Anatomy and physiology of the vocal tract and articulatory locations
1. Outline
-
Vocal tract and articulatory organs
Airstream mechanisms
State of the vocal cords
Velum position
Places of articulation
Manners of articulation
Articulation of vowels
Classification of speech sounds
Consonants vs. Vowels
Suprasegmental features
2. Vocal tract and articulatory organs (PL: Kanał głosowy i narządy
artykulacyjne)
Articulators (PL: artykulatory) are those parts of the vocal tract which can be used
to produce speech sounds.
They include (see the figures above):
Upper and lower lip (PL: dolna i górna warga)
Teeth (PL: zęby)
Alveolar ridge (PL: wałek dziąsłowy) – a small protuberance that you can feel
with the tip of the tongue when you slide it from the upper teeth backwards
(Hard) palate (PL: podniebienie twarde) – the front part of the roof of the mouth
formed by a bony structure
Velum also known as soft palate (PL: podniebienie miękkie) – located further
back at the back of the mouth, a muscular flap that can be raised to press against
the back wall of the pharynx and to form “velic closure” which prevents the air
escaping through the nose when producing nasal sounds
Uvula (PL: języczek) – a small appendage hanging down at the lower end of the
soft palate
Pharynx (PL: gardło) – part of the vocal tract between the uvula and the larynx
Larynx (PL: krtań) where vocal cords are located
Trachea (PL: tchawica)
Lungs (PL: płuca)
Tongue
Tip (PL: czubek)
Blade – the flat part of the tongue
immediately behind the tip
Front of the tongue (PL: przód) –
the forward part of the body of the
tongue underneath the hard palate
Center of the tongue (PL: środek) –
located partly underneath the hard
palate and partly underneath the soft
palate
Back of the tongue (PL: tył) –
located underneath the soft palate
Root (PL: korzeń) – located opposite the back wall of the pharynx
Epiglottis (PL: nagłośnia) – attached to the lower part of the root of the tongue
In the production of speech sounds the following features are significant as they
determine the sound quality: airstream mechanism (PL: mechanizm wytwarzania
strumienia powietrza), state of the vocal cords (PL: stan strun głosowych), velum
position (PL: pozycja języczka), place of articulation (PL: miejsce artykulacji)
and manner of articulation (PL: sposób artykulacji). They will be described in
detail in the following sections.
3. Airstream mechanisms (PL: mechanizmy wytwarzania strumienia
powietrza)
Airstream
mechanism
Airflow
initiator
Airflow
direction
which language?
Pulmonic
egressive
lungs
outwards
Most languages, for many it
is the sole AM.
Velaric
ingressive
velum
inwards
Zulu (S. Africa)
Glottalic
egressive
glottis
outwards
Navajo (N. America)
Glottalic
ingressive
glottis
inwards
Sindhi (India)
Airstream mechanisms provide the source of energy for generating speech sounds
using airflow and pressure in the vocal tract. There are four airstream mechanisms
distinguished on the basis of the place where the airflow is initiated and airflow
direction. The airflow can be initiated in the lungs (PL: płuca), at velum (PL:
języczek) or at glottis (PL: głośnia) and can go outwards (i.e. you speak when you
breath out) or inwards (i.e. you speak when you breath in).
4. State of the vocal cords (PL: stan strun głosowych)
State of the vocal cords allows us to distinguish between voiced and voiceless
sounds.
The air is pushed from the lungs and moves up the trachea into the larynx where it
encounters vocal cords. Vocal cords are two small muscular folds that take
different position and modify the passage of the airflow. The space between the
vocal cords is called glottis (PL: głośnia).
When glottis is opened (the cords are far apart)
the air from the lungs has a relatively free
passage into the pharynx and the mouth. In this
way voiceless sounds are produced, e.g. Polish
consonants /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /s/, /ɕ/ (śnieg), /ʃ/
(szafa), /x/ (hałas), /t^s/ (cały), /t^ɕ/ (pić), /t^ʃ/
(czas).
