Scuba Diving
Industry Analysis
Candice Reid & Lindsay Lyster
Section Seven
Environmental Considerations
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Introduction
Before discussing the environmental impacts of the SCUBA diving industry, we must
first identify the environment with which it takes place in. To begin, all environments are
directly related to each other, through wind and water. This being said, what affects one
continent, can adversely affect another. This has been noted throughout history, when adverse
weather on one side of the globe, affects the tides and ocean currents on the other side. To
continue, SCUBA diving takes place in the water. However, the manufacture of equipment does
not. Manufacturing takes place on land, and the equipment is then distributed all over the world
via train, truck, and plane. The equipment is then housed in stores, where the consumers can
access it via vehicle, and purchase it for their own use. In order to use the equipment, divers
must access a dive location, either by train, vehicle, or plane. This then takes them to lodging
which provides food, shelter and accommodations. That being said, the diver’s still need to
reach the dive site. This means they must once again travel, this time more likely by boat, to
their destination. Once in the water, divers are directly in contact with a variety of very delicate
animal and plant species, which react harshly to abrupt or dramatic changes to their ecosystem1.
Although most regular divers have ways of limiting their impact while in the water, many
tourists do not know, or respect these rules. There are serious impacts on the reef ecosystems
from people who do not respect the boundaries of recreational SCUBA diving. Matter of fact,
deliberate removal of specimens is the most damaging impact humans have on coral reefs. Once
the dive is completed, divers must retrace their steps, all the way home. In most cases,
equipment is not sold second hand, it is used until it no longer functions to the desired purpose,
and then disposed of. This results in excess wastes associated with dive equipment, which is
deposited in landfills, and such to spend decades decomposing. Although most of the associated
impacts of diving are minimal, the realistic impact of the industry as a whole is large and diverse.
1
Ecosystem: a system involving the interactions between a community of living organisms in a particular area and
its nonliving environment (Collinsdictionary.com)
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Humans are above all a very destructive species. They consume a large amount of
resources and excrete a large amount of wastes. This overall has had an impressive impact on
our planet, in a large variety of ways. Listed below are some of the various products of
humanity, which impact our planet, and can be related to SCUBA diving. They are connected to
each other in somewhat of a cyclical process, and are necessary for the function of many of our
modern day comforts. However, in this report they are highlighted for their involvement in the
SCUBA diving industry in particular.
•
Air traffic associated with tourism
•
Boat traffic associated with tourism
•
Advertising (pamphlets, coupons, brochures, etc.)
•
Lodging and accommodations
•
Marine waste (boat fuel, garbage, emissions, general waste etc.)
•
Food production and waste associated with airlines
•
Food production and waste associated with lodging
•
Equipment manufacturer’s consumption of resources (wood, minerals, oil etc.)
•
Factory waste and emissions
•
Distribution and delivery emissions, wastes, and consumptions
•
Cross contamination2from bodies of water
•
Invasive species3 and species disturbance
•
Souvenir collecting
•
Land use (coastal development, and irrigation drainage etc.)
•
Waste disposal
•
Pipelines, drilling, and mineral mining
•
Clear cutting4, logging
2
The transfer of living organisms between one location and another
Invasive Species: An alien species whose introduction does or is likely to cause economic or environmental harm
or harm to human health (Invasivespecies.org)
4
Clear Cutting: Removal of all the trees in a stand of timber (Merriam-webster.com)
3
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Figure 38: Total Human Impact on World’s Oceans, Mapped for The First Time
(B. S. Halpern, www.Guardian.co.uk)
Environmental Issues
Pollution, fishing, and climate change have all left a permanent mark on all of the world’s
oceans. The above map represents the impact humans have had on many of the world’s bodies of
water. To make the map, scientists compiled global data on the impacts of 17 human activities
including fishing, coastal development, fertilizer runoff and pollution from shipping traffic. More
than 40% of the oceans have been heavily affected. As seen above, the most severe impact is on
the North Sea, the South and East Chinese Seas, the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the Red Sea,
the Gulf, the Bering Sea, along the eastern coast of North America and in much of the western
Pacific. The oceans at either end of the poles are one of the least impacted, however due to the
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melting of the ice sheets they too will soon become more vulnerable. When this study was taking
placed scientists noticed that almost half of the world’s coral reefs have been extremely
damaged, other concerns are seagrass beds5, mangrove forests6, seamounts7, rocky reefs8 and
continental shelves9.
