Using Dooyeweerd’s aspects to
understand telework
A discussion paper to be presented at ITA meeting at ILERA 2013 20-22 June, Amsterdam
Research in progress – please do not quote from this paper without prior consultation with the author.
Author: Dr Diana Limburg
Oxford Brookes University, UK
dlimburg@brookes.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
Telework is a complex phenomenon that has many dimensions and can be understood in many different
ways. Focusing too much on particular elements, for example business benefits, or individual risks, can
lead to misunderstanding of its real implications and potentially cause harm. Using Dooyeweerd’s aspects,
this paper critiques telework literature and builds towards a life-world understanding of telework in the
round.
1
INTRODUCTION
The Dutch philosopher Herman Dooyeweerd (1894-1977) developed a non-reductionist ontology of
‘model aspects’, which concerns the disclosure of the meaning of every existing thing. The aspects are
ways of looking at the real world and provide a tool to reflect on it. Different sources provide slightly
different labels for the aspects, but the underlying meaning core is the same. The 15 aspects are:
quantitative, spatial, kinematic, physical, biotic, sensory, analytical, formative, lingual, social, economic,
aesthetic, juridical, ethical, and pistic. Dooyeweerd’s philosophy is not well-known outside the
Netherlands and it appears to be discussed largely within the domain of (Christian) philosophy. However,
there is an increasing interest in the application of his work in other domains, for example Regional
Economic Development (Aay and Van Langevelde 2005), Document Management (Basden and Burke
2004), Sustainable Development (Brandon 2012), Economics (Oslington 2000), and Information Systems
(Joneidy and Basden 2013, Basden 2010, Jahanyan et al 2012).
Telework is a multi-facetted, sometimes puzzling phenomenon. There are ongoing debates on its
definition, nature, and sustainability as a concept. Various authors have elaborated on different
perspectives on telework, for example Shin et al. (2000), Ellison (1999) and Qvortrup (1998). Telework is
also sometimes seen as covering a whole range of work practices, rather than being a single phenomenon
(e.g. Kompast and Wagner, 1998; Gray et al., 1993). In her study, Sullivan (2003) finds a growing
consensus on defining telework in general terms as remote work using ITs. However, she also argues that,
because there is still much debate around key-aspects of the telework concept, project-specific definitions
will usually be needed in research. Because telework does not necessarily imply a single (alternative) work
location, i.e. the home, Wilks and Billsberrry’s (2007) suggestion that the term telework has lost its value
is very debatable. Despite some agreement on defining elements of telework (e.g. use of IT, remote
working), because of its situated and complex nature, it is difficult to capture the reality of telework.
Usually, publications on telework will address specific aspects or perspectives, depending on the interest
and background of the researcher. These range from trust (e.g. Cascio, 2000; Henttonen and Blomqvist,
1
2005), to benefits and issues (see for example Bailey and Kurland, 2002), and impacts on aspects like
family, motivation and well-being (Tremblay, 2002; Mann and Holdsworth, 2003; Illegems and Verbeke,
2004; Nansen et al. 2010). Even studies capturing rich case studies (e.g. Limburg, forthcoming) may
struggle to capture the full reality of the phenomenon.
In Dooyeweerd’s philosophic system each entity (every day thing, event, or situation) has a principal
meaning, provided by one particular aspect. It is expected that, in different publications, authors
considers, explicitly or – more likely – implicitly, different aspects to be central to telework. This paper
sets out to investigate whether the meaning of telework can be captured in its entirety, i.e. it is an entity in
its own right, or whether it is actually covers different entities or a combination of entities. The main aim
of this is to uncover a real-world meaning of telework.
The next section will provide a further brief introduction into Dooyeweerd’s philosophy, followed by an
overview of how each of the 15 aspects may relate to telework. This is followed by a discussion of
telework literature that explicitly focuses on, or implicitly highlights, particular aspects. In the current
paper only a small selection of two papers is analysed, though the research, ultimately, aims to include a
much wider selection. Section four, thereafter, will provide conclusions and a discussion on what insights
into telework and telework literature this research-in-progress paper has provided.
