REPTILES
taxonomy
TAXONOMY OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
KINGDOM
CLASS
SUBCLASS
Tuatara
bacteria
Mammals
Crocodiles
all life
smaller
things
Birds
Animals
Reptiles
Snakes &
Lizards
Amphibians
Caecilians
Tortoises &
Turtles
Fungi
Plants
Salamanders
Frogs &
Toads
Caecilians - amphibians that superficially resemble
earthworms or snakes
The Biology of Reptiles
Reptiles are found in most habitats. They live in water, on and under the land and in
trees and vegetation.
Reptiles have evolved to be covered in scales rather than feathers or hair. Scales
are a protein, keratin that is a waterproof ‘skin’ that has enabled reptiles to live away
from water without the threat of dehydration.
Reptiles are ectotherms. This means that they rely on external heat for heat
absorption. They modify their diurnal and yearly behaviour according to their
surroundings. This includes some species that hibernate during the winter where
their metabolism is slowed down to such a large degree they do not need to eat.
Because they do not have to constantly heat their bodies by using more calories they
are able to survive on less food than endothermic animals. Reptiles also go into a
state of aestivation (a form of hibernation) if it is too hot or dry in summer.
There are three main sub-classes of reptiles:
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lizards, skinks and snakes, which make up the largest portion of reptiles
turtles
crocodiles.
(Tuataras are another sub-class but exist only in New Zealand.)
Reproduction
Some reptiles lay eggs (“oviparous”) whilst others give birth to live young. These
‘live’ young have been encased in a soft shell within the body of the reptile. Water
dwelling reptiles have to return to land to lay eggs. In lizards and snakes the males
genital organs are enclosed within the body at either side of the cloaca. They are
called hemipenes.
Skeleton
Reptiles are varied and so are their skeletons. However they have common
characteristics. All reptile skeletons are ossified, ie they have no cartilage. Lizards
have hip and shoulder girdles, snakes do not. Turtles have girdles inside the rib
cage. Ribs and vertebra are attached to the inside of the shell. The upper shell is
called the Carapace and the bottom shell is the Plastron. They are joined together
by the Bridge. The scales are called Scutes.
OH&S
Zoonoses
Reptiles harbour Salmonella and Psuedomonas on their skin. Symptoms of
Salmonella infection in humans include diarrhoea, fever and joint aches and
infections. Always wash your hands after handling all reptiles (and of course all other
animals!).
Frightened reptiles will bite and most have claws that are sharp, especially turtles. If
handled correctly there should be no opportunity for any reptile to cause harm.
Water Dragon tails are very strong (they use them for swimming) and they will use
their tail in defense if pushed. Because it is strong and rough it can cause you a
nasty grazing injury.
Assume that all snakes in this region are venomous. If you are bitten you should:
1. Apply a constrictive bandage to the site of the bite and as much of the limb as
possible, immobolize the limb
2. Keep calm, go to the nearest hospital
(Do not wash the bite as the type of snake may be identified by the venom).
Transport
Any reptile can be safely contained in a calico bag or pillowcase that is tied at the
top. Carry cages are ideal for turtles and lizards, but not for snakes.
Identification
This is by no means an exhaustive list of reptiles found in this area, just the most
commonly seen for rehabilitation. We will look at skinks and turtles.
Skinks
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Common Blue-tongue Lizard
Southern Blotched Blue-tongue Lizard
Shingleback Lizard
Cunningham Skink
Common Blue-tongue Lizard
Blue-tongues live quite happily in suburbia. Many gardens make ideal homes for
them where there is usually water and hiding places in rocky areas or under leaf litter
and junk.
The Common Blue-tongue Lizard has seven to nine bands of colour running across
the body between the shoulder and the pelvis. There is a wide variation in pattern
and colours. Its tongue is wide and blue and flicks in and out of the mouth.
Southern Blotched Blue-tongue
Blotched Blue Tongue Lizards occasionally come into care. They are adapted for
more cold climates and is, in fact, the only species of Blue-tongues found in
Tasmania.
They are chocolate / brown to black above, with a series of salmon-pink blotches
aligned in longitudinal rows.
Shingle-back Lizard
2
This skink is a solid lizard with large triangular scales. They are commonly known as
Stumpy Tail, Sleepy or Pine Cone Lizards.