Pollution
Pollution levels of the Earth have begun to reach beyond our planet’s carrying capacity.
This has been caused by the increase in human population, as well as our interactions with the
varying ecosystems with which we live in. Two thirds of major cities worldwide are located
along coasts, and millions of people vacation along shorelines, it is because of this that pollution
from these developed areas that causes waste to drain into oceans and kill marine life, not to
mention threaten human health. As a result this also causes toxic algae to bloom, forcing beaches
to close. This pollution also destroys coral reefs and coastal habitats, which are extremely crucial
for breeding, food, and shelter. Ocean currents themselves can carry these pollutants far from the
source of entry, which also can cause major declines in species due to consumption of these
pollutants, threatening the planets’ ecological stability, which is our species life support.
Carbon Emissions10 are polluting the ocean, and depleting the ozone layer causing global
warming and destruction of species. Carbon emissions come from the burning of fossil fuels11,
which have caused an increase in acidity in our oceans over the last two decades. Due to this it
could potentially affect the ability of the ocean to absorb greenhouse gases12. “Ocean
acidification has already increased the acidity of the world's oceans to a ‘level that is
5
Seagrass beds: Sandy bays often have extensive mats of seagrass (Ask.com)
Mangrove Forest: Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats in the tropics and
subtropics (Wikipedia.com)
7
Seamounts: A submarine mountain (Wikipedia.com)
8
Rocky Reefs: Fascinating habitats that are rich in life. Many marine animals and plants need to attach themselves
to something solid for their survival (Mesa.edu.au)
9
Continental Shelves: The area of seabed around a large landmass where the sea is relatively shallow compared
with the open ocean. (Wikipedia.com)
10
Carbon Emissions: the release of carbon into the atmosphere (Ecolife.com)
11
Fossil Fuels: Are formed over the course of millions of years from organic matter as they decay, are compressed,
and heated and then trapped underground where they have remained. Once discovered they are mined or
pumped out to the earth’s surface and used as a source of fuel such as coal, oil, and natural gas (Ecolife.com)
12
Greenhouse Gases: Is a gas that absorbs and releases radiation within our atmosphere (Ecolife.com)
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irreversible in our lifetimes.’” (eco-pros, www.eco-pros.com). Statistics Canada completed
studies on human activity and the environment from 2007 to 2008. These studies show how our
species has inadvertently damaged our world, through water transport, air transport, and the
consumption of petroleum products, and their associated emissions. Canada alone is responsible
for transporting over 590 billion people, by ferry, between 1989 and 2004. In Canada alone, an
average 32.7 million people a year, travel by ferry. Between the 1988 and 2006, Canada was
responsible for transporting an average 40.2 million people via air travel every year, over 760
billion people throughout nineteen years. This information may not seem so daunting, until you
review the statistics for consumption of refined petroleum products by the transportation
industry, between 1992, and 2006. Marine traffic was responsible for a total of 38,867 cubic
metres of refined petroleum products, which is approximately 2,657.8 cubic metres per year.
Airlines were responsible for a staggering total of 75, 871 cubic metres of refined petroleum
products, approximately 5,058 cubic metres, per year. Statistics Canada also included a study of
air contaminate emissions for 2005. This study shows emissions which fall into two categories,
VOC’s (volatile organic compounds) and PM’s (particulate matter, made up of solid and liquid
particles, fewer than 100 micrometres in diameter). Air transit emitted 10,076 VOC’s and,
1,022PM102 in 2005, and marine transit, emitted 5,820PM102, and 8,0356 VOC’s. Overall,
domestic greenhouse gas emissions has increased by 27.5% since 1990, and domestic aviation
has increased by 35.9%. All these signs do not bode well for the environmentally friendly image
which SCUBA diving has maintained over the years. With the ozone layer slowly depleting, this
can cause a serious decline in the worlds oceanic plankton, which are tiny organisms which are
the first main source in which providing the marine and sea life with food. Decreases in plankton
would severely impact all aquatic and marine wildlife, and break the aquatic food chain.