2 DOOYEWEERD’S ASPECTS
This short paper is not the place to discuss Dooyeweerd’s work and philosophy in detail. A thorough
introduction into Dooyeweerd’s philosophy can, for example, be found in Basden (2011). The current
paper uses a pragmatic approach: based on an introduction to a particular part of Dooyeweerd’s
philosophy, i.e. his ontological framework, the paper seeks to provide more clarity about telework as a
real-world phenomenon in relation to how it is discussed in literature.
Dooyeweerd’s thinking prioritises everyday experience over theoretical or scientific thought. While theory
can give insight and increase understanding, it also is abstract by its very nature, and thus cannot
reconstruct reality as it is given. Meaning, in his view, is intrinsic to being, not something that humans
impose on things. Hence everyday life and experience can be a starting point for philosophical reflection,
and can affirm and highlight theory. The framework of aspects serves as a way of knowing and being. As
mentioned in the introduction, Dooyeweerd’s thought is non-reductionist. It holds that, though each realworld entity is qualified by one particular aspect that provides its principal meaning, everything functions
in all the 15 ways. Aspects also possess normativity, and thus for most aspects it is possible to distinguish
good from bad. See Table 1 for an overview of the aspects and their meaning core.
Table 1 Dooyeweerd's aspects and meaning cores
Aspect
Meaning core
1
Quantitative
Amount, discrete quantity
2
Spatial
Continuous extension, position
3
Kinematic
Motion, flowing movement
4
Physical
Energy and mass
5
Biotic
Life functions
6
Sensory
Sense, feeling and emotion
7
Analytical
Distinction, clarity and logic
8
Formative
History, culture, creativity, achievement and technology
9
Lingual
Symbolic meaning and communication
10
Social
Social interaction, relationships and institutions
11
Economic
Frugality, skilled use of limited resources
12
Aesthetic
Harmony, surprise and fun
13
Juridical
'What is due', rights, responsibilities
14
Ethical, Moral
Self-giving love, generosity
15
Pistic
Commitment and vision (faith)
The aspects each have a unique meaning kernel and cannot be reduced to each other (they are irreducible).
However, they are also tightly bound together in any entity, and jointly produce a meaningful whole. This
2
can be explained when considering music (number of relevant aspect between brackets). Music is known
to have strong mathematical elements. Pythagoras already investigated how musical scales are expressed
in numerical ratios (aspect 1), i.e. two notes, where one is played (3) using the whole length of a string and
a second note is played using half of the string (creating sound waves – 3, 4), the notes will be exactly one
octave apart (2), creating a harmony that is considered pleasant (12) to the ear (5) the world over.
However, not all harmonies can be explained using mathematical ratios, and different music systems use
different scales (7), each producing music that is pleasant and meaningful to those who are used to the
particular system (8, 9). Music is a social phenomenon (10), for example expressing belonging to a group
and musical tastes change with age and over time. Laws (legal and/or moral) protect the (copy) rights of
those creating music (13). Finally, music is a fundamental part and expression of religious and mystic
experiences (15), while also used to express caring and loving, for example when signing a lullaby to a
child or creating a love song (14).
Analysing how different aspects feature in academic papers on telework can uncover what authors
consider to be its principal meaning, and thus also points towards the authors’ underlying philosophical
presuppositions. It can also highlight which aspects may be overlooked or only covertly addressed, both
within particular publications and across the spectrum of telework literature. Finally, it is worthwhile
investigating whether good or bad (normative) elements of aspects are considered, highlighted or
neglected.
In order to further explain the aspects, Table 2, below, provides a non-exhaustive overview of how the
aspects can be related to telework. This serves both to give some further detail on telework and to
provide examples for the aspects in this particular context. The table also touches on normativity.
