Environmental Economics
and Sustainability
Koichi Sugiyama
Shoichi Sugaya
Qijie Yang
Daiki Nakamoto
Contents
1. Introduction
・・・ ・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・
2. The status of global warming
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・
3. The Inauguration of the Kyoto Protocol
3.1. Summary of the Kyoto Protocol
3.2. The Kyoto Mechanism
8
・・・・・・・・・・・・・
9
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 11
・・・・・・・・ 13
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 14
4. System Innovation and Technological Development
4.1. Environmental Pollution in Japan
4.2. 3Rs policy
4
・・・・・・・・・・・
3.3. The Reduction Situation of Each Country
3.4. The Post Kyoto Protocol
3
・・・・・ 15
・・・・・・・・・・・ 17
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 20
5. Green Revolution
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 23
5.1. Solar Technologies
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 24
(1)Solar water heater
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 24
(2)Solar energy air-conditioning
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 24
(3)Solar thermal power generation
・・・・・・・・・・・・ 24
1) Trough line focusing system
・・・・・・・・・・・・ 25
2) Tower system
3) Disc system
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 25
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 26
4) Comparison of three types of system performance
(4) The sun room
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 28
5.2. System Innovations
5.3 Conclusion
・・・ 27
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 29
・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・・ 31
2
1. Introduction
Since 2008, people have faced two gigantic crises all over the world. One is the
problem of environmental destruction, and the other is the worldwide great
depression. Global warming is the most serious problem among the environmental
problems. How can we solve these problems at the same time? We would like to
propose the “Green Revolution,” especially the promotion of the “Solar Economy.”
First, we will refer to the status of global warming and the Kyoto Protocol, which is
an approach to address global warming. Then, we would like to argue how we have
solved various problems until now, and propose how we should promote the solar
economy.
3
2. The status of global warming
What comes into your mind when you hear the word “environmental
destruction”? For example, massive deforestation, air pollution, acid rain, water and
soil pollution, the ozone hole, and the destruction of the ecosystem as a result of
development. We can make an endless list. However, the most serious
environmental problem on the earth today is surely global warming. Although
many people have a vague idea of global warming, few people understand how
serious it is and that we have to solve it rapidly. We will now show some basic data
about this problem from the data published by the IPCC, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change.
The IPCC, a substructure of the UN, integrates scientific knowledge like causes,
effects, and countermeasures of global warming, which we have acquired until
today. According to the latest fourth assessment report, the rise in temperature in
the last 100 years from 1906 to 2005 was 0.74 degrees, while the rise in temperature
in the last 50 years from 1956 to 2005 was 0.65 degrees, or 0.13 degrees, every 10
years.
4
Figure1
Figure1 show that the rise in temperature in the last 50 years is sharper than
the 50 years before it. Of the resources which human beings have used in the last 5
million years, 80 % has been consumed in our own times. Worldwide population
increased about 2.4 times and the use of oil also increased about 7.3 times in the
latter half of the 20th century, so it is clear that human activities have contributed to
global warming. Additionally, if people continue to follow the growth model that we
are taking now, global warming will accelerate and researchers say the average
temperature in 2100 will be 2.4 to 6.4 degrees higher than it was in 1990. We cannot
deny the possibility that global warming affects the environment because
researchers observing global warming have also observed a rise in sea level, a
5
decrease in Arctic ice, drought and other extreme phenomena of temperature. At
the same time, some skeptics of global warming say that sunspots are decreasing
and the activity of the sun is weakening so the earth is actually cooling rather than
warming. However, the majority opinion of the world is that global warming is
proceeding, as seen from the data above.
We have thus defined the cause of global warming as human activities, but we
need to explain the cause more specifically. It is the so-called greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse gases are substances such as carbon dioxide and methane gases.
Experts say the major cause is carbon dioxide, for three reasons. The first reason is
that although the greenhouse coefficient of carbon dioxide—which is expressed by
comparing the intensity of the greenhouse effect of gases per concentration in the
air for 100 years—is very small, only one twenty-first of methane gases and one
three-hundred-tenth of nitrogen oxide carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide inclines to
stay in the air. The second reason is that the emission force of carbon dioxide is
more powerful than other gases. This refers to the effect the energy which comes
into and out from the earth has on the global climate; the plus emission force causes
warming and the negative emission force causes cooling. The third reason is that
human beings are producing carbon dioxide more than any other kinds of
greenhouse gases. Whatever we are doing, we cannot help producing a lot of carbon
dioxide.
