Ancient History Topic I: Pompeii & Herculaneum
1 – Geographical Context
- 1.1: Physical Environment: the geographical setting features and resources of
Pompeii and Herculaneum.
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Geographical Setting
o Bay of Naples, Campania
o 200km south of Rome
o Climate:
 Short winters
 Cooling coastal breezes in Summer
o Pompeii:
 On the River Sarno
 SE of Vesuvius
o Herculaneum:
 Coastal
 SW of Vesuvius
o “Mt. Vesuvius is situated above these places and people live all around on
very beautiful farms” (Strabo, Geography)
Natural Resources
o Soil
 Rich in phosphorus and potash
 Fertile = 3 crops a year
o Sea
 Fishing, Garum
 Valuable source of communication and trade
 Salt; preservative
o Vineyards/Wine
 Many vineyards in the region
 Pompeiian wine:
 “a headache which lasts until noon the next day” (Pliny
the Elder, Natural History)
1.2: Plans and Streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum
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Pompeii
o Size 66ha
o Pop. 20,000
o A thriving economic/commercial centre
o City Structure:
 Nine sections (Fiorelli)
 Many rectangular insulae 850 – 500m2
 Streets were large enough for two-way traffic 3.5-4.5m
 Via de Abbondenza = 8.5m
 3.5km wall with 8 gates
Herculaneum
o Size 20ha
o Pop. 5,000
o A small, residential/resort town
o City Structure:
 Streets were typically 2.5-7.5m. Pedestrian only
 Had a town wall and a sea wall
 Few commercial buildings
 Main street served as forum
2 – The Nature of Source and Evidence
- 2.1: Range of Sources: Written and Archaeological
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Written
o Ancient Texts
 Poems, speeches
 Histories
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2.2: Limitations, Reliability and Evaluation of Sources
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Geographies
 Strabo
o Inscriptions/Graffiti
 Political, Commercial and Personal
o Business Docuents
o Papyrus scrolls: House of the Papyri
o Labels on wine jars and garum jars
Archaeological
o Buildings
 Commercial: Shops, workshops, markets
 Residential: domus, villas
o Monuments
 Statues: State to Eumachia
 Tombs: necropolis
o Decorative features
 Wall paintings, mosaics: House of the Faun
o Public Utilities
 Water pipes
 Fountains
o Artefacts
 Relating to trade, commerce and manufacturing
o Jewellery
 Rings, bracelets, necklaces: “Ring Lady”
o Weapons and armor
o Modifications to roads, paths and buildings
o Remains:
 Animals: Fiorelli’s plaster casts
 Humans: Fiorelli’s plaster casts
 Plants
 Food
Limitations
o “it is premature to say we understand Pompeii. It is at once the most studied
and least understood of sites” (Wallace-Hadrill)
o Gaps in knowledge about:
 Women
 Lower classes
o Some buildings destroyed by eruption
o Fragility of evidence: House of the Papyri
o Little written accounts of Pompeii/Herc. Lifestyle
Reliability
o Pliny the Younger’s account
 Written from memory
 Purpose: to glorify Pliny the Elder
o Graffiti
 Intentions/purpose
 Bias
o Commemorative Inscriptions
 May highlight only positive aspects
2.3.1: The Eruption
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Evidence
o Letters by Pliny the Younger
 “Its appearance can be best described by comparing it to an
umbrella pine” (Pliny the Younger)
o Ancient literary sources
 Statius
 “will future generations believe, when crops and these
now deserted places once more thrive again, that cities
and peoples are buried below” (Statius, Silvae)
 Suetonius
“an eruption at Mount Vesuvius in Campania” (Suetonius,
Titus)
 Dio Cassius
o Archaeological remains of the towns
o Modern Vulcanology
 Haraldur Sigurdsson
Info. From Sources
o Eruption Stages
 First Stage:
 Plinain phase: ash + pumice 20km in air
 Ashfall for 17 hours
 2.7m deep
 Most people fled from Pompeii
 Second Stage
 Six pyroclastic surges; 400°C
 First two hit Herc.