Table 2 Dooyeweerd's aspects in relation to telework
Aspect
Quantitative
Relation to telework
Number of teleworkers
Spatial
Distance is a defining factor in
telework
Kinematic
Telework as telecommuting – or
the substitution of peoplemovement by data-movement
Reduction in energy used for
commuting (fuel, effort)
Issues of physical well-being, for
example ergonomics, exercise,
sustenance
Employee
satisfaction/dissatisfaction
Physical
Biotic
Sensory
Analytical
Discussions on telework definition
Formative
Telework as a technology-enabled
new organisational form; Influence
of technology innovations (e.g.
mobile) on telework
Communication amongst dispersed
teams;
Lingual
Social
Co-ordination and co-operation in
dispersed teams. Socialisation and
feeling part of an organisation
Comments
Early telework literature contained many predictions on
future numbers, though there are ongoing ssues with
definition (see analytical aspect), i.e.: what counts as a
teleworker?
‘tele’ means distance; temporal-spatial structures of
organisations as analytical perspective; work locations;
urban/rural.
When at a particular location, there is a lack of
movement, but teleworkers usually still move between
private and work locations.
Early days of telework inspired by need to reduce fuel
consumption and related pollution.
Relates to health and safety regulation and procedures.
Strong link with juridical aspect.
Links with various other aspects: satisfaction can occur
when economic, caring (ethical), and social needs are
met, or as a result of a life-style choice (aesthetic
aspect) and vice versa.
Important for those ‘doing’ telework (organisations and
individuals) and researchers. Attempts at distinguishing
between telework(ers) and non-telework(ers).
Technology is another defining feature of telework
(next to distance). Technology makes distance less
problematic in an organisational context (spatial and
economic aspects).
Despite the contributions of technology,
communication remains a potentially problematic
factor in telework, e.g. comparing face-to-face with
remote communication.
Relies on communication and is potentially even more
problematic. Socialisation and belonging may depend
on many ‘soft’ cues that are difficult to pick up
3
Economic
Aesthetic
Juridical
Ethical
Pistic
(belonging)
Telework as a solution to
organisational problems of
efficiency and effectiveness.
Performance
measurement/management
Telework as life-style choice;
serendipity in working in different
locations
Employers’ responsibilities towards
remote workplace health and
safety, and employee well-being
more generally. Employee selfcontrol. Contracts.
Telework enabling carers to
combine work with caring for
dependants. Telework enabling
those with disabilities to work.
Empowerment and freedom within
an organisation. Trust and power.
Organisational/shared values.
Employee empowerment and
freedom as inherently positive
attributes.
remotely.
When telework is seen as an organisational
phenomenon this aspect will play a big part. Note:
economical is about using scarce resources, not
necessarily about profit making. Critical literature
suspicious of management abusing teleworkers for
profit.
Looking for fun and positive excitement in work
through telework. Also telework enabling a better
work-life balance (harmony).
Legal frameworks vary by country. Regulations can be
complicated to uphold in a private, non-office
environment; both employers and employees may be
willing to take risks to enable telework, though both
may need the protection of law and procedures too.
Telework for carers and disabled workers both have
featured on policy agendas for decades now. Links to
juridical aspect where countries, e.g. UK, force
employers to consider telework for those with young
children. Could be considered a ‘cop-out’, where
telework is applied rather than making adjustments in
the office environment.
Telework can be part of a value-system of work-life
balance, fun, freedom. However, attitudes towards
empowerment and freedom can also relate to economic
aspect (when it is considered to be good for employee
performance), and ethical aspects (it could be
considered a generous position by those ‘in power’).
As can be seen from Table 2, when looking from the perspective of each of the aspects, telework can be
related to each, and there are many cross-linkages between the aspects, as was to be expected. The
purpose of the table is to illustrate how the aspects can help to separate out, and address, the disparate
kinds of issues involved in telework. Note that the table can not be used at this point to understand any
issues in detail, because it is not consistent in the actors and functionings it invokes. The next section will
explain this paper’s research method, and will look at some groups of telework literature using the ‘lens’
of the 15 aspects.