Fishing
Fishing and its associated activities has always been one of our species main methods of
sustenance. For centuries humans have fished the world’s bodies of water, and for centuries this
habit was sustainable. However, after the industrial revolution, and throughout the increase in
the human population, fishing has developed into more and more of an unsustainable food
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harvesting technique. Beginning with the mass harpoon hunting of whales and seals, and
followed by the overfishing of the Cod, humans have consistently developed a greater and
greater advantage over the marine environment. Listed below, are a variety of ways with which
humans have increased their advantage over marine life, and developed their fishing techniques
to continue to sustain our ever growing population.
Trawling and dredging: Trawlers are like vacuum cleaners that pass through the ocean
drag heavy nets, chains and gear along the bottom of the ocean, destroying all life forms and
habitats and many ecosystems. The seafloor is tremendously important to maintain biodiversity13
in the ocean. By dragging along this equipment, marine ecosystems become ripped up, crushed,
exposed and buried. When thinking of this we must keep in mind that some of these organisms
took hundreds of years, may have taken some thousands to develop. For instance, sea corals
provide critical habitats for fish and other organisms in marine ecosystems. Of the sea life that
gets “scraped” up, approximately 70% of that is not used.
“According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the U.N., indiscriminate fishing
practices kill and waste between 18 and 40 million metric tons of "unwanted" fish, seabirds, sea
turtles, marine mammals, and other ocean life annually - fully one-third of the world catch”
(eco-pros, www.eco-pros.com).
Climate Change
One of the most debilitating effects humans are having on the world, is our impact on the
climate. It may not be easy to see in our everyday activities, yet it is undoubtedly there.
Through the development of land, and river ways, to pollution in the oceans, humans are
adversely affecting the world’s global climate. Humans are constantly developing the land,
tearing down forests and digging up meadows. We destroy natural habitats to build homes for
ourselves, and stores to shop in. This is an all too well known process to most people. However,
what most people do not know, or do not think about, is the fact that these rivers are a network
across our country, other species rely on this land for food, shelter and water, the very same
13
Biodiversity: the essential variety on our planet, including all organisms and species and their individual genetic
variations and how they assemble themselves into harmonized biomes and ecosystems (Ecolife.com)
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things we ignorantly demand for ourselves. It is the first step that we as a species took, towards
affecting the climate around the world. With the industrial revolution, humans began to tip the
scales in the atmosphere. It was no longer possible for the ocean and the atmosphere to recycle
the gases we were pumping out of our homes and factories. Not so long afterwards, these very
same gases, after being cycled through the atmosphere all over the world, were being dumped
back into our oceans and forest. These same oceans were already chock full of garbage and
wastes, which they carried all across the world, until years later they would be dumped outside of
British Columbia, and California, in humanities greatest creation; an entire landmass made of
garbage. Still to this day, we are constantly dumping refuse into the ecosystems of our planet,
and these greenhouse gases and volatile emissions 14are beyond being recycled. The ozone is
being depleted, and with the loss of protection, our planet is slowly cooking under the intense
heat of the sun. The polar ice caps are melting, dumping more freshwater into the oceans,
upsetting the balance that marine life depends upon for survival. The major ocean currents as
seen in Figure 39 are transporting these freshly melted waters across the globe, affecting even the
entire water network. Adverse weather is becoming a problem, as the atmosphere becomes more
and more unstable, affecting places all around the world. To summarize, it is the initial
ignorance of our species, combined with our innate greed, which has brought our world to the
state it resides in today. It is only through knowledge and hard work, that we will be able to
preserve and stabilize our planet for future inhabitants.
Figure 39: Ocean Currents
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Volatile Emissions: easily evaporated emissions
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(Ocean Currents. www.kidsgeo.com)
Land Management and Conflicts
The ocean is one of Earth's most valuable natural resources. It provides food in the form
of fish and shellfish—about 200 billion pounds are caught each year. It's used for
transportation—both travel and shipping. It provides a treasured source of recreation for humans.