Like most animals they adapt to local conditions. The Shingle-back Lizard in our
region is quite dark, bordering on black. They are lighter with scattered cream spots
further inland.
Cunningham Skink
Although this smaller lizard is called a skink it has ‘dragon-like’ scales. They are
rough and sharp.
Dragons
The difference between a skink and a dragon is the skin. A skink has smooth and
often shiny overlapping scales and a dragon has small rough body scales.
Eastern Water Dragon
Water Dragons can grow up to 1 metre (snout - vent length), with long powerful legs
and claws. Their tail is 2.5 times the body length, and is almost all muscle. It is
laterally compressed to help act like an oar when swimming. The Water Dragon has
a nuchal crest – a central row of enlarged spikey spines at the back of the head.
These spikes continue down the spine, decreasing in size to the base of the tail. At
the tail the spines divide into two rows.
The Water Dragon’s upper body is a grey-green with cream and black transverse
bands on the body and tail. Underneath the body is creamy brown-grey. The male
has a red flush on its chest and darker bands. They have loose folds of skin under
the jaw, giving them an almost Bearded Dragon appearance.
Eastern Water dragons are always found near water. They like to bask on logs and
rocks near the water so that they can quickly escape if a predator appears. When
running they can, with speed, be elevated at the front and run on their hind legs.
This Eastern Water Dragon is sloughing
his skin. He wears a collar as he is being
studied at the National Botanic Gardens
Eastern Bearded Dragon
Bearded dragons are named for the distinctive flap of skin which lies below their jaw.
When threatened, these lizards assume a defensive posture, opening their mouths
and pushing their throat skin forward to make this 'beard'. This, combined with the
strong spikes which line the lizard's throat and the side of its body serve as a
deterrent to would-be predators. When in ‘aggressive mode’ their body takes on a
round shape.
Bearded dragons have colour differences that relate to their background for
camouflage. Some will also change colour if they are startled and take on an
aggressive mode. They become slightly darker.
Restraint and Handling of lizards
Lizards should be handled firmly but with care. Injured lizards can be quite
aggressive and will bite if provoked. Placing your fingers, from above, on either side
of their head will prevent them from biting. The lizard can then be secured using the
other hand to support the long body. Never let a lizard hang and do not turn them
upside down except for the shortest possible time when assessing injuries and for
treatment. Never pick a lizard up by their tail, as some lizards will drop their tail in
order to be able to escape.
Always wash your hands before and after handling a reptile and after cleaning their
enclosures.
Housing and husbandry
Lizards in captivity require very particular conditions. Because they are ectotherms
that rely solely on their surrounds for temperature you will need good tanks, heaters,
lights and substrate.
Lizards are best kept in a glass aquarium tank out of direct sun. At one end supply a
heat source, either as a basking light above and/or a heat pad under the substrate.
The aquarium should be large enough to enable the lizard to move around freely and
choose a comfortable temperature. A large shallow water bowl for drinking and
soaking in should be provided on the opposite end to the heat source. The substrate
can be varied: if the lizard has wounds the best substrate is newspaper. For an
unwounded lizard you can use bark and leaves on top of newspaper. Provide hiding
places such as small hollow logs or a piece of rounded bark. Sand or pebbles can
also be used but you need to be sure that the reptile does not ingest these. Furniture
needs to be simple and easy to clean but still keeping the lizards hidden and feeling
safe.
They need to have access to Ultraviolet light (replace globes every 6 months) or be
put in the sun for at least 15 minutes per day. Initially this will be expensive with
ongoing costs of replacing heat bulbs.
Remove uneaten food and faeces daily. Maintain clean water and substrate.
Thoroughly clean the tank on a weekly basis. (Daily for injured lizards).
Lizards shed their skin (slough) regularly as they grow. Sometimes in captivity they
will have difficulty and it is common to see skin on their toes and other parts of their
bodies. Let them soak in shallow water then assist the skin to shed.
Preferred Body Temperature
As reptiles are ectotherms they have a particular temperature (PBT), depending on
the species, which is the optimum temperature for maximum body efficiency. This
means that at that temperature range all metabolic functions can occur efficiently.
This includes muscle function, digestion, growth, reproduction and the immune
system.
