Conference Session: B4
Paper #2147
UNDER THE TRACKS: ROLLER COASTER MECHANICS AND SAFETY
Elizabeth Craig (emc72@pitt.edu), Jocelyn Dansey (jad184@pitt.edu)
Abstract- When formulating a roller coaster, there are many
factors that must be taken into account. Our paper will
examine the kinematics and mechanics that go into creating
a thrilling, but safe, roller coaster. We will break down the
forces felt by the passengers while the ride is in motion and
explore electromagnetic technology used with linear
induction motors. We will discuss the two sources of energy,
a chain-lift powered by an electric motor [1] and
electromagnetic technology [2]. Discussed next is what
happens throughout the duration of the ride; uphill,
downhill, turns, loops, and all relating forces and energies
will be described and explained. Weightlessness and other
similar sensations will also be analysed. Braking systems
used to stop a roller coaster will be discussed. The final
topic that will be assessed is the safety of thrill rides. The
main safety concern of roller coasters is what damage can
occur to the brain throughout the duration of the ride. Our
paper will touch on the reason it is important to take the
time for engineers to research roller coaster safety.
these brain trauma rumours will be explained later in our
paper [5].
CHARGED UP AND READY TO GO
A roller coaster, like all other apparatuses that move,
requires an energy source to keep it in motion. There are two
conventional energy sources used to create the reservoir of
energy used throughout the duration of a roller coaster ride.
The first method used to form the energy supply is a
utilization of the conservation of mechanical energy [6]. The
energy created is potential energy that grows as the roller
coaster climbs higher above the ground due to a small motor
and chain lift [1] pulling it up the hill. The other method of
creating an energy stockpile is formed through a newer
concept called electromagnetic technology [1]. This idea
operates using magnetism and electric fields to propel the
ride forward [7]. Energy is a large part of roller coaster
mechanics. The breakdown of those two energy sources will
be covered in the subsequent subsections.
Key Terms- Linear Induction Motors, Conservation of
Energy, Braking System, Kinematics, Roller Coaster
Mechanics, Weightlessness, Roller Coaster Safety
Traditional Lift and Conservation of Energy Method
Immediately after departing from the station on a roller
coaster that uses the traditional motor lift method, the train
of the ride begins to ascend uphill. Besides the climb of the
first hill, the roller coaster uses no engine to power it as it
cruises down, up, and around the rest of the tracks. The ride
essentially powers itself from start to finish [8]. As the ride
goes up the hill, it accumulates potential energy. Potential
energy and kinetic energy are defined in the equations
below:
THE RIDE OF YOUR LIFE
The formation of a roller coaster does not follow a specific
equation but a unique formula that can be derived from the
newest of technologies combined with the oldest concepts of
energy. When designing a roller coaster, many more aspects
are considered than just the structure of the ride itself. Using
an electric motor [1] versus electromagnetic technology [2]
to initially start the ride as well as create and maintain an
energy supply for the duration or the ride [3] will be
compared and contrasted. Bringing the speeding train to a
halt at the end of the ride, done by a variety of different
braking systems [1], is another crucial feature in
constructing a successful and safe roller coaster. These are
just a few characteristics that mechanical engineers are
responsible for taking into consideration in the design
process. Each of these features will be overviewed and
analysed as our paper progresses through the ride.
Along with the fun of designing a thrilling roller coaster,
mechanical engineers are also held accountable for keeping
every rider safe from the start to finish of each ride. The
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) has a
Code of Ethics that all engineers must follow [4]. A recent
concern with roller coasters is the dangers of head trauma
induced by forces to the brain that can occur while riding an
extreme ride. Doctor David Meaney and Doctor Douglas
Smith’s evaluation of these concerns through research on
U=mgh.
K=0.5*m*v2.
(1) [6]
(2) [6]
Equation (1) has defined U as potential energy, m as the
mass of the cart and passengers, g as the acceleration due to
gravity (g=9.8m/s2), and h as the height above the initial
starting point of the roller coaster. Equation (2) defines K as
kinetic energy, m as the mass of the cart and passengers, and
v as the velocity of the roller coaster. Conservation of
mechanical energy allows this potential energy (1) to shift to
kinetic energy (2) as the roller coaster speeds downhill after
the climb [8]. Conservation of mechanical energy is defined
in this equation:
Ko+Po=Kf+Pf
(3) [6]
Equation (3) shows that the sum of the initial mechanical
energies is equal to the sum of the final mechanical energies.