6
Figure2
As you can see from Figure2, the amount of carbon dioxide produced by people
increased exponentially after the industrial revolution because of the use of fossil
fuels.
In the next chapter, we would like to explain about the Kyoto Protocol, which
provides for the cutting down of greenhouse gases.
7
3. The Inauguration of the Kyoto Protocol
Global warming has been accelerating since the 1970’s and, the Kyoto Protocol
was signed on February 16, 2005 to prevent global warming.
8
3.1. Summary of the Kyoto Protocol
In the Kyoto Protocol, it was decided that countries should reduce by 5% the
emission of six kinds of greenhouse effect gases from 2008 to 2012, compared with
the emission of 1990. It was an epoch-making system that allocated a specific
amount of reduction to each country. The gases in question are carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), carbon sub-oxide（N20）、hydro-fluorocarbon (HFC),
per-fluorocarbon (PFC), and sulfur hexafluoride (SH6). The Kyoto Protocol was
ratified by 125 countries, such as Japan and the EU, but the United States
withdrew in 2001, saying that there was no obligation for the developing countries
to reduce emissions and that it prevents economic development. For the Kyoto
Protocol to take effect, the total CO2 emission of the ratified developing countries
had to be more than 55% of the emission of 1990. So the Kyoto Protocol continued
not to take effect. However, when Russia ratified it in November, 2004, the amount
of CO2 emission exceeded 61% even without the United Sates, and the Kyoto
Protocol took effect.
The Kyoto Protocol now has 84 signatory countries, 172 contracting countries,
and the amount of the total emission is 63%.
9
Table1
The prospect of achievement
Present situation
Additional measures
Target level
6.2％
-0.5%
-6.0％
EU
-1.6％
-6.8%
-8.0％
UK
-15.9％
-22.2%
-12.5％
France
-0.3％
0.0％
0.0％
Germany
18.5％
-29.3%
-21.0％
USA
14.4％
16.3%
-7.0％
Japan
The reduction allocation is 6% for Japan, 7% for the United States, 8% for the
EU, and 0% for Russia. The target reduction of the developed countries as a whole is
5.2%.
10
3.2. The Kyoto Mechanism
If achieving the allocated reduction is difficult, each country can take a choice of
three additional measures that is called the Kyoto mechanism.
① Emissions trading system: A country which has emission quotas left can sell the
amount of its surplus to countries surpassing their emission quotas.
② Joint implementation: Developed countries implement a project among
themselves and, if the project succeeds in reducing emission, the project
participants share the resulting credits.
③ Clean development mechanism: Developed countries implement a project
together with developing countries and, if the project succeeds in reducing
emission, the project participants share the resulting credits.
However, this Kyoto mechanism has some problems. The United States insists
that there should not be a limit to emissions trading, and countries should be able to
trade freely. However, the Kyoto Protocol proposes emissions trading as a system to
complement each country’s domestic reduction activity. So the EU insists on placing
importance on domestic reduction activity and establishing a limit on the
transactions of emission permits rights. What is the background of their insistence?
The EU countries are concerned that emission credit supplying countries, such as
Ukraine and Russia, will sell their excess emission permits rights generated by the
stagnation of their domestic economy. If no limit is placed on transactions,
developed countries, such as Japan and the United States, can reduce their
greenhouse gases in excess of their emission quotas by buying emission permit
rights. But if this is permitted, developing countries will distrust the emissions
11
trading system and joint implementation, and conflicts will develop between
developed countries and developing countries. Therefore, it will take a long time to
establish the rules. In addition, although quite a lot of emissions can be covered by
this measure, the problem of the emissions trading system is that the economic
burden will be huge, running into units of hundreds of millions or billions.
12
3.3. The Reduction Situation of Each Country
According to the reduction situation report of each country issued on January
1st, 2009 by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
secretariat in Bonn, Germany, 16 out of the 39 countries that had ratified the Kyoto
Protocol had already achieved the reduction target compared with the achievement
rate of 1990. Meanwhile, 20 countries including Japan, could not achieve the target
and, it became clear that greenhouse effect gases had increased by 9.9% in
developed countries. Among the developed countries, the United Kingdom achieved
a reduction of 15.9% when the target reduction was 12.5%, and Germany achieved a
reduction of 18.5% when the target reduction was 21%. On the other hand, Japan’s
emission increased by 6.2% when the target reduction was 6%. The United States is
also far behind the target with a 14.4% increase.