When caring for reptiles you must be aware of their preferred body temperature so
their rehabilitation will be as expedient as possible. If reptiles are not kept within the
temperature ranges below there could be complications that will inhibit rehabilitation.
For all rehabilitating reptiles the best ambient air temperature for body function and
healing is between 24C and 30C except for Eastern Long Neck Turtles, which
require a water temperature of 23C. It is really important to keep all reptiles at their
PBT and to constantly monitor the temperature.
Feeding
Skinks eat a variety of insects, snails and vegetable matter. Blue-tongue lizards
love snails. Keep snails in a container with a ventilated lid for one week, put nothing
else in there. If there is bright fluorescent green poo then snail has ingested snail
bait. In this case discard the snails. In captivity they will also eat good quality tinned
dog food and pinkie mice.
Dragons eat crickets and cockroaches (moving food), worms, insects, vegetation,
and fruit. In captivity they will also eat dandelions and pinkie mice. Put the moving
food into the refrigerator for a short time before feeding the Dragons in order to slow
the insects down to facilitate easier feeding.
LIZARD CARE
In the ACT and surrounding area more Blue-tongue lizards are taken into care than
any other reptile.
A healthy lizard will have:
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Bright, glossy eyes
Nasal passage and mouth free of blockages or discharge
Clear, consistent breathing
Flat back and spine straight and aligned
Pelvic bone not obvious
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Legs that respond to ‘pinch test’
A sick lizard will have:
 Dull, sunken eyes with swollen lids or a discharge
 Bubbly discharge from the eyes indicating a blocked sinus from head trauma
 Discharge from nose or mouth
 Laboured breathing or wheezing
 Lethargy or limpness
 Twisting or bumps in the spine
 Indentations of the body indicating broken ribs.
Examination of lizards
When examining a lizard – visually and physically (hands-on) - observe the behavior
and posture. The eyes, nostrils, mouth, vents and scales should be free of
discharge, lumps, bumps, redness and parasites.
All reptiles suffer from the same types of afflictions as other animals so examination
is similar – start from the head and work through to the tail. Write observations on
the care sheet as you go.
The main reasons for admission are:
Predation by dogs and cats and birds
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Crushing injuries from the strong jaws of dogs
o organ damage, bone damage and loss of limbs and tail.
-Treat wounds. X-ray for bone damage and assess viability. Check on
opposing side for teeth injuries
This Bluetongue would be euthanased it has a broken back
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Missing tail – some dragons and skinks will lose their tails if badly handled or if
they have been bitten off by a dog or cat.
This is called caudal autotomy. The tail will grow back but it takes a long time
(months). Because lizards store energy in their tails for winter a lizard without a
tail has lost its ability to survive the winter. Depending on the time of year the
lizard comes into care it may have to be kept out of hibernation until spring.
If the tail is cut off cleanly it needs to be protected from fly blow. Keep the lizard
in a fly-free area and seal the end of the tail with a thick layer of Paw Paw Cream.
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Dehydration – signs are sunken eyes and lethargy. Offer water and/or give
subcutaneous fluids in folds of skin under the reptile. The rehydration fluid
should be at room temperature.
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Limb fractures (and loss of limbs). A wild lizard will not survive with a missing
leg. Because the legs are short and the body is low-slung there would be
excessive rubbing of the body against the ground. Euthanasia is recommended
for broken limbs.
If the lizard is a tame lizard and will be kept in captivity and if the fracture is a
closed fracture it could be treated. The enclosure should be kept free of
hazardous objects.
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Shovel ‘accidents’
o Trauma needs to be assessed on a case-by-case basis.
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Vehicle strike - Use your imagination – they seldom survive.
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Whipper-snipper ‘accidents’
o Trauma usually involves cuts and loss of body parts.
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Poisoning - Eating poisoned snails. These animals mostly die without being
found.
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Nutritional problems - Some reptiles coming into care are tame / captive
reptiles that have escaped or erroneously been released. Pet reptiles are often
not well cared for and will have nutritional problems, principally lack of adequate
calcium from an insufficient diet and poor living conditions.
Turtles
In Australia turtles, terrapins and tortoises are referred to as Turtles.
Lizards slough skin (scales) and turtles slough scutes as they grow. You can roughly
estimate their age by their size. For instance, in the case of an Eastern Long-necked
turtle, a bread-and-butter plate sized turtle would be approximately 5-6 years old and
a dinner plate size could be up to 50+ years old.
