Unit X: Thinking & Language
Major topics
Thinking
 Definition & background
 Cognition
 Types of thinking
Language
 Definition & background
 Speech
 Language
Terms to know
Thinking
Introduction
 Cognition
 Metacognition
Types of thinking
 Inductive reasoning
 Deductive reasoning
 Convergent thinking
 Divergent thinking
Units of knowledge
 Concepts
 Hierarchies
 Superordinate
Language
Background
 Psycholinguists
 Communication
 Speech
 Language
Words
 Words
 Phonemes
Advanced Placement Psychology
Mr. Landry
2011-2012
 Units of knowledge
 Solving problems
 Methods of problem solving
 Obstacles in problem solving
 Making decision and forming judgments
 Artificial intelligence
 Words: simplest to most complex
 Structure
 Language development
 Basic
 Subordinate
 Prototype
 Schema
 Assimilation
 Accommodation
Solving problems
 Problem
 Well-defined problems
 Ill-defined problem
Methods of problem solving
 Algorithm
 Morpheme
 Phrase
 Sentence
Structure
 Structure
 Surface Structure
 Deep Structure
 Grammar
 Heuristic
 Means-end analysis
 Working backwards/
backwards planning/
reverse engineering
 Trial and error
 Insight
 Brainstorming
Obstacles in problem solving
 Confirmation bias
 Fixation
 Mental set
 Semantics
 Syntax
Language development
 Holophrastic speech
 Telegraphic speech
 Overgeneralization
People to know
Know what theory, work, concept, etc. that each person is associated with
 Amos Tversky
 Karl Duncker
 Daniel Kahneman
 Noam Chomsky
Theories to know
Be able to explain these theories and the concepts related to them
 Grammar switches
 Language acquisition device (LAD)
 Explaining theories of language learning
 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
Concepts
Know what each of these concepts is
 Four major concepts in thinking
 Two types of reasoning, and the difference between the two
 Convergent and divergent thinking, and the difference
between the two
 Units of knowledge: simple to most complex
 Hierarchy of concepts (general to most specific)
 Difference between assimilation and accommodation
 Types of problems
 Major methods of problem solving
 Method used depends on type of problem
 Major obstacles in problem solving
 Theories of language development
 Thinking and language
 Animals: thinking and language
 Functional fixedness
Making decisions & forming
judgments
 Availability heuristic
 Representative heuristic
 Overconfidence
 Framing
 Belief bias
 Belief Perseverance
Phenomenon
Artificial intelligence
 Artificial intelligence
Theories of language learning
 Language acquisition
device (LAD)
 Linguistic determination
 Critical Period Hypothesis
(CPH)
Thinking and language
 Linguistic determination
 B.F. Skinner
 Benjamin Lee Whorf
 Linguistic determination
 Major concepts in how we make decisions and form
judgments
 Definition of language
 Language vs. communication
 Definition of speech
 Forms language can take
 The two basic elements of language (words & structure)
 Words: simple to most complex elements
 Structure: types
 Five stages of language development
 Major theories of language development
 Thinking and language
Major Concepts & Ideas to Know
 What is cognition? What does it describe?
 What is thinking?
 What are the four major concepts in thinking?
 What is reasoning?
 What is inductive reasoning? What is deductive reasoning?
What is the difference between the two?
 What is convergent thinking? What is divergent thinking?
What is the difference between the two?
 What are the major units of knowledge?
 What is a concept? What is their purpose?
 What are hierarchies? (Most general to most specific)
 What is a prototype? What is an example of a prototype?
 What is the connection between prototypes and schemas?
 What is assimilation and accommodation?
 How do we solve problems? What are the major methods
for problem solving?
 What are the major obstacles in problem solving?
 How do we make decisions and form judgments?
 What are the major types of heuristics?
 Difference between speech and language?
 What are the two basic elements of language (words &
structure)
 How do we produce languages symbolically?
 What are the major parts on producing languages
symbolically? From the most simple to the most
complex?
 How do we structure language?
 What is the difference between surface structure and deep
structure?
 What are the major parts on language structure?
 What are the different stages of language development?
 Know the ages and the characteristics of each stage.
 What are the three main theories of language learning?
Who is associated with each one?
 How are thinking and language connected?
 What is language determination?
 What are the connections between a language and culture?
 How can we know about a culture from its languages?
 What is the link between inequality and language? (Gender,
ethnic, etc.)
 Can animals think?
 Can animals communicate? How? What are some
examples?
 Can animals use language?
 What are some arguments for this view?
 What are some arguments against this view?
Bold-Faced Words (BFW’s)
You do need to know these for the test, even if they are not listed above.