It is mined for minerals (salt, sand, gravel, and some manganese, copper, nickel, iron, and cobalt
can be found in the deep sea) and drilled for crude oil. The ocean plays a critical role in
removing carbon from the atmosphere and providing oxygen and it regulates the Earth's climate.
The ocean is an increasingly important source of biomedical organisms15 with enormous
potential for fighting disease.
Fisheries provide about 16% of the world’s protein, making them extremely important to
the economy. The number of fish caught in a year varies however; the numbers have dropped
significantly over the years potentially due to over fishing. Fish are caught in a variety of ways,
15
Biomedical Organisms: organisms relating to both biology and medicine
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including one-man casting nets, huge trawlers, seining, drift netting, handlining, longlining,
gillnetting and diving which all have a huge impact on the destruction of the underwater
ecosystems.
There are a variety of ships which are used for transportation purposes. Some of which
are Steam turbine plants or diesel engines, however there are wind-powered ships that are also
used. Naval ships are the most common type used to transport goods. Other ships include
container ships, tankers, crude oil ships, product ships, chemical ships, bulk carriers, cable
layers, general cargo ships, offshore supply vessels, dynamically-positioned ships, ferries, gas
and car carriers, tugboats, barges and dredgers. Shipping things across the oceans can have a low
impact in the long run on the environment however, it is serious oil spills, dumping of wastes
into the ocean, chemical accidents at sea and inevitable air and water pollution that can instantly
have a huge impact on the environment and cause serious damage to the underwater ecology.
Ships release sulphur dioxide16, nitrogen oxides17, carbon dioxide18, hydrocarbons19 and carbon
monoxide20. Chemicals dumped in the ocean from ships include chemicals from the ship itself,
cleaning chemicals for machine parts, and cleaning supplies for living quarters. Large amounts
of chemicals are often spilled into the ocean and sewage is not always treated properly or treated
at all. Alien species riding in the ballast water of ships arrive in great numbers to crash native
ecosystems and garbage is dumped over the side of many vessels. Dangerous industrial waste
and harmful substances like halogenated hydrocarbons21, water treatment chemicals, and
antifouling paints22 are also dumped frequently. Ships and other watercraft with engines disturb
16
Sulphur Dioxide: a colorless toxic gas (SO2) that occurs in the gases from volcanoes (Wikipedia.com)
Nitrogen Oxide: any of several oxides of nitrogen formed by the action of nitric acid on oxidizable materials
(Wikipedia.com)
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Carbon Dioxide: A colorless, odorless gas, CO2, produced by burning carbon and organic compounds and by
respiration and absorbed by plants (Wikipedia.com)
19
Hydrocarbons: A compound of hydrogen and carbon, such as any of those that are the chief components of
petroleum and natural gas (Wikipedia.com)
20
Carbon Monoxide: A colorless, odorless, toxic flammable gas, CO, formed by incomplete combustion of carbon
(Wikipedia.com)
21
Halogenated Hydrocarbons: a hydrocarbon that contains one or more halogen atoms (Chemistry.about.com)
22
Antifouling Paints: A paint used to protect against the accumulation of barnacles etc. on underwater surfaces
(Wikipedia.com)
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the natural environment with loud noises, large waves, frequently striking and killing animals
like manatees and dolphins.
The tourism industry is based on the natural resources available in a specific country, and
the available consumption rate of these resources. Sustainable tourism is one of the only tourism
efforts that actually promote conservation of a specific environment. Looking at the negative
effects of tourism, which originate from the development of coastal habitats, results in the
extermination of entire ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, wetlands and estuaries23.
Garbage and sewage increases, with the number of tourists, and end up in the waters.
Ecosystems must deal and cope with the loss of oxygen and sunlight in the water, due to the
excess waste being dumped, and algae bloom and disease epidemics24 often occur. Other
problems include overexploitation of local seafood, destruction of local habitats, through careless
SCUBA diving or snorkeling, and dropping anchors on underwater features.