When the vocal cords are adjusted with only a
narrow passage between them, the airstream
will cause them to vibrate and voiced sounds
will be produced, e.g. all Polish vowels,
sonorants and consonants /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/,
/ʑ/ (źle), /ʒ/ (żaba), /d^z/, /d^ʑ/ (dźwig), /d^ʒ/
(dżem).
5. Velum position (PL: pozycja języczka).
Velum position allows us to distinguish between nasal (PL: nosowe) and oral (PL:
ustne) sounds.
In most speech velum (soft palate) is raised so that there is
a velic closure and the air is prevented from escaping
through the nose. In this way oral sounds are produced
including Polish vowels /i/, /I/, /e/, /a/, /o/ and /u/ and all
consonants except for /m/, /n/, /ɲ/ (pań) and /ŋ / (bank).
However, velum can also be lowered in which case the air
goes through the nose and nasal sounds are formed. In
Polish they include nasal vowels [ą] and [ę] and
consonants /m/, /n/, /ɲ/ and /ŋ /.
6. Place of articulation (PL: miejsce artykulacji).
The airstream which goes through the vocal tract must encounter some kind of an
obstruction to form a consonantal sound. Consonants are then classified depending
on the place and manner of this obstruction known as place and manner of
articulation.
Place of articulation refers to the horizontal relationship between the articulators. It
specifies the position of the highest point of the active articulator in relation to the
passive articulator (the latter gives the name to the place of articulation).
There are three major places of articulation: the lips, the tongue tip & blade and the
back of the tongue.
We can distinguish three types of articulations depending on which of the three
places is used: labial (PL: ustne), coronal (PL: koronalne) and dorsal (PL:
dorsalne) articulations.
Place of
articulation
Articulation type
lips
labial
tongue tip & blade
coronal
the back of the
tongue
dorsal
In order to specify articulatory gestures in sufficient detail, more specific places of
articulation have to be distinguished. They are illustrated in the figures below.
1. bilabial
2. labiodental
3. dental
4. alveolar
5. retroflex
6. palato-alveolar
7. palatal
8. velar
9. uvular
10. pharyngeal
11. glottal
12. post-dental
13. post-alveolar
14. alveolo-palatal
12 13
14
6.1Labial articulations
They include labial (PL: dwuwargowe) and labiodental (PL: wargowo-zębowe)
articulations.
In case of labial consonants (PL: spółgłoski dwuwargowe) the
articulation is formed by the upper and lower lip:
/b/ but, /p/ ptak, /m/ mama, /w/ łódź.
Labiodental consonants (PL: spółgłoski wargowozębowe) are pronounced using the lower teeth and
upper lip: /f/ fortuna, /v/ wóz.
6.2 Coronal articulations
They include dental, post-dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-alveolar, alveolopalatal, palatal and retroflex articulations.
In case of dental consonants (PL: spółgłoski zębowe) the
articulation is formed by the upper teeth and tip of the
tongue:
/t/ tempo, /d/ dom, /n/ nos.
Post-dental consonants (PL: spółgłoski zazębowe)
are produced using the tip of the tongue and the
upper teeth and the area just behind them: /s/
stały, /z/ zmienny, /t^ɕ/ cały, /d^ʑ/ dzwon.
Alveolar consonants (PL: spółgłoski dziąsłowe): the place
of articulation is at the alveolar ridge and tip of the
tongue is the active articulator:
/t^ʃ/ czekać, /d^ʒ/ dżentelmen, /l/ lalka, /r/ rak.
English: /s/ snake , /z/ zebra , /t/ tiger , /d/ dog , /ɾ/ better.
Post-alveolar consonants (PL: spółgłoski
zadziąsłowe): the place of articulation is at the front of
the hard palate and blade of the tongue is the active
articulator:
/ʃ/ e.g. szczęście, szukać, /ʒ/ e.g. żaba, żeby, rzeka.
