Psychological Torture: An Ethical Appraisal
Jesse Rabinovitch & Jenine Hamonic
The psychology of torturing suspects is an issue that brings into question the 5 ethical principles
set out for psychologists: Autonomy, Fidelity, Justice, Beneficence, and Nonmalificence.
However, is it an act that should be granted in certain situations or under specified conditions?
Why Should We Be Concerned?
As psychologists, we have knowledge which can enable us to do harm to others and society.
 Knowledge can be changed from a tool for influencing positive changes into a
weapon that can and has caused irrevocable harm.
It is our social responsibility to ensure that we protect society by advocating for laws and ethical
codes to be put in place.
 “It is time that psychology as a profession, along with the other health
professions, takes the lead in contributing to the building of respect for humanity
rather than aiding the creation of hell” (Soldz, 2008, p.607).
What is Psychological Torture?
Any act by which severe mental pain or suffering is intentionally inflicted on a person.
 Goal: To breakdown resistance, denial and deception of suspects
○ Sensory Overstimulation/Distortion: Physical brutality, sleep deprivation,
exhaustion, exposure to extreme cold or heat, flooding with light or sound
○ Sensory Deprivation: Prolonged isolation, darkness
○ Humiliation: Sexual & Cultural
○ Drugs
○ Purely Psychological: Self-inflicted pain, interrogation techniques
Theoretical Models of Torture
1. Reid Model
The effectiveness of this model depends on the extent to which the investigator is able to
identify the suspect’s vulnerabilities and exploit them in order to alter their perception of
making admissions.
2. Decision-making Model
This model focuses on the decision making of suspects during custodial interrogation. It
works on the basis that during interrogation individuals become involved in a privileged
decision making process.
3. Psychoanalytic Models
A confession is seen as “an attempt at reconciliation that the superego undertakes in order to
settle the quarrel between the ego and the id” (Reik, as cited in Williamson, p.255).
4. Interaction-Process Model
A suspect’s initial reaction to an allegation, regardless of his or her involvement, is
influenced by the interaction of 3 groups of factors:
1. Background characteristics of the suspect and the offense (i.e. age and sex of suspect,
type and severity of offence)
2. Contextual characteristics (i.e. legal advice, strength and amount of incriminating
evidence)
3. Interviewer’s questioning technique
5. Cognitive-Behavioural Model
The probability of obtaining a confession relies on the existence of a particular relationship
with the suspect, the environment and significant others within that environment
6. Ofshe-Leo Model
There are 5 levels of confessions (voluntary, stress-compliant, coerced-compliant, noncoerced-persuaded, and coerced-persuaded) categorized into either true or false
groupings.
Major Points in APA History (Behnke, 2006)
 1985 - Joint Resolution Against Torture with the American Psychiatric Association
 1986 - APA Resolution Against Torture
 2002, APA Code of Ethics
o Revisions to ethical principle 1.02 allowed psychologists to “adhere to the
requirements of the law, regulations, or other governing legal authority” in the
case of irreconcilable conflict
o Previously, principle 1.03 required psychologists to “resolve the conflict in a way
that permits adherence to the Ethics Code” (APA, 1992)
 2003, APA President
o Psychologists are able to play an appropriate and ethical role in national security
investigations.
 2006, APA
o Formed a Presidential Task Force on Psychological Ethics and National Security
(PENS).
 2008, APA President-Elect
o The goal of such psychologists’ work will ultimately be the protection of others
(i.e., innocents) by contributing to the incarceration, debilitation, or even death of
the potential perpetrator, who will often remain unaware of the psychologists’
involvement” (Coalition for an Ethical Psychology, 2008, p. 10)
Legal Rights and Regulations
Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
 “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or
punishment.” (Schulz, 2007)
Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists
Principle IV.27:
Not contribute to nor engage in research or any other activity that contravenes international
humanitarian law, such as the development of methods intended for use in the torture of persons,
the development of prohibited weapons, or destruction of the environment.
 Arguments against: I.4, I.5, I.6, I.7, I.8, I.20, I.27, I.28, I.30, I.31, I.38, I.43, I.46, II.2,
II.4, II.5, II.10, II.36, II.38, II.39, IV.7, IV.13, IV.17
 Conditions if arguing for: II.13, II.16, II.17, II.37, III.5, III.10, IV.17
Recommendations for Professionals
Psychologists’ responsibility to society includes ensuring that all people are treated fairly
regardless of their status within society (Truscott & Crook, 2004)
 Ethical Codes IV. 19, IV.22, IV.25
Implications in Canada
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
 Legal Rights
o Life, Liberty and Security of Persons (Principle 7)
o Treatment and Punishment (Principle 12)
 Equality Rights (Principle 15(1))
 Enforcement (Principle 24(1)) Case Example: Maher Arar
References
Behnke, S. (2006). Psychological ethics and national security: The position of the American
Psychological Association. European Psychologist,11, 153–156.
Sinclair, C. & Pettifor, J. (Eds.). (2001). Companion manual to the Canadian code of ethics for
psychologists (3rd ed.). Ottawa, ON: Canadian Psychological Association.
Perry, J. (2005). Torture: Religious ethics and national security. Ottawa, ON: Novalis.
Schulz, W. F. (2007). The phenomenon of torture: Readings and commentary. Philadelphia, PA:
University of Pennsylvania Press.
Soldz, S. (2008). Healers or interrogators: Psychology and the United States torture regime.
Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 18, 592–613.
Truscott, D. & Crook, K. H. (2004). Ethics for the practice of psychology in Canada. Edmonton,
AB: The University of Alberta Press.
Williamson, T. (2006). Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation. Portland, OR:
Willan Publishing.