Under water mining has been going on for several decades in order to try and find
diamonds, gold, silver, and metal ores. Diamonds are actually found in greater numbers and
better quality in the ocean then on land, they are just harder to mine. With this in mind, every
time diamonds are mined, the ocean floor is dug up to sift through the sediment in order to find
these valuable gems. Sediment is not easy to bring to the surface, the process of which requires
very specific equipment, which requires a variation in the mining technology. This all has to be
transported to the mining locations, across oceans, in order to utilize for the mining process. All
of this added equipment and the process of mining in general has very heavy and negative
impacts on the surrounding ecosystems, mainly those below the surface. Metal compounds,
gravels, sands, and gas hydrates25 are also mined in the ocean. Mining of manganese nodules
which contain nickel, copper and cobalt are known to be located in the shallow waters in Papua
New Guinea. Although there are mass quantities in the shallow waters, the expense of bringing
23
Estuaries: The tidal mouth of a river, where the tide meets the stream (Merriam-webster.com)
Epidemics: A widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time
(Wikipedia.com)
25
Gas hydrates: Natural methane hydrate deposits
24
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the ore up to the surface was extensive. Sands and gravels are often mined for in the United
States and are used to protect beaches and reduce the effects of erosion26. When the ocean floor
is mined, a cloud of sediment rises up in the water, interfering with photosynthetic processes27 of
phytoplankton28 and other marine life, in addition to introducing previously benign heavy metals
into the food chain. In respect to coral reefs, this means serious degradation of their ecosystems.
Coral reefs, are incredibly sensitive to water temperature, (21 degrees Celsius or above), and are
intolerant of sediment. They require shallow waters, and with the effects that mining have on the
sediment of the ocean floor, many coral ecosystems are dying. As minerals found on land are
exploited and used up, mining of the ocean floor will increase.
The oceans innate ability to collect, drive and mix water, heat and carbon dioxide, makes
it a huge player in the world’s climate control, even more so than the atmosphere. Because the
ocean can store so much heat, seasons occur much later than usual, and the air above the ocean is
warmed. With the heat being stored in the water, this can affect an entire season to follow. Many
chemical cycles occur between the ocean and the atmosphere, which influence the climate by
controlling the amount of radiation released into ecosystems and our environment. The
atmosphere directly above the ocean does not absorb much heat by itself, so in order for it to
warm up, the temperature of the ocean has to rise first. The two other ways for the atmosphere to
warm near the ocean are by reflection of light off of the surface, or by the evaporation of water
from the ocean. The temperature of the ocean controls the climate in the lower part of the
atmosphere, so for most areas of the Earth the ocean temperature is responsible for the air
temperature. The main forms of climate buffering caused by the ocean are the transport of heat
through ocean currents that travel across huge basins. An example of this is the tropics, which
end up being cooled and higher latitudes are then warmed because of this ocean effect.
Circulations of heat in the ocean help regulate the world’s air temperature. Due to the high
26
Erosion: The process of eroding or being eroded by wind, water, or other natural agents (Wikipedia.com)
Photosynthetic processes: process used by plants and other organisms to convert the light energy captured from
the sun into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organism's activities
28
Phytoplankton: Plankton consisting of microscopic plants (Wikipedia.com)
27
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density of the seawater, the ocean has the ability to buffer what heat gets stored and what is
released. Evaporation is what helps cool the atmosphere and the water.
The water cycle dissolves a series of gases in the atmosphere such as carbon, nitrogen,
sulfur and oxygen. These gases are crucial to all ecosystems and biological processes, which
originally came from inside the earth’s layers. This process is what helps control the rate in
which oxygen flows; which helps the metabolism29 of organisms such as prokaryotes30 and
bacteria. Prokaryotes have been around since the beginning of the earth, evolving with the ability
to use chemical energy, which has allowed them to create organic matter. Phytoplankton on the
other hand, account for possibly 90% of the world's oxygen production, because water covers
about 70% of the Earth and phytoplankton are abundant in the photic zone of the surface layers.
Some of the oxygen produced by phytoplankton is absorbed by the ocean, however most flows
into the atmosphere where it becomes available for oxygen dependent life forms.
