Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 1
CHAPTER 1 - THE HUMAN BODY
I. OVERVIEW OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
* ANATOMY - Study of structure of body parts and their relationship to each other (WHAT and WHERE
things are).
- Often use dissections (= "to split") to look inside, or deep ("away from the surface")
* PHYSIOLOGY - Study of the function of fore mentioned parts (HOW things work).
* MORPHOLOGY - Study of how form affects function (not mentioned in book).
Principle of Complimentary Structure & Form:
Anatomy: naming
where things are,
and describing
what they look
like
Physiology: how
do they do what
they do!
Morphology: how
what their shape
is determines
what they do!
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 2
A. TOPICS OF ANATOMY
1) "GROSS" or "MACROSCOPIC" - lg. structures, visible to naked eye (heart, lungs, etc.). More than 1
approach:
(a) Regional - structure in a region (abdominal, etc.).
(b) Systemic - structures associated w/ organ systems (respiratory, circulatory, etc.
- MOST COMMON!!
(c) Surface - internal structures as relate to outer skin
--often used to find blood vessels, etc for blood pressure, injections, etc.
2) "MICROSCOPIC" - need a microscope to see!
-slice a thin piece (= a SECTION) of tissue, stain it, look under microscope.
(a) CYTOLOGY = study of cells
(b) HISTOLOGY = study of TISSUE (= collection of cells).
3) "DEVELOPMENTAL" anatomy - study of the structural changes in an indiv. from conception ----->old age.
DEVELOPMENT - all changes that occur from conception --> Death
EMBRYOLOGY - study of only those changes before birth.
SENESCENCE - The process of aging
4) Also, "PATHOLOGICAL" (= structural changes caused by disease) and "RADIOGRAPHIC" (structures as
seen in an X-ray).
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 3
B. TOPICS OF PHYSIOLOGY
- Most subdivisions consider "systemic approach" organ systems (renal, neurophysiology {nervous
system}, cardiovascular, etc.).
- Often, consider events on a cellular or molecular
level----> the operation of a given organ depends
on the operation of its different types of cells!!!!
* Also, physics & chemistry.
- Disease: an abnormal condition. There are several closely-related terms:
1. Pathology: The study of all diseases, and their causes, processes, development and consequences.
* Basically, anything that goes wrong is a “pathology”.
2. Infection: The colonization of a host (in this case, a patient’s body) by a parasite. The type depends
on what actually invades the body:
Bacterial (e.g.: strep throat, tetanus, most food poisoning, Lyme disease).
Viral (colds, flu, viral meningitis, HIV)
Fungal (ringworm, yeast infections, athlete’s foot)
Macroparasites (“worms”, Elephantiasis from the filarial worm)
3. Developmental: The development of some organ or tissue does not occur correctly, for any number
of reasons (accidently, some toxin present during development, etc.).
4. Genetic Disease: Pathology caused by a mutation in the
genetic material. E.g.: many forms of diabetes, cystic fibrosis,
sickle cell anemia. More detail during the “genetics” section.
5. Autoimmune disease: Pathology caused when the immune
system attacks its own body. E.g.: rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic
arthritis, some forms of diabetes, Grave’s disease (one type of
hypothyroidism). More detail during the Immunity chapter.
6. Cancer: Often, the body’s own cells proliferate, forming a
tumor. Most tumors are not cancerous. It is cancer if the cells
metastasize, which means break off from the tumor and cause
other cells to begin proliferating, also. Tumors are only cancerous if they
metastasize.
7. “Other” – toxins, accidents (e.g.: broken bones), etc.
These categories are not mutually exclusive. Some autoimmune disorders have a
genetic basis. Viruses can cause cancer, autoimmune disorders, etc.
Developmental disorders can be caused by toxins, viruses, or have a genetic basis.
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 4
II. HIERARCHY OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
- a body is a series of increasingly complex levels (= a HIERARCHY); ea. consists of a collection of the
members of the level below it. Each level has its own rules!!!!
Example:
sand & mortar ------->bricks ------> wall -------> house -------> neighborhood ---------> community
See next page of notes for specifics!
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 5
SEE FIG IN TEXT FOR AN OVERVIEW OF THE ORGAN SYSTEMS
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 6
III. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
-Animal life has some commonalities----->functions that must be met!!
- Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism
* Anabolic Reaction = building; mostly done via the chemical process called dehydration
synthesis
* Catabolic reactions = breaking down; mostly done via the chemical process called hydrolysis
1) Structure & Maintenance of boundaries -- Form = function, & "inside vs. outside".
- Structure ("shape") is given by fibrous proteins. Remember that form = function!
- Boundary - Protect the cell from losing water and nutrients, protect against infection, etc.!!
* SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE - boundary of cells, your integument. Things must
be able to move in and out (can't be impermeable).
** INTEGUMENT-your skin. Protects against desiccation (water loss), invasion (bacteria,
etc.), chemical damage, etc.
**cells have a "plasma membrane". But…the plasma membrane muyst be able to
change its permeability:
* proteins are used for this! Protein channels open and close, letting substances
in and out as needed. More detail in Cell Chapter!
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 7
- Important Point: the boundary needs to be able to Change Its Permeability! Protein channels allow this.
2) Movement . - Let organism look for food & reproduction.
-Muscular + Skeletal systems.
-Also: movement within the body!
* Proteins are used for this!
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 8
3) Control Activity and Responsiveness (or, irritability) - life's machinery must react to changes!
- Life must REGULATE (turn things on and off!)
