THE DISCOVERY AND EXCAVATION OF
POMPEII & HERCULANEUM
PERSON
Workmen
Workmen
Rocco de Alcubierre
1738-?
Spanish
Francois Mazois
French architect
16TH TO 19TH CENTURIES
ACTIVITY AT SITE
RESULT
Digging a canal
Accidental discovery of Pompeii
Architect of project recorded the discovery of inscriptions
Digging for limestone
Led to accidental discovery of Herculaneum
Dug at site where Fontana found
Thought he found site of Stabiae
inscriptions
Was directing mining operations
Found frescoes, statues, artefacts for King
of Naples
Filled in holes once they took everything
– criticised by Cardinal Qurini
Inscription found which read ‘res publica
First identification of site of Pompeii; inscription translated
Pompeianorum’
as ‘state of Pompeians’
Record the site, find treasure
Team of 1500 men excavated and made accurate records
(The Ruins of Pompeii)
Treasure hunting
Both sites looted
Paintings cut from walls
Mosaics lifted from floors
Statues, columns, vases, coins removed and added to
collections of kings, museums and private individuals
ARCHAEOLOGIST
Karl Weber
1750-1764
Swiss
Francesco la Vega
Started in 1764. In 1765
director of excavations in
Pompeii (though he still
reported to Alcubierre.
In 1780 he was put in full
charge of excavations in
Pompeii
Giuseppe Fiorelli
1860-1875
Italian
Michele Ruggiero
1875-93
METHODS OF EXCAVATION
Decided to uncover site systematically.
Made sketches and drew plans and
elevations of the ruins.
Kept detailed inventories of finds and
located them on a site plan.
Inventories and reports were sent to King
and were guarded.
Believed in the importance of publication.
Tried to stop the practice of reburying
excavated ruins to let visitors experience
excavated remains.
Structured and systematic: he excavated
each building completely making detailed
notes on all notable interiors and carried
out a complete search for artefacts in the
buildings he excavated.
Kept a detailed diary of the excavations
Detailed designs of buildings and
employed a notable draftsman to copy the
wall paintings of the temple of Isis
Detailed maps of excavations.
Had a general plan of Herculaneum
drawn up.
After excavating he became concerned
with conservation – all excess soil and
rock excavated was removed off site,
provision was made for structural repairs
and maintenance of the buildings
-Developed numbering and naming
system to divide and describe the site
-introduced more systematic approach to
excavation
-Used system of carefully excavating
buildings from the top down
-Made plaster casts of the victim
- systematically documents all work on the
site
-started a school of archaeology on the site
-Brought the city to life by restoring
buildings and paintings
- Excavation primarily focussed in
northern most quarters – Central Baths,
House of the Centenary, House of the
Vettii uncovered
Guilio De Petra
1893-1901
Investigated areas outside the city walls
Ettore Pais
1901-05
Excavated the remains of the Vesuvian
Gate and the water tower
Antonio Sogliano
1905-10
Devoted himself to conservation
RESULTS & DISCOVERIES
Discovered a tavern
Villa of the Papyri- accidentally
Tomb of the Istacidi
Bronze statues found in the Villa of the Papyri
Found 1,800 carbonized papyrus scrolls which many were
destroyed in the 18th century when they tried to open them.
In Pompeii:
The temple of Isis
The Odeon
Gladiator barracks
Villa of Diomedes
In Herculaneum: House of the Surgeon and House of
Sallust.
The discovery of the temple of
Isis in 1764 (December) meant that Pompeii now received
worldwide attention, and as a consequence conservation was
now critical.
REF: The Lost World of Pompeii, by Colin Amery and Brian
Curran Jr, published by Frances Lincoln Ltd 2002.