Environmental Mitigation Strategies and Contributions
There are many ways with which divers are trying to mitigate the impact that
SCUBA diving is having on the environment. There are developments in place, such as low
impact tourism, (Ecotourism, Cultural Tourism) that respect the local cultures and ecosystems,
and help prevent further destruction from occurring. Fiorenza Micheli, an associate professor of
biology at Stanford University, said "by seeing where different activities occur and whether they
occur in sensitive ecosystems, we can design management strategies aimed at shifting activities
away from the most sensitive areas” (www.guardian.co.uk). One way to prevent pollution is to
use sewage as reclaimed water, which can help treat lawns and avoid having fertilizers and
pesticides seeping into the ocean. Shipping lanes have been re-routed in the past to avoid
sensitive ocean ecology, and no fishing zones have been established to create safe havens for
marine life. Divers are constantly developing new means for people to interact with the
29
Metabolism: The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life (Wikipedia.com)
Prokaryotes: a group of organisms whose cells lack a cell nucleus (karyon), or any other membrane-bound
organelles
30
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environment in a positive and safe way, as well as promoting education and conservation
methods of all oceanography31. This is likely one of the industries greatest contributions to the
environment, and the way society interacts with it. After all knowledge is power. There are
organizations out there, which work to protect our oceans, and marine life, and have spent
decades trying to correct the damage that has been done. Some of these organizations are listed
below.
Project AWARE Foundation
“Global Movement of Divers - mobilizing to protect our ocean planet in more than 180 countries
and territories” (www. projectaware.org).
Project AWARE was established just over 20 years ago, and began as an effort by PADI
(Professional Association of Diving Instructors) to educate divers on the environmental impacts
of diving. They urged divers to become involved in the ocean conservation efforts and assist in
the protection of our marine wildlife. Today they have expanded their efforts to include new
cleanup and conservation programs using the internet to provide networking for members.
Project AWARE is one of the better known efforts, and as such they have a large impact on the
mitigation strategies for the oceans.
Green Diver Initiative
This initiative was formed by NAUI Worldwide, and the DWCF (Disney Worldwide
Conservation Fund), and is an online network which dedicated their time and resources to the
Green Diver P.A.C.T. (Practicing Aquatic Conservation Together). NAUI hosts a variety of
events to help promote the green diver initiative, such as the Trashy Diver contest, where people
record the number of pieces of garbage they have retrieved from the ocean, as well as this years
“Save the Manatee” youth poster contest.
Ocean Conservancy
31
Oceanography: The branch of science that deals with the physical and biological properties and phenomena of
the sea (Wikipedia.com)
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This is an initiative to help reduce the amount of trash harming our environments. This
initiative focuses not just on the actual ocean, but the coastlines as well. They run a program
called the International Coastal Cleanup, where people join together and clean a length of
coastline, helping to create cleaner water and a healthier ocean for everyone. They will be
hosting their 27th International Coastal Clean-up in September of 2012.
Ethical Ocean
This is a website that provides people with an opportunity to purchase Economically
Friendly goods, posts news updates on relevant environmental topics, animals and human Rights.
Marine Cleanup Initiative
This is a not for profit organization which presses the need to cleanup and protect our
world’s waterways for the generations to come. They also focus on improving the quality of our
seafood, and the quality of life for aquatic and airborne creatures. They believe that through
educating the public on the impact we’re having on the aquatic and shoreline environments, we
can minimize damages and improve our conservation efforts.
MarineBio
Is an organization committed to the conservation of the ocean and its marine life. They
believe that humans take the ocean for granted and the ocean may be more vulnerable than other
environments to impacts from the human species.
Sea Shepherd Conservation Society (SSCS)
Is an international not for profit agency geared towards marine wildlife conservation.
They work towards ending habitat destruction and killing of marine wildlife, while conserving
and protecting ecosystems and species. They use their resources towards investigations, and
documentation to expose illegal activities revolving around the ocean, and marine wildlife.
Living Oceans Society
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Canada’s largest marine conservation organization, Living Oceans Society, works
towards influencing policies and practices which impact our oceans. They fight to keep oil rigs
off the coasts, and working to reform salmon farming. They also work to identify marine
protected areas, and have been helping to create a new approach to oceans management, through
conservation-based plans. They have also completed the most thorough analyses of coral reefs
to date.
16