University of Pittsburgh
Swanson School of Engineering
April 14, 2012
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Elizabeth Craig
Jocelyn Dansey
The shift in energy from potential to kinetic means that as
the ride goes downhill towards the initial starting height, the
velocity increases to maintain a constant energy since no
energy is lost. This is explained by the conservation of
mechanical energy [6]. Below is a diagram of the shift in
mechanical energy as a roller coaster ride progresses:
magnets. Instead of using a traditional chain lift method as
explained in the prior section, the cars of the roller coaster
are launched up the initial hill by using either an air powered
launch system or linear induction motors [3].
The air powered launch systems are calculated to use a
certain amount of compressed air depending on the weight
of the train. After the passengers board the train and the ride
is ready to depart from the station, the compressed air is
released from behind the launch vehicle through a tube that
sends the train and passengers flying forward along the
tracks at an incredible rate [11]. This kind of launch has only
been used on two roller coasters in the world, the
Hypersonic XLC and Dodonpa. These two roller coasters are
said to be the most intense rides in the world [11].
A more common launch method uses Linear Induction
Motors which are very similar to Linear Synchronous
Motors [11]. These two types of launch systems work by
having attractive and repulsive magnetic poles along the
tracks and underside of the cars to quickly accelerate the
train [12]. Another advantage of this technology is that the
cars of the train do not touch the tracks. The train essentially
floats above the tracks because of the repulsion of the
magnets. This means that very little, if any, energy is lost to
friction [13]. This technology is also used in the fastest train
in the world in Japan [7]. Below is a diagram of how the cars
of the roller coaster “float” above the tracks:
FIGURE 1
SHIFT IN ENERGY OF A ROLLER COASTER FROM POTENTIAL TO KINETIC [9].
After the train glides over the crest of the first hill, it then
begins to utilize the potential energy it has stored up and
changes it to kinetic energy as it picks up speed going
downhill [8]. In order to conserve as much energy so that
only a minimal amount is lost to non-conservative forces,
like friction and air-resistance, the wheels of the cars are
designed to be frictionless and the cars are designed to be as
aerodynamic as possible [8]. The wheel design also aids in
the smoothness of the ride. Running wheels are the basic
wheels that are used to guide the cars of the ride along the
track. The wheels are designed to be frictionless by using
frictionless bearings [10]. Lateral movement of the train is
controlled by friction wheels [8]. These wheels keep the
train on the tracks even when speeding around curves and
bends in the ride. The last set of wheels is attached to each
car but makes contact with the underside of the tracks. These
wheels keep the train from falling off the tracks if the ride is
inverted in a loop-the-loop or if the cars go around a banked
curve [6].
If the ride is perfectly designed and no energy is lost to
non-conservative forces, the ride should stop perfectly as it
comes back to the station because it is at the same height as
when it initially started. Unfortunately non-conservative
forces do exist and a perfectly designed roller coaster is
unattainable so the ride needs an aid to bring it to a final
stop. A roller coaster like this uses a variety of different
braking systems to stop the train as it pulls back into the
station. The specifics of these brakes will be discussed in a
later section.
FIGURE 2
AN ILLUSTRATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TECHNOLOGY I N USE [7].
