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Blood, Sweat, and Tears: An Analysis of the Desegregation of the Military
Bill Connerton
PS398A
Dr. Raymond
29 March 2015
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Why should a man’s race or skin color prevent him from serving his country with honor
and distinction? Neither one’s ethnic origins nor race impacts their ability to serve in arms. The
exemplary history of the United States has been marred by the stains of discrimination. Before
the desegregation of the U.S. military in 1948, blacks served their country with honor on many
occasions. During the American Civil War, close to 179,000 black men served in the Union
Army and 19,000 in the Navy.i Although these men were nominally granted citizenship and the
right to vote under the 14th and 15th Amendments, they would not truly gain these rights until the
mid-20th century. After World War II and the sacrifices of African Americans in that war,
President Harry S. Truman issued Executive Order 9981 on July 26, 1948.ii Having fought for
their country with dignity and honor, President Truman forcefully ordered the
desegregation of the military so that African Americans might have equal rights, respect
for their sacrifices, and be fully integrated into the Armed Forces. This paper examines the
impact of President Truman’s executive order. One of the most important points discussed is the
historical origins of segregation in the Armed Forces. This examination of the history of
segregation also brings to mind the central question of the paper: why did President Truman
make the ultimate decision to order the desegregation of the military?
Since the history of the United States has not always been favorable for African
Americans, the forceful desegregation of the military was a necessary event. Truman set out that
the desegregation of the military was “essential” and that the “highest standards of democracy,
with equality of treatment and opportunity for all those who serve in our country’s military”
must be maintained.iii Not only was it fitting that Truman should write these words, but also that
he should effectively believe them. Executive Order 9981 also established the Committee on
Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Forces.iv This Committee was to have
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seven members, who were to be chosen by the President.v The main reason for establishing this
Committee was to implement and execute Order 9981 as quickly and effectively as possible.vi
Thus, the responsibility of desegregation fell to President Truman, who tried to treat everyone
(especially African Americans) with decency and respect.
While Truman’s decision to implement Order 9981 was highly controversial, his
decision must be seen in the light of history. Beginning with the American Revolution, blacks
served in the Armed Forces. During the American Civil War, one in every twelve Union soldiers
was African American.vii Through their participation in America’s wars, blacks showed an
unwavering sense of duty. During the Civil War, the price that blacks for liberty was 40,000
lives.viii Due to the sacrifice of these men, the minds of many Americans were changing. For
instance, Republican Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts proposed legislation in 1866 that
would require the Army to recruit and maintain four regiments of black infantry and two
regiments of black cavalry.ix This legislative action was ultimately successful.
In addition to the sacrifice of blacks during the American Revolution and the Civil War,
the role of black serviceman serving in World War I was fraught with much controversy. The
Selective Service Act of 1917 required that all men between the ages of 21-35 register for the
draft regardless of race.x This apparent lack of racial requirements for service in the Armed
Forces signified a changing tide. However, desegregation still faced opposition from Southern
whites. One criticism of African American servicemen stemmed from a tragic event that
occurred in Houston on August 23, 1917.xi On that day, more than a 100 black servicemen from
Camp Logan, Texas retaliated for the ill-treatment and beating of a comrade.xii The black
soldiers exacted their revenge by shooting and killing 15 white civilians.xiii
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Despite the fact that blacks fought honorably in the United States’ many wars, full
integration occurred many years after Truman’s Executive Order 9981. The central question is:
why did President Truman make the ultimate decision to order the desegregation of the military?
Desegregation took so long to occur because of long standing racial tensions and deeply
entrenched prejudices in the United States. In the aforementioned event in Houston, one heard
the story of black soldiers who were bent on revenge. One of the most immediate reactions by
Southern whites was a call for black troops to be trained in Northern states.xiv Finding it hard to
dislodge these long-held prejudices, racial segregation required more drastic measures.
Desegregation of the Armed Forces required great effort by military officials and placed
great pressure on them. Not only were Pentagon officials expected to integrate blacks into
combat units as quickly as possible; they were also expected to do so in an efficient manner.
Facing the prejudice of white soldiers and a finicky society, the military was giving little
cooperation in the fight for integration. This cooperation would prove critical if Truman’s Order
9981 was to be fully implemented. Thus, the desegregation of the military was constrained by
many factors.