Palato-alveolar consonants (PL: spółgłoski
środkowojęzykowo dziąsłowe): the place of articulation is at
the back of the alveolar ridge and blade of the tongue is
the active articulator:
English /ʃ/ shrew, /ʒ/ measure, /t^ʃ/ chimpanzee, /d^ʒ/
lodger.
Alveolo-palatal consonants (PL: spółgłoski dziąsłowośrodkowojęzykowe): the place of articulation is at the
front of the hard palate and the blade & center of the
tongue is the active articulator:
/ɕ/ śnieg, /ʑ/ źle, /t^ɕ/ ciało, /d^ʑ/ dźwięk, /ɲ/ niemodny.
Palatal consonants (PL: spółgłoski palatalne,
środkowojęzykowe): the place of articulation is at the hard
palate and the front of the tongue is the active articulator:
/c/ kiedy, /ɟ/ giełda, /j/ jasny.
Retroflex consonants (PL: spółgłoski z retrofleksją): the place of articulation is at
the back of the alveolar ridge and the tip of the tongue is the active articulator.
English (only optionally): /ʂ/ try , /ʐ/ dry.
6.3 Dorsal articulations
They include velar, uvular, pharyngeal and glottal articulations.
Velar consonants (PL: spółgłoski welarne, tylnojęzykowopodniebienne): the place of articulation is at velum (soft
palate) and back of the tongue is the active articulator:
/x/ harcerz, chata, /k/ kret, kredka, /g/ góry, kangury, /ŋ/
tango
velar
uvular
pharyngeal
glottal
Uvular consonants (PL: spółgłoski języczkowe) are
formed by the back of the tongue and uvula, e.g.
French „rat”
Pharyngeal consonants (PL: spółgłoski gardłowe)
are formed by tongue root and pharynx wall.
Glottal consonants (PL: spółgłoski krtaniowe):
vocal cords are the active and passive articulator:
nauka
/naʔuka/
uiścić
/ʔuʔiɕtɕitɕ/
o
/ʔoʔ/ (only if pronounced in isolation)
7. Manner of articulation (PL: sposób artykulacji).
Manner of articulation refers to the distance between active and passive articulator.
Articulators may approach each other to a different extent: they can become very
close for an instant or a relatively longer period, they may narrow the space in the
vocal tract to a different extent and modify the shape of the vocal tract.
We distinguish the following classes of consonants according to the manner of
articulation: stops (PL: spółgłoski zwarto-wybuchowe), fricatives (PL: spółgłoski
szczelinowe), affricates (PL: spółgłoski zwarto-szczelinowe), liquids (PL:
spółgłoski płynne) and glides or semi-vowels (PL: półsamogłoski).
7.1 Stops (PL: spółgłoski zwarto-wybuchowe).
Stops are produced with a complete closure of the speech organs involved in their
articulation so that the airstream can not escape through the mouth. If the soft
palate is raised and the nasal tract is blocked off then an oral stop will be produced.
The pressure will built up in the oral cavity and when the articulators come apart
the pressure will be released and a small burst will be heard.
In Polish there are three classes of oral stops: labial /p/, /b/, dental /t/, /d/ and velar
/k/, /g/.
If the soft palate is lowered and the nasal tract is opened then a nasal stop will be
produced.
It should be noted that the term stops is usually used in the meaning „oral stops”,
whereas nasal stops are referred to as nasals (PL: spółgłoski nosowe).
Nasal stops in Polish include bilabial /m/, dental /n/, palato-alveolar /ɲ/ and velar
/ŋ/.
7.2 Fricatives (PL: spółgłoski szczelinowe)
Fricatives are speech sounds produced with a close approximation of two
articulators which form an obstruction and create a turbulent airflow.
Polish fricatives include labiodental /f/, /v/, post-dental /s/, /z/, post-alveolar /ʃ/,
/ʒ/, alveolo-palatal /ɕ/, /ʑ/ and velar /x/.