 3rd + 4th hit Pompeii
 5th + 6th bury the cities
o Impact of Eruption
 Geography
 Pompeii buried; 4m ash
 Herc. Buried; 25m solid volc. material
 Sarnus River diverted
 Coastline extended by 500m + raised 25km
 Casualties
 90% Pompeiians escaped
 Between 2000-500 at Pompeii
 500 Corpses found at Pompeii
 300 Skeletons in Herc.
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2.3.2: The Economy
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Trade:
o Exports
 Garum
 Wine
 Olive Oil
 Pottery
Pompeii
 Small market for specific goods
o Imports
 Lamps from Nth Italy
(Herculaneum had little
 Pottery from Gaul
evidence of Trade)
 Oil from Spain
 Wine from Sicily & Crete
Commerce
o Evidence
 Agriculture:
 Villae Rusticae
 Grain
 Fruit
 Olives
 Grapes
 Vineyards; inside and outside of walls of Pompeii
 Farms with presses and vats for olive oil and wine
production
 “as much as 10 per cent of the land [inside the
walls]…was in agricultural use” (Beard, 2008)
 Fishing and Garum:
 Fish market in the macellum
 Frecoes/mosaics of fish
P
 Jars found throughout the empire
 Fishing hooks/nets
H
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Woollen Textiles
 Fulleries + Workshops
 Dye Works in Region I /w vats, amphorae for dyes
 Painted shop signs
 Statues to Eumachia;
 Four felt-making workshops
Pottery
 Pottery workshops
 Wall painting of potter using a kick wheel
 Pottery found in houses
Metalwork
 Objects: fish hooks, nails, saws, dishes, jewellery
 Metalwork shops /w tools inside
 A shop with a forge
Bread Making
 30 Bakeries in Pompeii /w mills
 Bakery of Sextus Patuclus Felix /w donkeys
(remains found nearby)
 Carbonised remains of bread
Infrastructure
 Large roads + cart markings
 Forum
 Macellum
 Over 130 shops (tabernae) across Pompeii
 Thermopolias
 20 cauponau
Occupations
o Agriculture:
o Animal Husbandry:
o Fishing:
o Manufacturer:
o Art:
o Commerce:
o Food + Drink:
o Transport:
o Construction:
o Service Occupations:
P
P
H
farmer, grape picker
herdsman, pig breeder
fisherman
potter
Fresco painter
Money lender, banker
baker, tavern operator
mule driver, wagoners
carpenter, architect, stone mason
bath attendant, barber, prostitute
2.3.3: Social Structure
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Familiar (household)
o Basic social unit
o Paterfamilias (father)= head of familias
o Classes:
 Freeborn
 Freedmen
 Slaves
o Classes were distinguished chiefly by clothing
o Mobility between classes existed
Freeborn
o Men
 Local elite + ordinary citizens
 Wealthy, prominent figures had presence in P&H
 (P) Marcus Holonius Rufus + Lucius Caecilius Jucumdus
 (H) Villa of the Papyri owned by father-in-law of Julius
Caesar
o Women
 Could not vote or stand for office
 Played active roles in supporting candidates
 Could own property
 (P) Eumachia + Marina = prominent
 (H) Julia Felix owned a large property
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Freedmen
o Men
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Slaves
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Women
 Could marry, many found wealthy partners
 Many worked in industries and small businesses
Est. ¼ pop. In 79AD
Often worked as tutors, secretaries or agents
 (P) Inscription; mentions slaves working in public taxation
Slaves were known to work as performers: gladiators, music, dance
2.3.4: Political Life
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Significant part of population
Many owned workshops or ran small businesses
 (P) Vetti Brothers: House of the Vetti
Political Status
o P + H had local governments
o Subject to decree from Rome