Other facts:
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Male turtles have longer tails
Their shell is about 30% of their weight
It is normal for a turtle shell to be covered in algae (– never scrub off).
A healthy turtle is:
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Alert
Has bright glossy eyes that are not sunken back into the eye sockets
Should swim horizontally or with their rear slightly lowered
Walk with their plastron parallel to the ground
Should retreat the head and limbs when handled
Thighs should feel solid to touch
Their shell should feel hard and have no injuries (cracks)
A sick turtle might:
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Have a cracked or smashed top or bottom shell
Bridges may be cracked or smashed or collapsed. (if all four legs cannot
move uninhibited euthanase the turtle)
Have sluggish movement in or out of water
Swim with shell tilted forward or sideways
Continuously float or bob on the water’s surface
Have bone structures evident
Have limbs or neck dangling when out of water
Appear to have dull, watery eyes
Have a cheese like matter around the mouth
Audibly wheeze or excessively smell (apart from the defense musk).
IDENTIFICATION
Eastern Snake-necked Turtle
(or Eastern Long-necked Turtle) (Chelodina longicollis)
This is by far the most common turtle to be seen in our region. They normally live in
the still water of dams and swamps with reeds and grasses for protection. After rain
they can walk long distances while the ground is wet to find new dams or food. They
are characterised by their long neck that, when threatened, is withdrawn into the
protection of their shell, their head and neck going to one side. As a defense
mechanism this turtle will produce an offensive secretion from four scent glands, one
situated at each side just in front of the bridge (where the carapace joins the
plastron), and one alongside each back leg.
Macquarie Shortneck Turtle
This species comes into care occasionally but will almost always be an escapee as
they are not indigenous to this area.
photo by Barry Kiepe ozzieimages
This is an introduced turtle that has escaped into the environment. They are very
aggressive towards native species. If one is reported or taken into care you must report
it to National Parks or TAMS. They must be euthanased.
Red-eared Slider
Restraint and Handling
Turtles can be safely held by placing hands at the front and back of the turtle holding
the carapace and plastron or just on the tail end in a similar fashion. The small
toenails on their feet are sharp and can scratch if they are not held correctly. Never
turn a turtle upside down as their breathing is compromised. Turtles are not
generally aggressive.
Housing and husbandry
2
Turtle shells are living tissue (bone with a covering of skin) and when cracked will
bleed and become infected. They should be housed in an easy-to-clean container
with a towel or artificial grass substrate. Once wounds have been sealed the turtle it
can be put into deeper water in a tank.
Scrupulous hygiene is extremely important. Turtles are susceptible to fungal
infections such as shell rot if husbandry is neglected.
For long term care an outside enclosure is desirable. Turtles are good at climbing
and so need to be housed securely.
Alternatively, if keeping turtles out of hibernation because wounds need to heal, use
a large aquarium tank that is about 50cm deep. Supply a UV light and use a water
filter, an area to sit and bask under a 40W reflector globe. Water temperature should
be 20 - 23C and the temperature under the basking lamp should be 28C. Change
1/3 of the water weekly.
Feeding
Turtles must be fed in water. They are carnivorous. (Macquarie Short Neck turtles
are herbivorous 50%). You can offer mice, yabbies, shrimp, worms, insects, fish,
commercial turtle pellets. Wild turtles do not always eat readily in captivity so do not
be immediately concerned. They will eat beef or kangaroo mince rolled into fine
sausage bits and rolled in calcium and/or fish flakes. A variety of food ensures that
they get enough calcium and nutrients.
It is important to take the turtle out of its tank and put it into a separate container to
feed it. This ensures that the tank water is kept clean as uneaten food quickly
contaminates the water.
OH&S
Turtles naturally carry Salmonella, a zoonotic bacteria, so be sure to wash hands
before and after handling turtles. They can bite but generally would prefer to hide
their heads within the shell. Long-necked turtles will only bite in water but Shortnecked turtles do bite in and out of water.
Transport
Transport turtles in a calico bag or pillowcase or alternatively, in a carry cage with a
towel in the base. Do not put into water because they might drown.
TURTLE CARE
Turtles come into care as a result of:
Shell injuries:
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Vehicle strike
will have been trodden on by a horse.