“It is hard to exaggerate his impact on the
history of Pompeii…Fiorelli remains the
individual who had the greatest impact upon
the way in which Pompeii has been both
excavated and perceived” Cooley
Directors at Pompeii – all Italian
August Mau
1873-1909
German
Studied art and architecture
Worked under the direction
of Fiorelli, 1860’s
His own work was influenced
by Fiorelli’s systematic work
Spent his summers
excavating and his winters
analysing
Stayed for 25 years
Mau sorted paintings into four styles. This was very important because not only did it teach about the
aesthetics of Pompeii and decoration within houses, but it helped to date houses and is still being used
today.
1st Style: ‘Incrustation Style’ 150-90BC
Imitates coloured marble blocks by moulding plaster and painting it to
resemble the same traits as marble. Influenced by blocks of marble
used in temples. Very simple.
Examples are seen in the House of the Faun.
2nd Style: ‘Architectural
Style’ 90-25BC
Roman influence. Is an
elaboration of the first style
minus the moulded plaster
work and plus an emphasis
on architectural reality.
Columns, doors and ledges
were all painted as realistically as possibly and were in proper
perspective. Receding views were created through the use of
columns which depicted scenes with a mix of reality and illusion
(like windows.)
Examples can be found in the Villa of Mysteries.
3rd Style: ‘Ornate Style’ 25BC-AD40
Developed from the third style in the late Augustan
period. Perspective is lost and the wall paintings become
flat and the architectural detail becomes unrealistic.
Mythological scenes are depicted and surrounded by flat
columns and ornate panels, creating the sense of a
‘shrine’.
Examples are in the House of Marcus Lucretius Fronto.
4th
Style:
‘Intricate Style’ AD40 onwards
A combination of the second and third styles.
Architectural details are somewhere in the middle,
being neither as solid in the second style or as unrealistic as in the third style. Scenes are framed by
panels to create ‘windows’ and ornamental motifs and
figures are more popular and can be found floating
freely or perched upon columns and panels.
Famous examples include those in the House of the Vetti.
ARCHAEOLOGIST
Vittorio Spinazzola
Italian
1910-23
“One of the greatest
problems facing Spinazzola
when excavating the
Abundance Way was how to
consolidate the structural
20th CENTURY
METHODS OF EXCAVATION
RESULTS AND DISCOVERIES
Concentrated on the Commercial area in
Discovered and excavated by Spinazzola:
the southern sections of the city
- House of Obellius Firmo (1911)
Began excavation of via dell’ Abbondanza - House of Aulus Trebius Valente (1915)
Meticulous excavation revealed the main
- House of Cryptoporticus (1916)
commercial road and main routes of the
- Stephanus’s Laundry (1916)
city
- Asellina’s Thermpolium
Reconstructed facades of houses and
- House of Paquius Proculus
shops
- House of the Ceii
elements and the facades of
the buildings. Since digging
started from the upper layers
along the street, the risk was
that the facades might
collapse under the weight of
the mass of earth lying
behind. Tremendous care
went into removing the
rooves of the buildings, trying
to replace them on their
original bearing structures,
and into recomposing all the
elevations, such as windows,
shutters, doors and
architectural cornices.”
Amedeo Maiuri
Italian
1923-1961
Problems of the structural elements of the
facades of buildings.
Preserved the top of houses first, the
upper floors. Left the lower floors in place
until the upper were complete.
This was a great discovery as it revealed
what the streetscape looked.
Restoration work remains in situ
- House of Pinarius Cerialis
- House of the Moralist
- House of Octavius Quartio
Intense period of excavation (interrupted
by World War II)
Excavated over en insulae
Maiuri was very methodical in his work.
He hand dug, with shovels, carefully
excavating the buildings, and moved the
waste soil away by horse, to keep the
whole site intact and usable.
Maiuri found a way to transport and
dispose of the rubbish and dirt that was
piling up around the city. Getting rid of
this uncovered other areas that could be
excavated to reveal more about the city.
He also conducted close studies of
stratigraphical samples of the layers of soil
underneath Pomp and Herc.