Political Activity
o Intense around election times
 Political graffiti; “around 2,800 examples have been found on the
outside walls of houses and public buildings” (Cooley, p.112)
 “elect Publius Furius duumvir, a good man” (Cooley
p.114)
 “It was harder to get a seat in the Pompeian city council than it was
in the Roman Senate” (Cicero)
o Public Criticism of magistrates
 Political graffiti: badmouthing magistrates
2.3.5: Everyday Life: Leisure & Water Supply
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Theatres
o Evidence
 Theatres at P&H; Odeon
 Theatrical motifs in home decorations
 Graffiti about visiting + local actors
o Pompeian Theatre
 Seated 5000
 Auditorium divided into three levels:
 Ima Cavea: closest; most important
 Middle section: for public
 Summa Cavea: highest; females
o Odeon
 Had “the stamp of late Hellenistic architectural tradition”
(Cantarella & Jacobelli, p.108)
 Used for serious performances; lectures, poetry recitals, concerts
o Herc. Theatre
 2,500 people
 Life-sized statues
o Performances:
 Entry was free, a piece of bone or ivory indicated seating
 Actors were popular, albeit had low social statues
 Performances were organised for religious festivities
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Sport
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Evidence
 (P) Large Palaestra
Amphitheatre
o Evidence
 (P) Amphitheatre, seated 20,000
 Graffiti; wall paintings, reliefs
o The Amphitheatre
 Divided into sections:
 Back: women
 Middle: citizens
 Front: distinguished guests/authorities
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Activities/ Munerum (spectacles)
Gambling & Prostitution
 Prostitution
 40 lupinar; private and public
 Gambling
 Dice
 Astragals
Food and Dining
o Enjoyed by all classes; lower usually at taverns
o Evidence:
 Frescoes of wealthy dining; House of Vetti
 Skeletal remains (diet)
 Cooking utensils + tableware (silver + glass)
 Brick ovens (public oven, thermopolia)
 Metal braziers
 Triculiniums
o Cooking:
 Portable braziers
 At thermopolias and caupounes
Baths
o Evidence:
 (P) Four: stabian, forum, central, sarno
 (H) Two: suburban, forum
Water + Sanitation:
o Towns got their water from springs in the Apennine Mtns, via a branch of the
Augustan aqueduct
o Evidence:
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A castellum acquae
 Lead pipes found under footpaths
 40 public water fountains
 Water cisterns in large houses in the impluvium
 Large terracotta sewage pipes + gutter system
 (P) stepping stones
o Sanitation was excellent in both towns due to extensive sewage systems
2.3.6: Public Buildings
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The Palaestra
o Exercise ground /w a pool
The Basilica
o Housed the law courts
o Had rows of Greek-style columns
Temples
o (P)
 Jupiter
 Apollo
 Venus
 Dionysus
 Isis
 The Imperial Cult
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2.3.7: Private Buildings
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Inc. the genius of Augustus in the forum, later known as
the temple of Vespasian
 Temple of Fortuna
o (H) had no large temples, save a small shrine of the Augustales
Forum (P)
o Porticoes linked a series of two storey buildings
 Religious
 Temple of Apollo
 Temple of Jupiter
 Temple of the Genius of Augustus
 Temple of Fortuna Augusta
 Sanctuary of the City Lares
 Economic
 Macellum
 Mansa Ponderaria
 Building of Eumachia
 Political
 Basilica
 Comitium
 Statues: 40 inc. prominent citizens (Eumachia)
 Suggestum
Theatres
o (P) Large Theatre: 5,000 ppl.
o (P) Odeon: 1,000 ppl.
o (H)Theatre: 2,500 ppl.