Why has Japan failed to achieve its target? Japan was hard hit by the oil crisis
in the 1970’s and put in place energy-saving strategies. As a result, Japan has
achieved the highest level of energy efficiency in the world. Since Japan has already
reduced emissions with regards to targets, the reduction targets are less
advantageous for Japan than for Europe. So the European countries are trying to
sell their right to emit greenhouse gases. Therefore, we must discuss how to allocate
fairly to each country in the future.
13
3.4. The Post Kyoto Protocol
The enforcement period of the Kyoto Protocol will end in 2012. The post Kyoto
Protocol is now being discussed as a new target after 2013. The greatest focus point
of the post Kyoto Protocol is a need for a new framework. The problem of the Kyoto
Protocol was that the United States, the world’s largest emitting country, was not
part of it. The second largest emitter, China, and the fifth largest emitter, India,
were also exempt from reduction because they are developing countries. So a new
framework by which these countries can participate is necessary. It is difficult for
the developing countries to develop their economy while reducing emissions.
However, as the emerging economies are developing rapidly, they may account for
more than half the emission of greenhouse gases in the future. Therefore, we cannot
continue to exempt emerging countries from reduction obligations.
At the COP13 held in Bali, Indonesia in 2007, it was agreed that a post Kyoto
Protocol will be determined in detail at the COP15 to be held in Denmark in
December, 2009. It is expected to introduce the idea that developed countries reduce
25~40% of their greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared with their emission of
1990, and that the countries of the world halve the greenhouse gas emissions by
2050. The United States and China are opposed to this idea. The Kyoto Protocol has
not yet produced visible results at present because of the political conflicts of each
country. Discussion of the post Kyoto Protocol is not making much progress either
because of the conflict between developed countries and developing countries.
However, global warming is definitely accelerating even as we are discussing it.
14
4. System Innovation and Technological Development
All creatures have reacted to environmental changes in diverse ways. In the
case of human beings, they have done so by two innovations. One type of innovation
is technological development such as producing various technologies to invent new
machines. The other type of innovation is social innovation, which is broad,
spontaneous change in human beings, institutions, and society to react to
environmental changes. Table2 shows the major environmental history after the
industrial revolution. We will discuss an environmental pollution in Japan and 3Rs
activity as examples of how mankind has innovated and solved problems.
15
Table2
The Chronology of Major Environmental Events after the Industrial Revolution
17th century
Coal-induced air pollution becomes serious in Britain
1824
French physicist Joseph Fourier announces the greenhouse effect
1955
Conditions of the four major pollution diseases disclosed one after
another in Japan.
1962
Silent Spring, written by Rachel Louise Carson, warning about the
danger of agrichemicals and chemical material, published
1967
Basic Act for Environmental Pollution Control enacted
1968
Great drought hits the Sahel region south of the Sahara Desert,
forcing some hundred thousand people into starvation or turning
them into refugees
1975
Acid rain causes damage in many parts of Europe, particularly
Northern Europe
The Washington Convention (CITES, Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora) and the Ramseur Convention on Wetlands come into effect
1985
Publish outbreak of the ozone hole
Holding Congress in Villach which is the first global academic
congress on global warming
1992
Holding Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, which is UN conference
on the environment and development
1994
Executing UN framework agreement on climate change
1997
Adoption of Kyoto Protocol in COP3
1998
Law Concerning the Promotion of Measures to Cope with Global
Warming in Japan
2000
Approving Basic Act for the Promotion of the Recycling-Oriented
Society for 3Rs
2006
Enforcement of RoHS, which regulates detrimental substance
2007
IPCC submitted AR4 and it says that the possibility which the
cause of global warming is human activities is very high
2008
The engagement first term of Kyoto Protocol till 2012
Holding Tohya lake summit
16
4.1. Environmental Pollution in Japan
An environmental pollution is a social disaster which happens as a result of the
destruction of the environment because of social and economic activities the purpose
of which is the pursuit of economic rationality. In Japan, environmental pollutions
often occurred in 1950s to 1970s, the period of rapid economic growth. Japan was
called “a Paradise of Pollutions” at that time.
Figure3 is the change in the number of complaints classified by kinds of
pollutions. This data shows that complaints about pollutions started increasing
rapidly from the late 1950s and then started decreasing after the beginning of the
1960s. We would now like to view how people wrestled with pollution problems,
taking water contamination as an example.