Foremost among these factors was the resistance of several high ranking generals. A few
months before Order 9981 was issued in July 1948. General Dwight D. Eisenhower had testified
before Congress.xv In his testimony, he reported that blacks were inferior to white soldiers and
were likely to serve poorly in the military.xvi Another influential general, Omar Bradley, argued
that the military’s policies would only change as the nation’s policies changed.xvii In other words,
one of the Army’s top generals was refusing to comply with a presidential order until forced to
take action.
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The central question at hand is: why did President Harry S. Truman desegregate the
Armed Forces? Initially, President Truman’s background had not influenced his sympathy
towards the desegregation of the military. Growing up in rural Missouri and raised by a mother,
who had a lingering hatred against Abraham Lincoln, Truman was raised by a family that had
been slaveholders before the Civil War.xviii Despite the prejudices from his upbringing, Truman’s
views on race evolved. Largely, as a result of the blacks who applied to Judge Truman for help,
Truman’s prejudice was mostly dissipated.xix Hence, Truman’s experiences and personal
convictions influenced his decision to issue Executive Order 9981.
Harry Truman’s views on desegregation of the military were further shaped by tragic
events in the 1940s. For instance, Truman was appalled to hear about the case of Isaac
Woodward. Woodward, who had just been discharged from the Army, was dragged from his bus
and blinded by a South Carolina police chief in 1946.xx Although he did not favor social equality
for blacks, President Truman could hardly remain inactive while such atrocious actions were
occurring. Another event that influenced Truman’s racial views involved black prisoners in
Columbia, Tennessee, two of whom were murdered in their sleep.xxi Consequently, President
Truman began to have qualms about racial affairs in the United States.
Another dynamic of Truman’s decision to desegregate the military was his devotion to
democratic values. The discrimination against blacks, especially those who served in the U.S.
military with honor, was contrary to democratic values. To preserve the civil rights of blacks,
Truman had sponsored legislation that banned lynching and poll-taxes during his two terms as a
Senator from Missouri.xxii These actions in Congress espoused Truman’s appreciation for the 14th
and 15th Amendments respectively. Another sign of President Truman’s dedication to democratic
values was his promise to desegregate the military and allow equality of opportunity.xxiii Despite
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the costs of defending African Americans’ civil rights, Truman accepted the responsibility of his
actions and refused to pass the buck.
Accepting the President’s call for the desegregation of the military and preservation of
civil rights, the President’s Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed
Forces led the fight. Truman chose a Georgian lawyer and former head of the National Labor
Relations Board, Charles Fahy, to head the Committee.xxiv In its two year examination, the
Commission became known as the Fahy Committee. The Fahy Commission noted many
successes in the fight for integration. One of these successes was the placid response of the Air
Force. The Air Force provided the least resistance to the Commission and came up with its out
plan for desegregation.xxv
Aside from the assistance of Air Force officials in desegregation, integration of blacks
into naval units faltered due to internal resistance. Failing to “fulfill the requirement of equal
treatment and opportunity throughout the service,” the Committee refused to accept the Navy’s
plan for integration.xxvi The recalcitrance of military officials in desegregating the military was
not indicative of a failure on Truman’s part, but rather on the beliefs of society. However, as time
passed, the Navy devised a plan which was accepted by the Fahy Committee. This plan, which
lowered the entrance requirements for sailors, was adopted on June 7, 1949.xxvii Like the gradual
progress of integration require several years to implement.
After its success in securing plans from the Air Force and Navy for desegregation, the
Committee set out to desegregate the Army. As the service with the largest contingent of black
enlistees, the Committee refused to ignore desegregation in this quarter.xxviii One of the fiercest
critics against integration was Secretary of the Army Kenneth Royall. Secretary Royall argued
that desegregation would inflame racial tensions and disrupt the efficacy of active fighting
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units.xxix These efforts, which showed an open disobedience and disregard toward Truman’s call
for desegregation, would eventually collapse in the face of mounting evidence.
With a mixed record of success after nearly two years of existence, Charles Fahy acting
in conjunction with the other members of the President’s Committee issued the final report. The
report of the Committee’s findings, known as Freedom to Serve, was presented on May 22, 1950
and found that desegregation of the Army would require more time than previously anticipated.
xxx
Additionally, only drastic measures could bring about the desegregation of the Army.
Ironically, the North Korean invasion of South Korea on June 25, 1950 would spark the
momentum for the practicality of desegregation.xxxi Wartime events and instances of courage in
battle can sway the hardest of hearts.