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3.1
DOOYEWEERD’S ASPECTS IN TELEWORK LITERATURE
Method
As stated in the introduction, the research aims to uncover the real-world meaning of telework as it
features in academic literature, using Dooyeweerd’s framework of aspects. After a meaningful sample of
telework literature has been created, each paper will be analysed to establish the main issues it addresses
and which aspects make these meaningful. The findings for each paper are than compared, contrasted
and accumulated for further analysis.
A sample of telework literature was created with the intention to include a broad range of perspectives.
Firstly, it includes papers that in themselves provide a literature survey or focus on defining telework in
relation to an overview of definitions in literature. Such papers may be expected to contain explicit
philosophical positioning, or may address foundations of different perspectives that were uncovered.
Further, three groupings of articles according to main lines of study were identified: advantages and
disadvantages of telework (including impact), management of telework, and critical perspectives on
telework. The study only included papers that explicitly focus on telework (including home-based
telework and telecommuting) and covers a spread in time (ranging from 1998 – 2009). Table 3 provides
an overview of the articles that will be included in the study. This selection is by no means exhaustive, but
serves to provide a meaningful overview of perspectives on telework in literature. Over time more articles
may be added if this can provide better insights and different groupings may emerge.
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The current paper is only based on a small selection of these papers (the two papers in bold). Though this
is only a small sample, it sufficiently shows the analytical power of the chosen approach.
Table 3 Overview of included articles
Grouping
Literature
survey, definition
advantages and
disadvantages,
impact
management
critical
perspectives
Articles
 Haddon, L. and Brynin, M. (2005), The character of telework and the characteristics of
teleworkers, New Technology Work and Employment, 20:1, pp. 34-46.
 Qvortrup, L. (1998), “From teleworking to networking; Definitions and trends”, in:
Jackson, P.J. and Van der Wielen, J.M. (eds.), Teleworking: International perspectives; from
telecommuting to the virtual organisation, Routledge London, pp. 21-39.
 Sullivan, C. (2003), “What’s in a name? Definitions and conceptualisations of
teleworking and homeworking”, New Technology Work and Employment, Vol. 18,
No. 3, pp. 158-165.
 Tietze, S., Musson, G. and Scurry, T. (2009), Homebased work: a review of
research into themes, directions and implications, Personnel Review, 38 (6), pp.
585-604.
 Baruch, Y. (2000), Teleworking: benefits and pitfalls as perceived by professionals and
managers, New Technology, Work and Employment, Vol. 15 (1): 34 –49.
 Konradt, U., Schmook, R. and Mälecke, M. (2000), “Impacts of telework on individuals,
organisations and families—a critical review”, International Review of Industrial and
Organisational Psychology, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 63-99.
 Daniels, K., D. Lamond and P. Standen (2001), ‘Teleworking: Frameworks for
Organisational Research’, Journal of Management Studies 38, 8, 1151–1185
 Dimitrova, D. (2003), “Controlling Teleworkers: supervision and flexibility revisited”, New
Technology, Work and Employment, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 181-195.
 Illegems, V. and Verbeke, A. (2004), “Telework: What Does it Mean for Management?”,
Long Range Planning, Vol. 37, No. 4, , pp. 319-334.
 Watad M.M. and Will P.C. (2003), “Telecommuting and organisational change: a middlemanagers’ perspective”, Business Process Management Journal, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 459-472.
 Hislop, D. and C. Axtell (2007), The neglect of spatial mobility in contemporary studies of
work: the case of telework, New Technology, Work and Employment, 22, 1, pp 34–51.
 Mann, S. and Holdsworth, L. (2003), “The psychological impact of teleworking: stress,
emotions and health”, New Technology, Work and Employment, Vol, 18, No. 3, pp. 196-211.