Figure3
17
Industrial drainage and garbage increased rapidly from the beginning of fast
economic growth. People threw away their waste into public water, causing a lot of
pollution diseases which made people seriously ill, such as Minamata disease, from
the 1950s. Around that time, flush toilets became popular in response to the desire
for improvement in the quality of life, but as sewage was often discharged into
rivers without being treated, rivers became polluted. Polluted rivers meant the
destruction of the ecosystem, dead fishes, and a decline in productivity. However,
water contamination was solved by Japanese government regulations and the
development of the drainage-treating system.
We will discuss the problem of Sumida River in Japan as a case study. Sumida
River once used to stink from water contamination. According to 1951 records, the
Biochemical Oxygen Demand, or BOD, at that time was 38mg per liter. The limit
that water does not stink is 10mg per liter, so it was way over this limit. This was
the result of people putting priority on convenience and economic efficiency.
However, a big turning point of this problem came when the government decided to
invest in pollution prevention.
In 1973 the oil embargo happened, and in 1974 the Japanese economy
registered negative growth for the first time after World War II. To solve pollution
problems and the depression at the same time, the government actively financed at
low interest firms which worked on pollutions. As a result, in the three years from
1974 to 1976, the proportion of investment for pollution prevention increased to a
maximum of 20% in the capital investment of private companies. In monetary terms,
that means firms invested one trillion yen in pollution prevention every year during
that time.
18
Because of efforts to prevent pollution and the spread of sewerage, water
quality improved dramatically, and the investments acted as a basic support for
economic recovery.
This case is one example where people solved the environmental problem by
two innovations. They were able to do this by enacting legislations, technological
development, and changing awareness.
19
4.2. 3Rs policy
With the growth of its economy, Japan changed into a society of mass
production, mass consumption, and mass disposal. So Japan was required to
respond promptly to the problem of recycling waste material. As a solution to this
problem, Japan was faced with the urgent need to construct a new
recycling-oriented economic system compatible with the economy and the
environment. The basic concept for constructing a recycling-oriented economic
system is explained in the 1999 Report of the Industrial Structure Council,
“Recycling Economy Vision: for constructing a recycling-oriented economic system.”
In the report, Japan expands the traditional recycling concept of 1R and makes a
proposal for the promotion of 3Rs, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. The same report also
sets up a rule for requiring local public authorities, people, and businesses to
promote the action of 3R. For example, Japan has instituted the Basic Act for the
Promotion of the Recycling-Oriented Society, taking into account the Extended
Producer Responsibility. Extended Producer Responsibility, or EPR, places a
certain amount of responsibility for the recycling and disposal of a product on the
producer, even after the product is used and disposed. In the Basic Act for the
Promotion of the Recycling-Oriented Society, this EPR is indicated in the section,
“Responsibility of Businesses.” The introduction of the concept of EPR in the Basic
Act led the way for the establishment of recycling systems for each product, such as
packaging, household electrical goods, food, construction material, and automobiles.
The same report also promotes the creation and development of new
recycling-oriented environmental businesses by the application of market
20
mechanism utilizing the private sector, and the concentration of investment for
research and development, or R&D, on 3Rs technology.
Here, we would like to explain specifically each of the 3Rs. “Reduce” means
controlling the generation of waste. Through efforts to make energy-efficient and
long-lasting products, “Reduce” increases the efficient use of resources in the
manufacture, distribution and use of products. This is an effort to lessen as much as
possible the use of resources that has to go to waste. “Reuse” means collecting used
products to use again as products by taking appropriate measures as needed, or
using parts that are reusable. “Recycle” means collecting used products and
by-products generated in the course of manufacture to use again either as raw
material (material recycle), or as energy of heat incineration (thermal recycle).
Figure4 shows the correlation of GDP and per capita waste emission in Japan.
Until the first oil crisis, GDP growth rate and per capita waste emission proceeded
at about the same rate. However, after that, waste emission stopped increasing
rapidly and, only the GDP continued to grow, becoming more than double. Waste
emission of 2004 was the same as 1973. This shows that Japan’s measures to
control waste emission have achieved some result. The 3Rs policy is also related to
increasing the awareness of people, and it can be called one of the successful
examples of innovation for environmental problems.
21
Figure4
22
5. Green Revolution
Then, how can we solve problem of global warming without affect the economic
development? Many specialists and enlightened political leaders advocate the
"green revolution." This is the term used to express the collective efforts to promote
technological development and system innovations to bring about new conditions to
assure sustainability. Solar energy technologies are an outstanding example of such
innovations and inventions to promote sustainability.
23
5.1. Solar Technologies
First, I'd like to introduce some of the solar energy technologies at the present
stage.