SENSATIONS AND SIMULATIONS
Roller coasters are infamous for being able to cause people
to feel sensations similar to the ones felt by astronauts in
outer space. The feeling of your “stomach coming up to
your throat” is the result of variations of three sensations that
riders feel during a roller coaster ride: weightlessness,
heaviness, and jerkiness [14]. Each of these feelings can be
explained by one or more of Isaac Newton’s Laws of Motion
[15]. The first, “Every object in a state of uniform motion
tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external
force is applied to it” [15], explains that the roller coaster
Air Pressure & Electromagnetic Launch
It takes quite a bit of energy to be shot from zero to over one
one-hundred and twenty miles per hour in three point eight
seconds [3]. This energy is created by using momentum and
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will remain traveling at a constant velocity unless friction or
another outside force is applied to change its path of motion,
therefor causing positive or negative acceleration. Also, this
is why when going around a bend in a roller coaster car, the
passenger is “jammed” up against the side of the cart in the
direction the car was initially travelling because their body
wanted to continue going in its original direction but the
equal and opposite force of the side of the cart caused a
change in direction of their body. This first law can also be
referred to as Galileo’s “Law of Inertia.” Newton’s Second
Law of Motion states, “The relationship between an object’s
mass, m, and its acceleration, a, and the force applied, F, is
F=ma” [15].
With this law, engineers are able to
quantitatively calculate roller coaster properties that will aid
when engineers in creating a design for a new coaster.
Velocities and accelerations can be analysed when different
forces are applied at different points in the ride. The third
and final Law of Motion is “For every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction” [15]. You can see this law
coming into play on roller coasters when the normal forces
and gravitational forces are applied to passengers at dips,
turns, and loops during the ride.
the circle. This force accelerates a body by changing the
direction of the body’s velocity (vector) without changing
the body’s speed (scalar) [6].
So now what? What does this loop have to do with the
feelings of weightlessness and heaviness? The answer is a
combination of two forces: the force due to gravity and the
normal force. The gravitational force is one where the
magnitude and direction are always constant. As for the
normal force, the equal and opposite force explained by
Newton’s third law of motion, is the force of the seat
pushing back on the rider[14], and it is always perpendicular
to the tracks. Because the track’s direction is always
changing, so is the normal force. From these two facts,
engineers can deduce that the forces and feelings that one
feels from loops in roller coasters are due to the changing of
the normal force and can be justified using vector addition.
Feelings of Weightlessness
Everyone knows that you aren’t really ‘weightless’ at the
tops of hills and loops of roller coasters and that you don’t
actually weigh more when at the base of loops and drops.
These feelings are only simulations. However, not everyone
knows why. The feeling of weightlessness at the top of a
loop is illustrated by the size of the normal force vector at
that point, which is small. At the top, the gravitational force
vector is already pointing to the center of the loop, as it
should, so there is no requirement for a great amount of
normal force to maintain circular movement [14]. On the
contrary, passengers feel heavy at the bottom of loops due to
the presence of a large normal force at that point. It is
essential that the normal force here is very large because the
net force vector (the sum of the normal and gravitational
force vectors) must point inward. This means that the normal
vector needs to be that much greater than the force pointing
outward [14]. The heavy feeling is a result of the point
during the ride where the force from the passenger’s seat
pushing back on them is the largest. The diagram below
illustrates the magnitude and direction of the force vectors
on the carts at different points in the loop.
Loops and Sensations
The most common cause for the sensations one feels
while on a roller coaster is the Clothoid Loop. This means
there is a continuously upward sloping section of track that
endures until it makes a complete 360-degree revolution.
This loop is not circular; instead, it resembles more of an
oval or a teardrop shape that allows for the passengers to feel
less intense g-forces throughout the loop [14]. However,
this design is similar enough to a circular loop that
centripetal acceleration, physics concepts, and laws can still
be applied to the calculation of forces. In addition to the
radius of this loop always changing, the direction and
magnitude of the acceleration that the passenger feels is
changing as well, especially from being at the top of the loop
to the bottom.
FIGURE 3
CLOTHOID LOOP COMPARED TO A REGULAR CIRCULAR LOOP [12].
For the roller coaster car to remain at a constant velocity
through a loop, it is required that there is an inward force
acting on the passenger, referred to as centripetal force [14].
Centripetal force is just a force vector of an object going
around a circle where the vector point towards the center of
FIGURE 4
FREE BODY DIAGRAMS OF FORCES ON ROLLER COASTER LOOPS [13].
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To decelerate the train throughout the ride, engineers install
trim brakes along the tracks of the ride. These brakes do
exactly as they are named; they trim the speed whenever the
train passes them on the tracks by protruding out and
rubbing against the wheels of the train [12]. The rubbing
between the wheels and the trim brakes causes friction that
will effectively slow the roller coaster to a more optimal
speed.