o Acts:
 Greek + Roman comedies
 Music recitals
 Farces
 Pantomimes
Domus
o Often attached to shops
o Entered via a fauces then a vestibulum
o Often had a:
 Atrium
 Tablinium
 Lararium
 Culina
 Triculinium
 Cubiculum
 Cenacula
Villas
o Villa Otium
 Residential villa
 In the country (Villa of Papyri) or in the suburbs (Villa of
Mysteries)
 Over 100 found over Sarno plain
 Country villas were large: Villa of Papyri = 33465m2
o Villa Rusticae
 Agricultural villa
 Few have been discovered: (Villa of Pisanella)
2.3.8: Influence of Greek & Egyptian culture; art, architecture & religion
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Greek Influence
o Evidence
 Statues
 Columns: colonnade; Doric, Ionian, Corinthian
 Masks; used in theatre
o Cultural Practices
 Baths
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 Theatre (Greek Tragedies)
 Palaestra
o Religion
 Adaptation of Greek gods: Temple of Dionysus (Bacchus)
Egyptian Influence
o Evidence:
 Nile Mosaic
 Statue of Horus Falco (House of Gilded Cupids)
 Temple of Isis
o Religion:
 Cult of Isis
2.3.9: Religion
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Public Religion
o The Capitoline Triad
 The Triad:
 Jupiter (prot. state)
 Juno (prot. women)
 Minerva (craftsmen)
 Temple:
 Temple at northern end of Forum
 “the…temple demonstrated the supremacy of Rome’s
most prestigious cult” (Small, p.186)
o Hercules, Apollo & Venus
 Heracles
 Considered to be the founder of (H)
 Cult popular among sailors & traders
 Apollo
 Introduced C 6th BC
 Temple of Apollo: western side of Forum
 Venus
 Worshipped as goddess of nature
 Became patron goddess of Pompeii 80BC
 Temple of Venus looked out to sea
 Venus is a motif in graffito and household artworks
o Imperial Cult
 Augustua Fortuna
 Temple of Vespasian; east of Forum
 The Edifice of Eumachia, a celebration of Augustus’ Julian clan
o Public Ritual
 Sacrificium
 Strict method; animal must be counted in mola salsa,
knife is coated, entrails are burned, animal is divided up
for people acc. social status
 Done for specific gods, conducted under Flamens
o Hellenistic Cults
 Cult of Isis
 Mostly women
 Strong due to trade link with Alexandria
 Quality wall paintings illustrate Egyptian landscapes
 Annual festivals:
 The Navigation of Isis:
5th March
 The Isia:
15th-16th Nov
 Cult of Bacchus/Dionysus
 “an escape from the worldly reality into mystic
communion with the god” (Deiss, p.110)
 Villa of Mysteries: paintings of the rituals of the cult of
Bacchus
Private Worship
o Household Spirits
 Lares; prot. household
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Pentates; prot. stores
Genius; generating force
Vesta; goddess of innermost things
 Spirits of family’s ancestors
The Lararium
 Shrine for household deities/spirits
 Rituals done by paterfamilias
 Often meals were given as offerings
Death and Burial
 Death was used as an occasion to enjoy life
 Evidence:
 Skeletons engraved on goblets at the Villa of Pisanella
 Graffito encouraging people to live their lives to the
fullest
 (P) Necropolis + Tombs; revealed social class
3 – Investigating, Reconstructing and Preserving the Past
- 3.1: Changing Methods and Contributions of Archaeologists
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“together, the buried cities of Vesuvius form the longest continuously excavated
archaeological zone in the world” (Foss, 2007 p.29)
Pre-1863
o First discoveries: C 16th
o First published reports: 1748
o Intermittently administrated: 1748-1863
 Objects put in Naples Museum 1780’s
Giuseppe Fiorelli 1860-75
o “Fiorelli arguably…had the greatest impact” (Cooley, A. 2003)
o Numbering system: Houses, Insulae, Nine sectins.