The Korean War revealed the efficacy of desegregation and the courage of African
American soldiers. Due to Truman’s fulfillment of his promise to desegregate the military, more
blacks than ever were drafted and enlisted—these men comprised 12% of the Army’s
manpower.xxxii With the high number of casualties among white soldiers, black soldiers were
called upon to fight and to replenish the decimated American forces. Mostly concentrated in the
8th Army, which was under the command of General Matthew Ridgeway, desegregation of the
Army was essentially abolished upon Ridgeway’s assumption as the commander of American
forces in Korea.xxxiii Truman’s decision to send U.S. troops to Korea inadvertently contributed to
the rapid desegregation of the Army.
The overall result of Order 9981 was not just the preservation of African Americans’
rights, but also the start of a new era in American history. The turns of the events during and
after the Korean War ensured that blacks would enjoy the same rights as whites within the
military. The post-Korean War era established a future, which evinced a promise of greater
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equality of African Americans. Under the direction of the Truman Administration, the
desegregation of the U.S. military was a virtual success. By October 12, 1953 more than 95
percent of the African Americans in the Armed Forces were serving in integrated units.xxxiv
Despite the fact that most Southerners and many Americans were opposed to President
Truman’s decision to desegregate the military, Executive Order 9981 was necessary to prompt
some societal action. The inaction of the Republican controlled 84th Congress demonstrated the
need for a substantive action. Seizing the initiative, Truman laid the groundwork that would give
birth to the modern civil rights movement. By allowing greater freedom for black soldiers,
Truman also guaranteed that the sacrifice of African Americans soldiers in defense of the nation
would not be in vain. In this way, the President ultimately achieved the preservation and
expansion of the democratic values he so valued to an unprivileged minority. In sum, the
unpopular decision made by President Truman was done in the best interests of the American
people and future generations come. Truman’s advocacy and support of a most unpopular
decision showed true courage and demonstrated the ability of the President to alleviate social ills
when others refused to do so.
While African Americans fought and died for their country beginning with the Civil
War, President Harry S. Truman sought to grant equal rights to African Americans in the
military, equal treatment, and the integration of blacks into combat units. While the United
States has not always had the strongest of moral compasses, this great nation has generally
respected the rights of its citizens. However, African Americans in the Armed Forces continued
to be treated with discrimination well into the mid-20th century. Although the sacrifice of African
Americans was great—more than 40,000 blacks gave their lives in the Civil War and countless
others in the many wars of the nation—their rights were still disregarded and tramped upon.xxxv
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In performing distinguished services to their country, African Americans slowly earned equal
rights and honor within the eyes of their comrades in the Armed Forces.
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Endnotes
Elsie Freeman, Wynell Burroughs Schamel, and Jean West, “The Fight for Equal Rights: A Recruiting
Poster for Black Soldiers in the Civil War,” Social Education 56, no. 2 (1992): 118. Accessed Feb. 11, 2015.
http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/blacks-civil-war/
i
Harry S. Truman, “Executive Order 9981,” Harry S. Truman Library and Museum, accessed Feb. 10,
2015, http://www.trumanlibrary.org/photos/9981a.jpg.
ii
iii
Ibid.
iv
Ibid.
v
Ibid.
vi
Ibid.
Rawn James, Jr., The Double V: How Wars, Protests, and Harry S. Truman Desegregated America’s
Military (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013), 15.
vii
viii
Ibid., 15.
ix
Ibid., 15.
x
Ibid., 27.
xi
Ibid., 32.
xii
Ibid., 32.
xiii
Ibid., 33.
xiv
Ibid., 34.
xv
Robert Shogan, Harry Truman and the Struggle for Racial Justice (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press
of Kansas, 2013), 130.
xvi
Ibid., 130.
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xvii
Ibid., 130.
xviii
Ibid., 16-17.
xix
Ibid., 32.
xx
Ibid., 11.
xxi
Ibid., 89.
xxii
Sherie Mershon and Steven Schlossman, Foxholes & Color Lines: Desegregating the U.S. Armed
Forces (Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1998), 160.
xxiii
Ibid., 167.
xxiv
Ibid., 189.
xxv
Ibid., 193-194.
xxvi
Ibid., 199.
xxvii
Ibid., 202.
xxviii
Ibid., 205.
xxix
xxx
Ibid., 207.
James, The Double V, 236.
xxxi
Ibid., 236.
xxxii
Ibid., 237.
xxxiii
Ibid., 237-238.
xxxiv
Ibid., 239.
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xxxv
Freeman, Schamel, and West, 118.
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