Skid brakes were the original form of brakes used to stop
roller coasters. They date back to the early 1920’s when
roller coasters first began to grow in popularity; these brakes
have historically been the most common braking system in
amusement parks [2]. Skid brakes are controlled by a lever
in the operator’s station. Two long blocks of wood are
positioned underneath and parallel to the tracks, and as the
lever is pulled, these blocks are lifted up to be in line with
the tracks, as pictured below.
WOODEN VERSUS STEEL
There are several different styles of roller coasters that create
a variety of sensations depending on the materials used.
Each of the various materials used in the designs of a roller
coaster targets a different feeling.
Wooden Coasters
Wooden roller coasters were the first type of roller coasters
built. They were built as a lattice structure of wooden beams.
Wooden coasters create a feeling of unstableness that sends
an adrenaline rush through the body because the body feels
as though it is in danger. Surprisingly, these wooden coasters
can reach speeds up to almost eighty miles per hour [19]!
Steel Coasters
Steel coasters, on the other hand, did not popularize until the
1950’s when engineers began to broaden their designs of
roller coasters to be faster and more intense. Because steel is
a particularly strong material, engineers were able to build
the roller coaster structures higher without having to worry
about them collapsing under substantial weights. The fastest
recorded speed for a steel coaster is one-hundred and fifty
miles per hour [19].
A MECHANICAL BREAK IN THE ACTION
FIGURE 5
As a roller coaster progresses along its designated path, the
train begins to pick up both speed and momentum. Without a
proper braking system to decelerate the train throughout the
duration of the ride, these speeds could be detrimental or
even fatal to passengers on-board [13]. This is why it is
essential to have an effective braking system in place along
the roller coaster tracks and also at the end of the ride to
bring the ride to a safe and final stop. In the following
subsection, we will describe the past method of braking that
uses friction, as well as a newer, more efficient braking
system that utilizes magnetic fields similar to those used to
bring high speed trains in Japan to a stop.
ON THE JACK RABBIT LOCATED AT KENNYWOOD PARK IN HOMESTEAD,
PA, SKID BRAKES ARE USED TO BRING THE RIDE TO ITS FINAL STOP [2].
The blocks of wood rub up against steel plates located on the
undersides of the roller coaster cars. The force of friction
between the blocks of wood and the steel plates eventually
brings the roller coaster cars to a complete stop [2].
A NEW TECHNOLOGY IN BRAKING
The speed of a roller coaster is continuously monitored by
sensors located along the tracks that will automatically slow
down the train before its speed elevates out of control. An
advantage of using an automated system to monitor the ride
is that it leaves very little room for human error [2]. These
automatic systems are linked to braking systems on the
tracks of the roller coaster.
Mechanical Braking Systems
Roller coasters that initially start with a build in potential
energy and run by a conservation of energy utilize kinematic
forces to bring roller coasters to a stop [1]. They use friction
and other non-conservative forces to slow the ride down
throughout the duration of the ride and then also to bring the
ride to a final stop. These non-conservative forces consist of
friction and sometimes air resistance, but usually only
friction is used [6].
During the ride, the roller coaster cars build in speed and
momentum. Engineers can usually pinpoint exactly where
during the ride that the train will begin to exceed the optimal
operating speed and where it will need to be slowed down.
Magnetized Deceleration Systems throughout the Ride
If the roller coaster uses linear induction motors to initially
begin the ride, as described in a previous section, and
levitates over the tracks with repulsive magnets, a magnetic
braking system will be used to decelerate the speeding train
throughout the duration of the ride [7]. This is done by
planting oppositely polarized magnets along the tracks
where the speed has been calculated to exceed safe operating
speed so that the magnets on the underside of the train’s cars
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another canon of the code, “Engineers…shall conduct
themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully as
to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the
profession” [4].