o Named streets & Gates
o Top-down excavation
o Systematic, careful excavation
o Plaster Casts for human remains
August Mau
o Created a new classification system for frescoes; four unique styles
 1st : C2nd BC
 2nd : C1st BC
 3rd : C1st BC – Early C 1st AD
 4th : 45AD ->
Vittoria Spinazolla 1911-1914
o Contributions:
 Excavated most of Via’ dell Abbondenza
 Caefully restored facades of houses, shop and taverns
 Reconstructed upper storeys and balconies
o Methods:
 Explicit use of photography
Amadeo Maiuri 1924-1961
o Contributions:
 A number of insulae around the Via dell Abbondenza
 The amphitheatre
 The palaestra
 Villa of Mysteries
 Estate of Julia Felix
 Created great international attention
o Methods:
 Used mechanical equipment
 Placed roofs on buildings to protect
 Quick excavation, little documentation
Fausto Zevi 1977
o Contributions:
 Halting excavations, changing to a conservative approach
 1800 photographs
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3.2: Changing Interpretations; impact of new tech + research
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Pietro Giovanni Guzzo 1995
o “Pompeii’s death is not in one blow. It is slow, but sure” (Guzzo, 1995 in
Bradley)
o Contributions:
 Trebled annual funds to site to $9m
 Attracted international groups of experts to conduct investigations
at the site
 Conducted extensive cleaning and consolidation efforts in order to
make the site more tourist friendly
Developments in the 2nd half of the C20th
o Focus change:
 Documentation, Conservation, Protection
 Answering archaeological questions with existing discoveries
o Documenting Existing Finds
 Photography
 Electronic Databasing NEAPOLIS
 Mapping: photogrammetry
o Long-term investigation/documentation projects
 1978-86; The Houses in Pompeii
 1978- ;The Insula of Menander
 1988-; The Pompeiian Forum
o Future-Oriented Archaeology at Pompeii
 Anglo-American Project
 Pompeii Trust:
 Conservation
 Academic publication
 Presentation for Tourism
New Technology
o Computer analysing technology
o X-Ray Analysis
 Lady of Oplontis 1994
o Use of Modern Laboratories
o Ability to analyse smaller samples
 Charcoal
Use of Specialists
o Architects
o Photographers
o Botanists, Biologists, Zoologists
o Mechanical Scientists
o Seismologists, Vulcanologists, Geologists
o Chemical +Physical Scientists
o Geneticists, DNA Experts
New Research = New Understandings
o Estelle Lazer = human remains
 Median ages
 Height averages
 Signs of disease
 Diet analysis
o Muscle/bone study
 Determining occupations/social class
 Ring Lady
o Cross-referencing
 Comparison with victims at Mt. St. Helens
3.3: Issues of Conservation & Reconstruction
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Italian and International Contributions and Responsibilities
o Significant Groups
 Leiden
 Spanish School Rome
 Anglo-American Project
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Phildemus Project
 Brigham Young University
 University of California
o
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Action
 Excavations halted following 1980 earthquake, focus shift to
conservation
 Projects to stabilise structures
 1997: Italian gov’t allows gate revenue to be kept for conservation
 1998: UNESCO; P+H = WHS
 2003: began to move original pottery/artefacts to museums
 Management plans and better training of guides
Impact of Tourism
o (P + H) 2m people each year
o Erosion of roads
o Vandalism/graffiti
o Theft/Souveniring
Early Conservation Work
o “Pompeii has been the victim of the fallacious conception that the
archaeologists role consists merely of excavations” (Francis, K)
o Speed > Conservation
o Ties with crime syndicates
o Inferior equipment
o Exposure to the elements
o Vegetation has been allowed to grow on buildings
3.4: Ethical Issues
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Human Remains
o It is agreed:
 Bones pre-AD1000 are of great antiquity
 Cultural descendants > Scientists
 Adequate storage facilities
 Casts > real remains, where possible
o Questions
 Custody?
 A function of their age?
 Storage/Display?
Ownership/International Trafficking
o Policing the internet
o Proving whether something is stolen or owned
o Laws to stop such exports has conflicted with the interests of cultural
authorities
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The Italian charter allows treasure hunters to keep their finds, so
long as they declare it and pay 5% of est. value.
 “felons, narcotics dealers and other criminal elements” (Green,
p.143)
 “a slap in the face to those in administration who work for the
conservation of its heritage” (Hooper, 2004)
Replicas/Reconstructions
o Replicas represent one persons perspective
 “there was evidence the skeletons had been manipulated” (Brennan
and Lazer)
o Digital imaging can change features of an object; taking from original
meaning