 cognition
 mental set
 artificial intelligence (AI)
 concept
 functional fixedness
 computer neural networks
 prototype
 representative heuristic
 language
 algorithm
 availability heuristic
 phoneme
 heuristic
 overconfidence
 morpheme
 insight
 framing
 grammar
 confirmation bias
 belief bias
 semantics
 fixation
 belief perseverance
 syntax
Vocabulary
Due the day of the test
1. Inductive reasoning
2. Deductive reasoning
3. Convergent thinking
4. Divergent thinking
5. Schema
6. Assimilation
7. Accommodation
8. Surface Structure
9. Deep Structure
10. Holophrastic speech
11. Overgeneralization
 babbling stage
 one-word stage
 two-word stage
 telegraphic speech
 linguistic determination
12. Language acquisition device (LAD)
13. Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
Unit IX test question breakdown: Versions A & B
 Déjà vu: 66
 Eidetic memory: 95
 Encoding: automatic & effortful (general): 11
 Encoding: automatic (general): 12 - 14
 Encoding: effortful (rehearsal): 15 - 17
 Encoding: effortful (serial position): 20, 21
 Encoding: effortful (spacing effect): 18, 19
 Encoding: general: 3 - 5
 Encoding: Three main ways of processing information: 22, 25
- 27, 29 - 32, 97
 Encoding: Three main ways that we encode verbal
information: 23, 24, 28
 Forgetting: Amnesia: 96
 Forgetting: Ebbinghaus forgetting curve: 72, 73
 Forgetting: Encoding Failure: 10, 69, 71
 Forgetting: general: 70
 Forgetting: Interference/negative transfer: 77 - 80
 Forgetting: Motivated forgetting (general): 82, 83
 Forgetting: Motivated forgetting (repression): 84, 85
 Forgetting: Retrieval Failure: 74 – 80, 85
 Memory construction: distinguishing real versus false
memories: 91, 94
 Memory construction: general: 86, 89, 92
 Memory construction: misinformation effect: 87, 88, 98 - 100
 Memory construction: source amnesia: 90
 Memory: general: 6
 Positive transfer: 81
 Retrieval: Cues (context effect): 65
 Retrieval: Cues (general): 61, 62
 Retrieval: Cues (mood-congruent memory): 68, 80, 93
 Retrieval: Cues (state dependant memory): 67
 Retrieval: general: 7
 Retrieval: Priming: 16, 63, 64
 Retrieval: Types of Retrieval: 58 - 60
 Storage: Biological Aspects of Storage: 42 - 45, 50 - 56
 Storage: Infantile amnesia: 56
 Storage: Long-term memory: 33, 40, 41
 Storage: Long-term memory (Implicit & Explicit Memory):
46 – 53
 Storage: Sensory Memory: 33 – 35
 Storage: Short-term memory: 35 – 39, 43
 Storage: Three-stage processing: 1, 2, 8, 9
 Storage: Working memory: 57
Reading assignment due dates
Assignment
Topics covered
Reading/BFT (Unit X: Thinking & Language ) 385-400
Thinking
Reading/BFT (Unit X: Thinking & Language ) 401-417
Language
Test & Vocab (Unit X: Thinking & Language )
Due date
“A” Day
Tuesday,
January 24
Thursday,
January 26
Monday,
January 30
“B” Day
Wednesday,
January 25
Friday,
January 27
Tuesday,
January 31
As you are reading this unit…
Take note of the following major ideas and concepts and make sure you include them in your outline and understand them.
Concepts (page 386)
 What are concepts? What are prototypes? How are they related?
Solving Problem (page 387)
 What methods do we use to solve problems?
 What is the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic? What are examples of each one?
Obstacles to Problem Solving (page 388)
 What are some of the things that prevent us from being able to solve problems? What are the major ones? What are examples of
each?
Making Decisions and Forming Judgments (page 389)
 What are ways that we make decisions/how do we make decisions?
 What are ways we form judgments/hoe do we form judgments?
 What is the difference between an availability heuristic and a representative heuristic? (this one is a little tricky).
 How does framing effect how we make decisions?
Belief Bias (page 395)
 What is belief bias? How does it effect how we make decisions and judgments?
Artificial Intelligence (page 397)
 What is artificial intelligence?
 What are some things that AI cannot do at this point that the human mind can?
Language (page 401)
 What is the difference between language and communication?
Language Structure (page 401)
 Know the structure of language, from the most simple to the most complex parts
Language Development (page 402)
 Know the order that we acquire language; from the earliest, most simple stage to the most complex.
 Know the approximate ages that the major milestones occur.
 Know how the different perspectives would explain how we develop language, and who the major people are that are associated
with each theory.
Thinking & Language (page 409)
 How are language and thinking related?
 What is linguistic determination?
 Does the language and the words we use influence how we think?
Thinking Without Language (page 411)
 Can we think without using language?
Animal Thinking and Language (page 413)
 Do animals think?
 Do animals use language?
 Can apes really talk? What are the arguments used to support this view? What are the arguments against?
Frequently Missed Questions from the Unit VII test
 Classical conditioning. If given a scenario, be able to identify what the UCS, UCR, NS, CS, & CR are. If need be,
treat it like an algebra problem. Take the Pavlov experiment, which I think at think at this point, everyone can
identify each part of that, and compare the new example with the Pavlov.
 Don’t make the Classical conditioning examples more complicated than they are. Most of them are straight forward.
A lot of it comes down to the question of, are we born with certain responses?
 What causes extinction? What is no longer paired with what?
 Time timing of the NS and UCS influence acquisition. Which is considered the most efficient timing variant?
Which is considered the least efficient?
 Make sure to understand how biological predispositions effect conditioning. For example, what would be easier to
each someone to fear; a snake or a butterfly?
 With classical conditioning, what is more important for acquisition when you’re associating the NS with the UCS –
the predictability or the frequency?
 Positive reinforcers have what effect on a behavior? Negative reinforcers have what effect on a bahvior?
 Know what shaping and successive approximations are.
 The overjustification effect would inhibit what type of motivation?
 As people near the completion of a lucrative task, they typically become increasingly less likely to give up and
discontinue their work. This best illustrates that ________ reinforcers most effectively influence operant behavior.
 Della asks her mother for a candy bar every time they go to the grocery store. At first, her mother would buy her a
candy bar every time they went to the store, now she only buys her a candy bar every once in a while. Research
suggests that Della will:
 Know the reinforcement schedules
 If given an example, know if it’s positive punishment or negative punishment, if it’s positive reinforcement or
negative reinforcement.
 Remember, negative does not mean bad and is not the same as punishment. Positive does not mean good and is not
the same as reinforcement.
 Make sure if given an example, you can identify if it is an example of operant conditioning, classical conditioning,
non-associative learning, or observational learning.
 Know the important people and what form of learning each one was associated with
 Know what reinforcement schedules are most efficient for what circumstances.