Interested in historical development of the
site
Concentrated on area around Via
dell’Abbondanza excavating on either side
of road
Restored public buildings such as the
Basilica
Worked on House of Menander and
House of the Surgeons – influenced by
Fascist political line of unearthing glorious
monuments to illustrate the magnificence
of Italy’s past
Dug ditch around city wall to reveal
construction method
Excavated older buildings, in and around
main forum and Triangular Forum reveal
Samnite and Greek building material – led
to conclusions about occupation sequence
Much of his excavation between 1951-61
was rushed and little documentation was
done.
“towering figure…endlessly energetic, learned and imaginative” Andrew
Wallace-Hadrill
He unearthed the whole of the via dell’Abbondanza in
Pompeii.
“his massive presence lies behind the excavation, publication and
interpretation of the majority of houses” Wallace-Hadrill
He discovered:
 The Houses of:
 Fabias Amandio
 Priest Amandio
 Ephebe
 Theatrical Pictures
 Menander
 Of the Lovers
 Four Styles
 The Large Gymnasium
 The Villa of Mysteries
 The Imperial Villa
 The complete town perimeter
 The Necropolis of Porta Nocera (Nuverian Gate)
 Part of the strata below 79AD
Most productive period was during Fascist reign – 1920WWII when site received state funding
Excavation ceased during WWII and 160 bombs dropped on
Pompeii in 1943; recommenced in 1947
Looked for evidence of economic and social change in both
towns – influence by Michael Rostovteff’s theories –
believed in great upheaval in both towns after the earthquake
of AD62 – believed they were in decline.
Re-opend the excavation of Herculaneum (1927)
Wilhelmina Jashemski
American (Polish
background)
1961-1984
Her archaeological investigations focused
on the evidence of gardens and
horticulture in the ancient city
Jashemski's work at Pompeii, Boscoreale,
and Oplontis began in 1961 and continued
until 1984.
She also worked on the excavation of the
gardens of the villa of Hadrian at Tivoli.
She has made extensive study of the
gardens, orchards, and vineyards within
the city walls and has shown that although
some gardens were grown purely for
pleasure others were commercial ventures.
She used plaster casts of cavities that
formed on the roots of trees and vines.
She also used analysis of pollen found in
ash and wall paintings to provide ample
evidence of the fruit and vegetables grown
in Pompeii.
Tried to identify systematically the location
and character of all the gardens in
Pompeii, supplementing her archaeological
investigations, with material drawn from
the archives.
She was able to remove the final covering
of lapilli revealing the soil contours and
the lapilli filled cavities
Fausto Zevi
Italian
1977 – 1998
Superintendent of Pompeii
Joined fragments of inscriptions found in
different locations
When he became superintendent,
photographic and computer assisted
documentation became a high priority.
Pietro Giovanni Guzzo
Italian
1995Superintendent of Pompeii
Only way to save Pompeii, he believes, is
to stop all new excavations
“Archaeology is about solving historical
problems, not finding buried treasure”
Also involved with the debate about the
Villa of the Papyri – to dig or not to dig
As a result of her work we can now reconstruct a town full
of colour and life with ornamental gardens and vegetable
plots within houses, market gardens and vineyards of
various sizes
Flowers such as lilies, violas, valerian, iris and roses were
found – evidence of seeds and pollen.
Some flower beds were uncovered complete with elaborate
watering system suggesting that this was a commercial
flower garden.
Some pollen & wall paintings found shows evidence of: fruits such as olive, walnut, almond, pear, apple, fig, cherry
and laurel trees.
Date palms, oleander, rosemary, acanthus and ivy were also
common.
Vegetables such as cabbages, onions, garlic, lettuce,
asparagus, cucumbers, beans, leeks, radishes, turnips,
parsnips and artichokes
Her discovery of the first intact remains of a good-size
vineyard from the era revised perceptions of how the
Romans planted and managed grapes, stored and used wine,
and worked the land.