 Tremblay, D.G. (2002), "Balancing work and family with telework? Organisational issues
and challenges for women and managers", Women in Management Review, Vol. 17 No. 34, pp. 157-70.
The articles were read and notes were made against the framework of aspects. Issues addressed in each
paper were also linked to aspects that captured their meaning best, so a quantitative analysis can be
presented showing the strength of presence of each aspect in each paper and across the different sections.
These notes were taken together and analysed. The current paper, based on only a small sample of
telework papers, focuses on showing how this analysis is shaped and gives a first indication of the kinds
of insights this type of analysis can provide.
It is important to note that it is often not straightforward to establish the meaning sphere an author
intended when discussing issues around telework. This is partly because single issues are inherently related
to a range of aspects, but also because authors are not always really clear about what they mean when
discussing particular concepts and ideas. In the analysis (coding), judgments were thus necessarily made to
try to highlight the aspect that most closely linked to the intended meaning. A further issue to highlight is
the distinction between a paper’s analytical approach as a work of academic research – intended to
contribute to an academic debate – and the way it tries to uncover the meaning of telework. In discussing
definitions, papers will necessarily blur this distinction. In the coding of each paper, only aspect related to
the meaning of telework were included, not those only reflecting the academic method.
3.2 Survey and definition
The paper by Tietze et al (2009) is positioned by the authors thus: it “…reviews those papers which
make sense of homeworking in light of wider social and organisational changes including the broader
5
context of the work-life balance discourse” (p. 586), “..rather than framing it as a technology related
phenomena/problem” (p585). This suggests that meaning of telework in this paper is particularly related
to the social aspect and the aesthetic aspect, if we take it that work-life balance is bound up with harmony.
It also suggests that the formative aspect (technology related phenomenon), is less important. The paper
organises the literature it discusses in distinct sections: definitions and scope, the wider context,
theoretical-conceptual contributions, and issue-based literature (groups and groupings, gender, social
“others”, time and space). Each section highlights a distinctive set of issues and thus slightly different
groupings of aspects appear to make them meaningful. The bar chart below (Figure 1) shows the
presence of aspects for the entire paper.
60
50
40
30
20
Tietze et al 2009
10
Pistic
Ethical, Moral
Juridical
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Aesthetic
6
Economic
5
Social
Biotic
4
Lingual
Physical
3
Formative
Kinematic
2
Sensory
Spatial
1
Analytical
Quantitative
0
Figure 1 Aspects of meaning in Tietze et al 2009
The graph suggests that, in reality, the formative aspect is more important in the paper than the social
aspect. This is a result of the paper giving much space to debates on traditional and changing
arrangements at home, including influence of gender issues. These were classified as formative because
they relate to culture and history. Note that gender in itself could be seen as biotic, but that is not the
aspect that relates to its meaning in this context (it is not about the physiological differences between men
and women, but the cultural meaning). The paper explores in many different ways how telework (home
work) influences and is influenced by existing social groupings (including gender, class, type of work).
It is also noticeable that the sensory aspect is important. This relates to the attention given to impacts on
individuals, particularly their emotions and identities. The social aspect does feature strongly, but mostly
in a broad, organisational sense (institutions), rather than with specific issues around relationships and
interaction (though these do appear too). The economic aspect is sometimes related to organisations, but
more to individuals needing to distribute their time between different spheres of their lives. As was to be
expected, the spatial aspect, referring to the location of work (home/office), is a strong part of the
meaning sphere of telework. Unexpectedly, the lingual aspect, in its reference to communication, is
almost absent. The one reference to the pistic aspect is linked to the statement on p. 595 that “…
homebased production carries an existential dimension, entailing questions of “how one is to live and
work” in contemporary capitalist societies”.
Very interestingly, at different points in the paper, the authors find that homework is “deeply ambiguous”.
For example: ‘”homeworkers simultaneously integrate their work and family activities while managing the
threat which is that very integration process” (p594). “….capable of both enhancing work-life balance
while perpetuating traditional work and family roles” (idem). This is certainly a side to telework that could
be further explored in detail using the aspect framework to see if more insight can be gained into the
nature of this ambiguity.