7.3 Affricates (PL: spółgłoski zwarto-szczelinowe)
Production of affricates involves more than one manner of articulation - they are
formed as a combination of a stop followed by a fricative of the same place of
articulation: post-dental /t^s/, /d^z/, alveolar /t^ʃ/, /d^ʒ/ and alveolo-palatal /t^ɕ/,
/d^ʑ/.
7.4 Liquids (PL: spółgłoski płynne)
In the production of liquids the articulators approach each other, but to such an
extent that there is a free passage of air through the oral tract, e.g.
lateral /l/ – the centre of the tongue is in contact with the alveolar ridge but the air
flows freely over the lowered sides of the tongue
trill /r/ – the sides of the tongue are in contact with the gums, but the air flows
freely down the centre of the tongue
7.5 Glides, semi-vowels (PL: półsamogłoski)
The articulation of glides differs from that of consonants and vowels.
There are two criteria for the distinction of glides: the first one is refers to their
articulation and the other one refers to phonology, i.e. how they function in the
language.
Comparing to consonants, in the production of glides the active and passive
articulators create a wide stricture and the airstream flows through it unhindered,
which is similar to the articulation of vowels.
However, what differs glides from vowels from the perspective of the articulation
is the unstable position of the articulators:
/j/ and /w/ are produced with the same position of the articulators as /i/ and /I/
respectively, but the stricture formed by the articulators is narrower in case of the
glides than the corresponding vowels.
The unstable position of the articulators means that if we try to „prolong” the
articulation of the sound /j/ or /w/ after a while it will turn into its corresponding
vowel as a result of the stabilization of the articulators.
Like consonants, glides do not comprise the nucleus of the syllable.
Glides and liquids are classified as approximants (PL: aproksymanty). Together
with nasals and vowels they belong to sonorants (PL: sonoranty).
8. Articulation of vowels (PL: artykulacja samogłosek).
Vowels are articulated with an open approximation i.e. the articulators are
positioned relatively wide apart so that the airstream flows unobstructed through
the oral cavity. The most important features which distinguish vowels in various
languages include:
a) horizontal and vertical position of the tongue i.e. the height of the tongue body
and its front-back position
b) the degree of lip rounding
The height of the tongue body distinguishes high, mid and low vowels (PL:
samogłoski wysokie, średnie i niskie), whereas the vertical position is what differs
front from back vowels (PL: samogłoski przednie i tylne).
The figure below illustrates various tongue positions (numbers from 1-7) for
English vowels.
For the vowels 1-4 the highest point of the tongue is in front of the mouth and thus
they are referred to as front vowels.
On the contrary, for vowels 5-7 the highest position of the body of the tongue is
close to the back surface of the vocal tract – these vowels are classified as back
vowels.
Apart from the front-back distinction we’ve mentioned the classes of high, mid and
low vowels.
This classification refers to the position of the tongue body relative to the passive
articulator (the palate).
In the figure on the left, the vowel 1 is a high
vowel – we can see that in the articulation of
this particular vowel the tongue blade is the
closest to the palate.
On the contrary, vowels 4 and 5 are
articulated with the body of the tongue
positioned very low – they are classified as
low vowels.
The articulations in between these two
extremes are characteristic for mid vowels.
Tongue positions for 7 English vowels (above):
1) heed, 2) hid , 3) head, 4) had, 5) father, 6) good, 7) food
The figure on the right shows vowel
chart which represents the articulation
of vowels.
We can see here eight cardinal vowels
which are distributed exactly at the
intersections of the lines that show
different positions of the body of the
tongue in the vertical and horizontal
line.
Polish vowels are also depicted in this chart – they are marked in circles.
/i/ Iwona, /I/ syn, /e/ Ela, /a/ Ala, /o/ Ola, /u/ Ula
The vowel chart can be located in the vocal tract so
that you can see exactly how it reflects different
positions of the tongue body.