Her work from archival records highlighted the rather
surprising fact that grand houses might also contain large
produce gardens
One of her most notable achievements was the revelation
that the large area known as the cattle market was in fact a
large commercial vineyard
Villas sometimes had a grape-press (torcularium)and vats
(dolia)for the storage and fermentation of wine
He found a number of second-style wall decorations
preserved in villas
Makes restoration and maintenance of endangered structures
a priority
Financial difficulty and tourism creates conservation
problems
An important step in 1997 was the law passed that allowed
Guzzo to retain all revenue from the gate receipts
ARCHAEOLOGISTS
Estelle Lazer
Australian
1986 -
METHODS OF EXCAVATION
Spent 7 seasons working on the skeletons
in Pompeii
Was placed in a disused bath house were
all the skeletons had been dumped and had
to sort out each bone.
Sara Bisel
American
Died in 1996
Studied bones in Herculanuem –
sponsored by National Geographic.
Looked at 139 skeletons.
Was criticised for giving the skeletons
names and ‘life stories’.
John Dobbins
American
1994-2006
Works at University of
Virginia as professor in
Roman art and archaeology
Director of the Pompeii
Forum Project
Numerous publications that
provide detail of buildings
decoration and excavation in
Pompeii
Andrew Wallace-Hadrill
(British) and
The Herculaneum
Conservation Project
2000HCP is a collaborative
venture between the
Soprintendenza Archaeologica di
Pompee, the Packard Humanities
Institute and the British School
of Rome. The project was
developed in 2000 by Dr.
David W. Packard and
Professor Andrew WallaceHadrill who agreed with
Professor Pietro Giovanni
Guzzo that there should be
an exploration of a major
collaborative project. In May
2001, HCP was set up as a
collaborative venture with
the principal objectives of
conserving and enhancing
the ancient city of
Herculaneum.
Focus on general urban layout and the
position of buildings in relation to each
other
Use of program AutoCAD program to
precisely electronically document the
layout
Slow down the rate of decay by major
campaigns of emergency work and
maintenance activity
They did a site-wide map of the extent and
nature of decay followed by the
consolidation of collapsing structures, the
stabilization of crumbling plaster surfaces
and disintegrating mosaics, eradication of
vegetation, re-instatement of functioning
water collection and disposal systems,
roving repairs and substitution and pigeon
control. These are the first steps taken by
the HCP to ensure that the ancient
remains survive.
Falconers are employed to keep away
pigeons and nets are also being installed to
deter them from the site.
They developed a conservation strategy to
ensure the long-term survival of
Herculaneum and enhance its value to all
of its users. This is done in several ways:
Strategies of continuous care
Commission of numerous studies to
improve our understanding of the site
Good information management to ensure
that data is used.
RESULTS AND DISCOVERIES
Suggested 3 main causes of death: asphyxiation, thermal
shock and concussions from falling objects.
Challenged idea that those left behind were very old, very
young, sick, women – bones indicate a good cross section of
society.
Bones show people were well nourished, average height,
many suffered arthritis, poor dental hygiene.
Discovered average heights, excellent health of teeth,
surgical procedures done, no sign of lead poisoning.
A post- earthquake (after 62AD) plan to upgrade and
change street layout
Shows ambition to rebuild in a grander scale and proof that
the Pompeiian society was not in society was not in a
economic downslide but an urban upgrade after the 62
earthquake
Proposes that the earthquake in AD 62 was an opportunity
to recreate the forum
Surveyed and provided a reinterpretation of the building of
Eumachia
The site was drained of water for protection of remains.
The rate of decay has been slowed.
Structures and mosaics have been repaired or replaced.
Walkways have been constructed along the ancient shoreline to provide temporary access to the Fornici , installing
gates there to protect the archaeological remains. (e.g.
skeletons)
Solutions for drainage problems have been developed.
Pumps have been installed to resolve this issue however the
electricity supply is not constant.
Vegetation that may harm structures have been eradicated.
Other natural pests to the site such as pigeons are now also
under control and are no longer a severe threat to the
conservation of the city.
Through case studies and good information management, a
greater understanding of the city and how to conserve it has
been gained.
Commission of integrated pilot projects to
experiment long term conservation
interventions
A single case study on the insula Orientalis
I (an urban block)
Numerous small experimental initiatives
throughout the site.