Seat belts, harnesses, and restraint can only do so much
when it comes to safety on roller coasters. The only part of
the body that has minimal protection against coaster
elements is the brain. Attention has recently turned to
internal cerebral safety, which has raised the question, “Can
roller coasters cause brain damage because of the violence
and extremities of the ride?” Since there have been many
case reports describing hemorrhages in the brains of some of
roller coaster passengers, everybody had started to think of
these rides as perilous machines. These assumptions had
gotten to the point where newspapers such as the Los
Angeles Times published articles, “As Thrills Increase, Risks
to Brain Rise” (6/5/01) for example, telling the dangers of
roller coasters [5]. Legislation started to get involved to
regulate G-forces allowed during the rides. This illustrates
that the public, scientists, and the legal system thought the
injuries were caused by an immense amount of G- Forces
(G’s). This was a major concern for roller coaster engineers
because they would get blame and then the amusement park
where it was located would lose business and suffer the
consequences.
Two doctors in neurotrauma, Doctor Douglas Smith and
Doctor David Meaney, did not believe there was enough, let
alone any, evidence to back up the G-Force hypothesis [5].
Smith and Douglas decided to perform research on the issue
to show if it was in fact the G’s that were causing harm to
the roller coaster riders or preexisting conditions.
During their research, Smith and Meaney agreed that
looking at G-Forces is not enough on which to conduct their
experiments. Reasons for this came from looking at fighter
pilots in the army who are trained to sustain an immense
amount of G’s over a long period of time without any harm
[5]. The effects from roller coasters on the brain are
nowhere near the range that fighter pilots see on a daily basis
as it is. So, in order to predict the brain injury to roller
coaster relationship, Smith and Meaney turned their focus to
head rotational acceleration, which causes the head to pivot
at the base of the skull. But brain injury from head
acceleration only occurs from rapid deformations to the
brain within a very small period of time (<50 milliseconds)
[5]. Their experimentations were to see if roller coasters
could produce these same outcomes.
Smith and Meaney’s studies on humans, animals, other
physical models, and computer simulations have provided
them with prediction models (form of tables and graphs) of
the human tolerance to rotational head acceleration from
roller coaster acceleration [5].
will be attracted to the magnets along the track [2]. The net
result of these attractive magnets is a reduction of the overall
speed of the roller coaster.
The Final Destination
At the end of a roller coaster that uses magnetic forces
throughout the duration of the ride, the train is brought to a
final stop with magnetic brakes [7]. Theses brakes allow
rides to gradually coast to a stop as opposed to lurching to
their final halt. The brakes that utilize this magnetic
technology are marketed as “Soft Stop Brakes [2].” How
these brakes work is that there is a copper alloy fin that is
attached to the underside of the cars of the train. The fin
travels between two high strength magnets that are aligned
along the tracks parallel to the fin. As the fin passes through
these parallel magnets in the track, the roller coaster coasts
to a final stop [2].
Some advantages of these brakes are that there is little
room for human error, as mentioned before, because the stop
of the train has no dependence on a human operator. There
are no moving parts that need to be maintained, and there are
no contact surfaces that would routinely need to be replaced
because of wear due to friction [2]. These brakes that use
magnets also ensure that the train coming into the station
does not crash into the train preparing to depart from the
station [2].
ETHICALLY SPEAKING
Ethics is a big topic of interest in the world of roller coaster
engineering. Mechanical engineers in the roller coaster field
must, at some point, reflect upon their code of ethics to
guide them in the right direction. This helps the design team
stay on track with their goals. In regards to safety, the main
issue of injuries is the brain. The question of “Can this roller
coaster be harmful to its passengers?” should always be in
engineers’ minds when trying to design the next most
extreme thrill ride. As an attempt to prevent as many
injuries as possible, there are very strict standards that go
along with roller coaster mechanics and inspections. To the
roller coaster design team, it is always worth more money to
put more effort into a completely safe ride that passes many
vigorous inspections than to overlook a problem and have to
deal with a potential court case from an injured passenger.