Cracked shells can be washed clean under running water and flushed with sterile
water, Hartmanns or Saline. Flush the crack with Benecillin, an antibiotic. If
there are unstable portions of the shell tape with Micropore tape in varying angles
so as to stabilize the shell. If the crack is large use a bracket which holds from
both sides of the crack. Keep the turtle out of deep water until the wounds have
stopped bleeding and have partially healed and dried. Rehydrate daily on a
damp towel and put into deeper water only temporarily to feed.
NB: shell edges need to be aligned within 24 hours for edges to meld and heal
together properly.
Assess the viability by the amount of damage to the shell above and below the
body. Edges usually repair fairly well and you can be sure there is no internal
damage. If the bridges are damage (or displace there could be internal crushing.
Assess on a case by case situation.
Horses hooves will often indent the shell to a degree that may injure internal
organs. These need to be assessed by an experienced carer or vet and viability
decided.
This turtle needed to be
euthanased. See how the shell
has been pushed into the cavity
injuring organs.
Fish hook injuries:
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swallowed a hook
If a turtle presents with a hook and fishing line still attached keep the fishing line as
long as possible and anchored so as to prevent the hook from moving further down
the oesophagus. X-ray the turtle to determine exactly where the hook is. If it is still
in the neck the turtle can be anaesthetized and the hook removed by gently pushing
the sharp point through the skin. Antibiotics will need to be administered.
Escapees:
No animal likes to be in captivity and if the opportunity arises a pet turtle will readily
escape. This might be when it is put outside in the sun or it may be an intentional
release.
Because the turtle is not afraid of people it will be easy to pick up. You can easily
identify a tame turtle because it will not pull its head into the shell when disturbed.
Surrendered:
Pet turtles are often surrendered because they are suffering from Metabolic Bone
Disease and the owner is either desperate to move it on out of guilt or is really
concerned for its welfare.
Metabolic bone disease can be seen in any animal but in turtles it is indicated by a
soft and mis-shapen shell with scutes that are different sizes. This is caused by a
lack of calcium absorption (and possibly dietary supply). The bone density is low.
Treatment is supply of calcium in a 2:1 ratio of calcium to phosphorus, good supply
of Vitamin D3 in the form of ultraviolet light from the sun and/or a broad-spectrum
artificial light placed within 30 cm of the reptile.
SEASON BY SEASON - turtles
AUTUMN: Turtles can be found wandering looking for a place to hibernate.
Relocate to a suitable habitat or overwinter if thin.
WINTER: Turtles hibernate from April/May. Any turtle in care with a shell less than
10cm diameter should be kept out of hibernation. To hibernate a turtle keep it in a
large tank of water, with insulated sides, under the eaves/roof line and keep the
water at 7C.
SPRING: Females lay eggs in moist soil near a creek, lake or swamp. Eggs hatch
3-6 months later. They dig out of the ground during rain.
SUMMER: If the weather gets too hot and/or dry the turtles will semi-hibernate
(aestivation).
Snakes
Assume all snakes are venomous. All wild snakes in our area are venomous.
In NSW Wildcare and Wires have snake catchers to assist members of the public
who are concerned that the snake in their yard is dangerous. Mostly snakes are
looking for water (or food when out at night) and are more interested in leaving.
However, if they are startled or bailed up they can strike. The best advice is to leave
them alone.
In the ACT the TAMS rangers will not attend unless it is more than a block from a
park or nature park. With all wildlife it is an offence to remove them more than 50
metres from where they were found.
The most common snake is the Eastern Brown Snake. Wildlife carers will
occasionally receive baby brown snakes that have been found and picked up by
members of the public. These tiny snakes are just as venomous as their parents!
Because they are independent at birth they can be released immediately.
The second most common snake in our area is the Red Bellied Black Snake.
DO NOT ATTEMPT TO HANDLE SNAKES UNLESS YOU HAVE BEEN TRAINED
EUTHANASIA OF REPTILES
All animals should be euthanased with a quick, pain-free method. The best method
is a barbiturate overdose administered by a veterinarian.
However reptiles have a relatively slow metabolic rate and sometimes can take a
long time to die.
In the field it may be necessary to stun the reptile with a blow to the head and then
crush the skull.
Never freeze a reptile – this is very painful as the water in the cells expand during the
freezing process.