(1)Solar water heater
The use of solar thermal is one of the renewable energy technologies that has
been most widely used and commercialized.
In 1998, the world total solar water
heater was about 54 million square meters. The use of solar water heater is 1sq m /
person in Cyprus and 0.7sq m / person in Israel, which are the first and second in
the world. Twenty percent of Japanese families use solar energy water heater, while
the percentage in Israel is 80%.
(2)Solar energy air-conditioning
Worldwide, solar energy air-conditioning refrigeration and cooling technology is
still in the demonstration phase. Its commercial level is not so high as solar water
heater because of its high cost. However, there is a large potential market in the
areas which lack electricity.
(3)Solar thermal power generation
Solar thermal power generation is the system which transforms solar
radiation into thermal energy and generates electricity through the thermodynamic
cycle. It is an important aspect of using solar thermal power.
Since 1980s, the United States, Europe, Australia and other countries have
established different types of demonstration systems to promoted the development
24
of thermal power generation technology. The world's existing solar thermal power
generation systems are generally divided into three types: trough line focus
systems, tower systems and disc systems.
1) Trough line focusing system.
The system is the use of cylindrical parabolic trough mirrors to focus sunlight
into the receiver tube and heat the refrigerant in the heat exchanger to produce
steam to be used in the conventional steam turbine power generation. Luz Company
began the development of such thermal power generation system in 1980, and was
able to commercialize it 5 years later. In 1985, 9 units of power generation were
installed in the Mojave Desert of California, with a total capacity of 354 MW,
generating 1.08 billion kWh of electricity annually. The electricity generated by
these nine power plants was distributed by Southern California Edison power
companies. With the continuous development of technology, the system efficiency
improved from the initial 11.5% to 13.6%. Construction costs went down from 5976
U.S. dollars / kW down to 3011 U.S. dollars / kW, and power generation costs went
down from 26.3 cents / kilowatt-hour down to 12 cents / kWh.
2) Tower system.
The basic pattern of the solar thermal power tower system is the use of a group
of independent Tingri mirrors tracking the sun. The sun’s heat will be collected in a
fixed tower at the top of the receiver so it can produce high temperature. In the
early 80s, the first solar power generation system installed tower. SolarOne, was
built in Southern California in the United States. Initially, the solar tower used a
steam system with water, generating 10 MW power.
SolarOne was modified in
1992 into a model using a molten salt receiver and thermal storage systems.
25
With
the addition of thermal storage systems to the solar power transmission tower, the
load factor can be as high as 65%. Salt in the receiver is heated from 288 degrees to
565 degrees, and then used to generate electricity. SolarTwo, the second solar tower
power generation project, was launched in 1996, as a three-year trial and
assessment operation. SolarTwo not only proved the correctness of the molten salt
technology in generating power but also helped to accelerate the commercialization
of solar thermal tower power systems ranging in scope from 3O to 200 MW.
Israel Weizmann Institute of Science is now trying to improve the tower
system. By tracking the use of a group of independent Tingri mirrors, the sun’s
reflection will be fixed in the tower at the top of the primary mirror, which acts as
the lens. It is then reflected by the primary mirrors down to the secondary mirrors,
called the Compound Parabolic Concentrator, or CPC. Finally, the sun’s rays will be
reflected by the CPC and gathered at the bottom of the receiver. Through the
receiver, the gas is heated to 1200 degrees and powers the turbine-generator unit.
The 500 degrees steam that is produced then powers another exhaust turbine
generator, so that the system's total power generation efficiency can reach as high
as 25% to 28 %.
When strong radiation is received as a result of secondary mirror
reflection, it must be water-cooled. At present, the entire experiment is still in the
installation and commissioning stage.
3) Disc system.
Parabolic mirrors (Stirling system) are composed of many parabolic mirror
reflectors of the receiver at the focus of the parabolic mirrors. The transfer working
fluid in the receiver is heated to about 75O degrees, powering the engine.
26
In 1991, the U.S. Geothermal Power Plan, in cooperation with Cummins Inc.,
developed and started to use the 7 kilowatts disc system / Stirling power generation
system. A total of 18 million U.S. dollars was invested in the system as a part of a
5-year funding. Cummins produced 7 generating disc systems for industrial use in
1996, and planned to produce more than 25 in 1997. Cummins is expected to
produce more than 1000 systems in the next 10 years. The system is suitable for
independent power plants in remote areas. Stilling
U.S. Geothermal Power Development Plan also plans to produce 25-kilowatt
power generation disc systems. The 25 kilowatt system costs cheaper, and it is more
applicable to large-scale off-grid and grid applications. The experiment started in
1996, and it was put to use in the power sector in 1997.