There are many issues of ethics that go along with every
profession in any engineering field as stated in the NSPE
Code of Ethics for Engineers including public statements,
deceitful acts, honesty, honor, responsibility, and reputation
[4]. Of all of the ‘Fundamental Canons’, it is the first one
that really applies to roller coaster engineering and design:
“Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties,
shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the
public” [4]. If the engineers would fail to uphold this
important canon, the next expectation would be to truthfully
admit their wrongdoing to the public, therefore holding up
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Because the roller coaster engineers follow the strict
Code of Ethics for Engineers [4], from the in depth research
from doctors of Neurotrauma, Smith and Meaney, and
rigorous standards, regulations, and inspections, it is safe to
say that roller coasters are some of the safest and most
ethical forms of entertainment and excitement out there.
COMING TO AN END
By this time in the ride, we have talked about how roller
coasters initially start up and conserve energy by using either
a conservation of energy method or by using linear induction
motors [2]. We described the forces and sensations that your
body experiences depending on the layout and design of the
ride, specifically a clothoid loop versus a circular loop [17].
We briefly compared wooden and steel roller coasters. We
explained the various braking systems used on roller
coasters, such as skid brakes, trim brakes, and
electromagnetic brakes [12]. All of these things are carefully
calculated out to fit together seamlessly throughout the
duration of the ride.
Lastly, we discussed the specifics about the ethics of
building a safe but thrilling roller coaster. The ethical
responsibility of an engineer designing a thrill ride is to keep
everyone who will enjoy the roller coaster safe from any
dangers [4]. In designing a ride that pleases passengers all
across the board, there are many factors to consider [13], and
mechanical engineers are responsible for making sure every
last detail is accounted for. The responsibilities of building a
fun, but safe, roller coaster are massive but rewards are a
lifetime of memories.
FIGURE 5
“THIS IS A COMPARISON OF THE PREDICTED HEAD ACCELERATIONS
EXPERIENCED BY ROLLER COASTER RIDERS TO THRESHOLDS PROPOSED
FOR BRAIN INJURY. THE SIGNIFICANT HEAD ACCELERATIONS
EXPERIENCED BY HUMAN VOLUNTEERS IN A THREE-ROUND BOXING
MATCH ARE ALSO SHOWN (SYMBOLS). NONE OF THE VOLUNTEER BOXERS
EXPERIENCED ANY SIGNS OF INJURY. THE MAXIMUM PREDICTED HEAD
ACCELERATIONS OF ROLLER COASTER RIDERS (GRAY SHADED REGION)
ARE WELL BELOW THE PROPOSED TOLERANCE LIMITS, AS WELL AS THE
MEASURED SAFE ACCELERATIONS IN THE VOLUNTEERS.”[5]
By comparing the side-to-side, back-and-forth, and up-anddown accelerations one would all feel during a roller coaster
ride, Smith and Meaney took the worst-case scenario
resulting G-Force data from their tests and were able to
conclude, “We found that the estimated head rotational
accelerations experienced by roller coaster riders are
nowhere near the range of established injury thresholds for
severe forms of brain injury” [5]. It was even discovered
that the worst case G-forces and head rotational
accelerations felt on a roller coaster were much smaller than
3-round boxing match head accelerations. And all the
volunteers that participated in the boxing-tests did not
present any signs or indicators of brain damage, even
concussive-type symptoms.
Contrary to many beliefs, the United States amusement
industry is very regulated and has a strict set of roller coaster
standards that every roller coaster design team must follow;
no loopholes exist [20]. Today’s roller coasters are so safe
because of this regulatory system, they are considered by
many to be the safest form of recreation [20]. The
International Association of Amusement Parks and
Attractions (IAAPA) came up with these astounding
statistics of roller coaster safeness: “In 2007, U.S.
amusement facilities with fixed rides hosted nearly 300
million guests who took 1.8 billion rides. Based on these
figures and the latest data from the federal government and
other independent sources on amusement ride injury
statistics, the likelihood of being injured on a ride seriously
enough to require overnight hospitalization for treatment is 1
in 9 million. The chance of being fatally injured is 1 in 750
million.” [20].
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Matt Goodwill, co-chair, and James
Hayes, chair, for providing insight on this paper and about
mechanical engineering overall. We would also like to
thank Deborah Galle for the in-depth introduction for this
part of the conference paper process.
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