6
The paper by Sullivan (2003) quite explicitly tries to take a neutral position on the meaning of telework.
It discusses whether it is fruitful to insist on a single definition of telework for all academic studies, or
whether it is better to use project-specific definitions. Due to the “breadth and complexity of phenomena
under study” (p. 158), it is “… important not to restrict a definition in one dimension or aspect of
telework….”. The author suggests that ultimately, by building on and refining work using multiple,
project specific definitions, a single definition, capturing the meaning of telework may be created.
However, as such a definition does not yet exist, the meaning and principal aspect of telework will vary
depending on a particular perspective that is under consideration, be this impact on family-life of use of
IT by teleworkers, or impact on productivity of different forms of telework. In the paper, the author
discusses several definitions and debates on definitions, thus generating a useful overview of perspectives
on meaning of telework. See Figure 2 for an overview.
30
25
20
15
10
Sullivan 2003
5
Sensory
Analytical
Formative
Lingual
Pistic
Biotic
3
4
5
6
7
8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ethical, Moral
Physical
Juridical
Kinematic
2
Aesthetic
Spatial
1
Economic
Quantitative
Social
0
Figure 2 Aspects of meaning in Sullivan 2003
This appears to be a slightly more balanced picture than the Tietze paper (Figure 1), though with similar
omissions. The spatial aspect is more dramatically present, reflecting the fact that this aspect appears in
any form of definition of telework, as it inherently relates to the location where work is done. Because the
paper focuses on definitions to support a range of perspectives, there is not a great amount in the paper
on the different types of impacts and implications of telework. However, where it discusses projectspecific definitions, it provides a series of examples that are reflected in the different aspects, for example
communication with colleagues, or impact on family members. Cumulatively these do show a spread over
the different aspects as shown in the graph.
3.3
Advantages and disadvantages of telework
3.4
Management of telework
3.5
Critical perspectives
(will be added in future papers)
(will be added in future papers)
(will be added in future papers)
4 DISCUSSION
Figure 3 compares the ‘aspect scores’ of both papers that were analysed above. The ‘score’ shows the
relative importance of an aspect by showing it is a percentage of the total number of observations (total
was 248 for Tietze et al and 115 for Sullivan). The most dramatic difference is in the aesthetic aspect,
7
which reflects the great attention paid to this in Tietze et al. The Sullivan paper had a more analytical
contribution to an understanding of telework. This does not mean there was not a lot of analytical
thinking in Tietze, but there is was more related to reflection on academic method, rather than
understanding telework.
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
Sullivan 2003
10%
Tietze et al 2009
5%
Quantitative
Spatial
Kinematic
Physical
Biotic
Sensory
Analytical
Formative
Lingual
Social
Economic
Aesthetic
Juridical
Ethical, Moral
Pistic
0%
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Figure 3 Comparing Sullivan 2003 and Tietze et al 2009 - relative importance of aspects
Looking at the ‘scores’ overall, both the formative and spatial aspects stand out, but there is overall a
good ‘spread’. This reflects that both authors acknowledge telework to be complex and diverse. Based on
this graph, one could decide that the core aspect of telework appear to be the formative aspect, reflecting
history, culture, creativity, achievement and technology. A potential interpretation of that finding is that
telework is (still) seen as a deviation from established patterns, and its meaning is seen in that context.
The formative aspect is ‘teamed’ with the spatial aspect that indicates the essence of this deviation,
namely the location of work.
Clearly these are very preliminary findings, but they show how using Dooyeweerd’s aspect provides
insights in how telework is seen, both in individual papers and across the academic research domain.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wants to express sincere thanks to Professor Andrew Basden at Salford University for
inspiring her to engage with Dooyeweerd’s philosophy, and for his helpful and encouraging feedback on a
draft of this paper.
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