* Proteins: neurotransmitters, hormones, etc.
-Ability to sense change (= STIMULI or STIMULUS) in environment, and respond to changes!
* External and internal stimuli.
* Nervous system uses lots of proteins!
4. Growth, Repair, & Reproduction - life must continue, grow and fix itself!
Why put these 3 together? Same thing! All growth & repair = reproduction of cells.
- Growth = increased number of cells!
- Repair = Cells get damaged and are replaced by making more cells
- Bodies die: have offspring; cellular basis
- These processes use spindle fibers and other proteins
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
5. Digestion - need nutrients.
* Proteins are used for this! Digestive enzymes, etc.
6. Respiration - moving gases in and out.
- Animal cells need
oxygen gas to make
ATP.
- During metabolism,
cells make CO2 which
is toxic (it is an acid).
Must be disposed of!
Example of a protein
used in this process:
hemoglobin
Intro to A&P 9
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 10
7. Excretion - removing EXCRETIA (= wastes) from the body.
- Metabolism produces substances that, if found in too high concentration ([ ]), are poisonous.
* Ammonia - produced from protein digestion - excreted thru urinary tract.
* Carbon Dioxide - waste produced in cells-excreted thru lungs.
* Feces - not all taken in is digestible - excreted thru digestive tract.
Many proteins used in this process!
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
IV. SURVIVAL NEEDS
- needed to sustain life (i.e., what they need to make proteins, or "do metabolism"):
1. Nutrients
-taken in thru the diet; used for energy + cell building.
* Animal cells: glucose is main energy molecule, which is a carbohydrate.
-plant foods have lots of Carbohydrates (used for short-term fuel)
* Also, fats are main storage form of energy, with other functions (insulation, etc.).
* Proteins needed ... because we have to
make proteins!
-animal-based foods have a lot of
protein (building cell structure) + fat
(long term energy, insulation and
building cell structure)
* Vitamins & Minerals (chemical reactions in
cells, oxygen transport in blood).
2. Oxygen (O2) and Atmospheric Pressure
-all the chemical reactions which act to release
energy from food are of a certain class known as OXIDATIVE REACTIONS (= require O 2)
-20% of air = O2
Intro to A&P 11
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 12
4. Water
- 60-80% of body weight. Most abundant chemical in body.
-provides environment for chemical reactions. Also, gives the fluid base of body secretions + excretions.
IN OTHER WORDS, it is used to dissolve stuff.
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
- water is lost to body thru evaporation from lungs + skin, & in body secretions.
5. Temperature Maintenance
- Body temp. = 98oF (=37oC)
*if too low, metabolic reactions = too slow (rate of chemical
reactions depend on temperature).
*if too high, proteins lose their shape (will see in detail later) =
DENATURIZATION of proteins.
- Most internal heat = generated by muscle activity.
*shivering in the cold
Summary:
Life's needs include:
Nutrient levels
Waste levels (as we will see, most are ACIDS)
Oxygen levels
Water levels
Temperature
We will see in the next section that the body works to maintain these variables.
Intro to A&P 13
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 14
V) HOMEOSTASIS
-we will see that most of the functions required to maintain life require that conditions w/in the body are
maintained w/in fairly narrow limits.
-HOMEOSTASIS = "the state of being"=the body maintains homeostasis (stable internal conditions)
* NOTE: this does not imply that conditions never change----> DYNAMIC STATE OF
EQUILIBRIUM
* To do this, must constantly monitor water, O2, etc. levels and adjust to any changes.
A) Some terms :
VARIABLE - factor being regulated
STIMULUS - a change, any change in the variable.
SENSOR - something that monitors the variable for stimuli.
RECEPTOR - a sensor that monitors the environment and detects a change (= STIMULI) in the
variable.
CONTROL CENTER - determines the SET POINT (=level or range) of the variable.
EFFECTOR - does the response (OUTPUT) to the stimulus.
* EFFERENT = "away"
* AFFERENT = "towards"
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
-EXAMPLE: thermostat controlling room temperature
Intro to A&P 15
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 16
-HYPOTHALAMUS = area in brain that acts as your bodies "thermostat"
B) Positive vs. Negative Feedback Loops
-Furnace example = a FEEDBACK LOOP
*specifically, = a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP = the loop acts to decreased or shut off.
1) NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS (NFL's)-Loop causes a change that decreases initial
stimulus!
Recall:
*e.g.: blood glucose levels
**Glucose = a sugar = energy source for cells; used to make ATP.
**Normal blood level approx. 90 milligr/100 ml blood.
Specifically for glucose:
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
**GLUCAGON = hormone w/opposite effect = "un-store" sugars if blood level drops.
Intro to A&P 17
Shuster’s A&P Notes Series
Intro to A&P 18
2) POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS (PFL's)-any change in environment is
ACCENTUATED!
* PFL's = any change causes a response in
the same direction!
**cascade effect!
*e.g.: childbirth & labor
Baby moves
Increase pressure on cervix of uterus
Special receptors pick up stimulus, send signal to brain
which then releases OXYTOCIN (hormone).
Oxytocin is transported to uterus by
bloodstream, acts to increase contraction of
muscles
Oxytocin cause uterine contractions
("squeezing")
Push baby more.
Baby starts to move out.
*e.g.: blood clotting
NOTE: WE WILL REVIEW BODY ORIENTATION, PLANES OF THE BODY AND
CAVITIES IN LAB. HOWEVER, STUDENT IS RESPONSIBLE OF THESE SECTIONS
IN THE LECTURE BOOK.