The disc / Stirling system has high optical efficiency, few losses, and power
generation efficiency as high as 29%, making it the top of the three types of systems.
4) Comparison of three types of system performance.
Of the three systems, only the trough line focusing system has been
commercialized at present. The three systems can all run independently and be
installed into fuel hybrid systems.
27
(4) The sun room.
The sun room is an important system which uses solar radiation directly. It
takes the house as a thermal collector, organically integrates the high-performance
thermal insulation materials, the light materials, and the energy storage materials
together, so as to make the house absorb as much solar energy as possible and keep
the house warm. The sun room and its construction combine the concept and the
form of "solar architecture" technology, which has become the common concern of
both the energy sector and the construction sector. The technology of a solar house
can save 75% to 90% of energy consumption, with good environmental benefits and
economic benefits. It has become an important aspect of the use of solar thermal.
Europe is very advanced in building sum rooms.
28
5.2. System Innovations
Next, I'd like to refer to the system innovations in the world, particularly about
Germany and Japan.
Japan required the power companies to purchase a fixed percentage of the solar
power generated by households at quite a high price. Unfortunately, this policy did
not work very well because the power companies, considering it was too expensive,
purchased only the required quantity. Moreover, the subsidy for the solar panel
installation burdened the government so much that the policy was abolished in
2004.
On the other hand, Germany is very successful in promoting solar power.
Freiburg is the world’s first solar city which uses only renewable powers, mainly
solar power.
The German municipal administrations promote the Feed-in-Tariff policy, or
FIT, which requires the power companies to purchase all the solar power from
households. This policy promotes a variety of uses of solar power, not only for
environmental purposes but for economic purposes as well.
Conventional power will become more expensive by implementing this policy.
The power companies have to raise the conventional power price to maintain profit.
At a minor increase of 2.5% per annum, the price of power will rise for the private
consumer from 19.6 cents/kWh today to 28cents/kWh in 2020. This way, from 2018
29
onwards, solar power for the private consumer will become cheaper than obtaining
conventional power.
In fact, from 2018, solar power will be cheaper than conventional power. The
German renewable energy sources story envisages a reduction of 5 to 6.5% per
annum in refunds for solar power fed into the grid. The average price of one
kilowatt-hour (kWh) of solar power will decrease gradually, about 5% per annum,
from 49 cents today to 23 cents in 2020.
Today, renewable energy already provides employment for 130,000 people in
the sectors of wind, water, biomass, geothermal energy, solar heating and solar
power. This engages more people than in nuclear energy, hard coal and brown coal
put together. By 2020, it is expected that 500,000 people will be employed in
renewable energy sectors. This sector achieved a turnover of 11.5 billion euros in
2004. Of this, 6.5 billion euros has been invested in new plants for the generation of
power, heat and fuels. Renewals make up a highly influential program for growth,
and by 2020, investments totaling 200 billion euros are expected.
As a result, we should promote renewable energy, not only solar but wind,
water, biomass, geothermal energy as well, to solve the environmental problems
and to develop the economy at the same time.
30
5.3 Conclusion
As we have shown, global warming keeps deteriorating the environment, and
conferences like the Kyoto Protocol did not ameliorate the situation at all. We must
solve the problem by ourselves.
On the other hand, the protection of the environment should not affect
economic development. It is an international trend to develop the economy in order
to strengthen international competitiveness, but we cannot develop the economic
base in a sustainable way by destroying the natural environment.
We should not only rely on technological innovation and changing people’s
lifestyles, but also change at a more basic level, by using renewable energies instead
of petroleum to make the economic system sustainable by itself in order to finally
solve the problem of global warming.
31
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http://www.soumu.go.jp/kouchoi/knowledge/report/kujyou-19/youshi.pdf
Bridge Watching http://homepage1.nifty.com/KISHINO-H/index.htm
Tadahiro Mitsuhashi’s official site
http://www.zeroemission.co.jp/column/2008/10.html
About white book of Recycling Society
http://www.env.go.jp/council/03haiki/y030-kondan18/ref03-2.pdf
International Energy http://en.in-en.com/
Japan Photovoltaic Expansion Center http://www.j-pec.or.jp/
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry http://www.meti.go.jp/
Renewable Energy Policy Project http://www.repp.org/solar/index.html
Solarbuss http://www.solarbuss.com/
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