Presby JHS Dawurampong D/A JHS Abasa Presby JHS Gomoa Tarkwa Islamic JHS Tarkwa D/A JHS Tarkwa Methodist JHS 105