9. Classification of speech sounds
Consonants can be described by referring to the following features:
- Airstream mechanism
- The state of the vocal cords
- Velum position
- Place of articulation
- Manner of articulation
However, usually 3 dimensions are referred to: voicing (->state of the vocal cords),
place and manner of articulation. Airstream mechanism and velum position are
referred to only when the consonant is different than pulmonic egressive and oral
respectively.
Vowels can be distinguished on the basis of the height of the tongue body, the
front-back position of the tongue and the degree of lip rounding.
10.Vowels and consonants
The distinction between vowels and consonants is primary in the analysis and
description of speech. From the point of view of the articulation the main
difference between consonants and vowels concerns the degree of stricture i.e. the
distance between the active and passive articulators.
In the production of consonants there is always some kind of an obstruction in the
oral tract, whereas for vowels which are produced with an open approximation
there is no such hindrance and the air flows out freely.
Glides are somehow problematic, because like vowels they are articulated with an
open approximation, but at the phonological level they function in a similar way
to consonants.
The most important feature that distinguishes vowels from consonants concerns
phonology – vowels are syllabic i.e. they comprise the essential part of the
syllable known as nucleus without which there would be no syllable. Consonants
(including glides) never constitute the nucleus – they are optional in the syllable
structure and appear in the position of the syllable onset and coda.
In syllable structure we distinguish there parts: onset, nucleus and coda. As we’ve
said before nucleus is the obligatory part and it is a vowel. Onset consists of the
consonants preceding the vocalic nucleus and coda comprises the consonants
following the nucleus.
Polish monosyllabic words mam and pstryk can be represented as follows:
Onset: /m/
Nucleus: /a/
Coda: /m/
onset: /pstr/
nucleus: /I/
coda: /k/
11.Suprasegmental features (PL: cechy suprasegmentalne).
Suprasegmental features are those features which are superimposed on syllables as
opposed to segmental features whose domain are speech segments (vowels and
consonants).
Suprasegmental features include variation in stress and pitch. Sometimes
variation in length (duration) is also treated as a suprasegmental feature, but as a
matter of fact it affects both syllables and single segments.
Analysis and description of suprasegmental features is always carried out in
relation to other items in the same utterance, because relative values are
linguistically important and absolute values convey evidential information
(speaker’s age, sex, emotional state etc.).
Variation in stress is caused by an increase in the activity of the respiratory
muscles and the activity of the laryngeal muscles. As a result a greater amount of
the air is pushed out of the lungs and there is a significant change in pitch.
Stress has many different functions in different languages e.g.
a) grammatical function: in English it distinguishes between verbs (last syllable
of „insult”, „overflow”) and nouns (first syllable of „insult”, „overflow”)
b) lexical function: it is used to distinguish lexical meaning e.g. jajem vs. ja
jem
c) grouping function: each stressed syllable forms a stress group or foot with
adjacent/preceding unstressed syllables - stress patterns reflect prominence
relations between syllables and rhythmic structures of utterances, e.g. do
domu, dla mnie, do nas, pod spodem
d) demarcative function: position of the stressed syllable serves as a cue of the
presence of the word boundary e.g. in Polish (penultimate), Czech and
Finnish (left initial syllable), Turkish and French (right final syllable)
e) cumulative property: signaling the presence of a prosodic domain e.g. wordlevel stress is an indicator of the presence of a prosodic word, and sentencelevel stress signals presence of a phrase
f) it is commonly used for emphasis or contrastive emphasis.
Variation in pitch is caused by laryngeal activity that can occur independently of
variation in stress. Changes in the pitch that occur over the length of a phrase or a
sentence form patterns described as intonation. Different patterns convey different
types of semantic information (e.g. distinction between statement and interrogative
mode), evidential information (physical and psychological features of the speaker)
and regulative information (turn-taking and turn-giving in a conversation).