Mt. Healthy City Schools
Special Education Services
Educational Disabilities, Characteristics,
and Instructional Implications:
A Guide for Parents and Teachers
Compiled by: Bill Bentley, School Psychologist
Mandy Cavanaugh, School Psychologist
Jill Fickling-Conyers, School Psychologist
Traci McCormick, School Psychologist
June 2013
1
Special education services are available to all eligible children in the Mt. Healthy City School
District, beginning at age three and extending through age 21. The Mt. Healthy Preschool program
provides services for preschool children (ages 3-5) with developmental delays. A full range of
special education services is available throughout the district to meet the unique needs of each
student with a classified disability.
One of the salient aspects in determining the placement of a student is the Least Restrictive
Environment (LRE), through which all students with disabilities are included in regular education
programming as much as possible, based on the individual needs of the student as determined at the
IEP meeting. Based on this concept, every effort is made to provide educational services to
students with disabilities in their home schools with their typically developing peers. If a more
restrictive setting is needed, it could be necessary to transfer a student to another building or to a
program outside of the district. The elementary buildings have overlapping yet different special
education service components based on the needs of the students and the resources of the
building. All elementary buildings provide services to students with disabilities in the regular
classroom but not all services are available in every school. Mt. Healthy Junior High and Mt. Healthy
High School has services for students with disabilities.
The Transition Process, which emphasizes development of post-high school plans beginning at the
middle school level, assists students and parents to be aware of diverse post-high school options
available to them. To be better prepared for post-high school life, students in the special education
program at the high school may be involved in the work/study program, vocational programs through
the Great Oaks Career Development Centers or any of a number of other vocational programs.
The Mt. Healthy Schools are fortunate to have a parent mentor available to provide information and
support to all parents, and especially those with children with disabilities. Rose Kahsar is the parent
mentor. Her office is room 31 at the Jr/Sr High School and she can be reached at 522-1612 or
fax 728-4695.
To receive special education services, a student must be evaluated and qualify for any of the
following categories defined by the federal government:
Multiple Disabilities (MD)
Emotional Disturbance (ED)
Deaf-Blind (DB)
Cognitive Disabilities (CD)
Deafness (HI)
Specific Learning Disabled (SLD)
Visual Impairment (VI)
Preschool With A Disability (PD)
Autism (AU)
Speech or Language Impairment (SI)
Orthopedic Impairment (OH)
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Other Health Impaired (OHI)
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Students who are suspected of having an educational disability are assessed and identified through
a multifactored evaluation process. Prior to suspecting a possible disability, tiered interventions
are needed to try to support the student in closing the gap with their peers. Students’ progress is
monitored while in intervention programs, using data collected to measure their growth. When
interventions have been implemented with integrity and have been increased in intensity without
showing a resulting positive impact on a student’s progress, then a disability may be suspected. The
following pages are meant to serve as a general overview of the characteristics and instructional
implications of the various educational disabilities, not as a checklist to determine eligibility.
Students with disabilities may differ in their presentation and needs. Many students, including
typically developing students, would benefit from the strategies suggested, not just those with the
specified disability. A student’s individual needs must be used to drive their educational program.
Table of Contents
Autism (AU)
Cognitive Disabilities (CD)
Deafness/Hearing Impairment (HI)
Emotional Disturbance (ED)
Multiple Disabilities (MD)
Orthopedic Impairment (OH)
Other Health Impaired (OHI)
Preschool With A Disability (PD)
Specific Learning Disabled (SLD)
Speech or Language Impairment (SI)
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Visual Impairment (VI)
Appendix (Classroom Modifications/Accommodations)
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EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
A developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social
interaction, generally evident before age three, that adversely affects a child’s educational
performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive
activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily
routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term does not apply if a child’s
educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has a serious emotional
disturbance. A child who manifests the characteristics of autism after age three could be
identified as having autism if the requirements of the first two sentences of this definition are
satisfied.
MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS
A child receives a medical diagnosis of Autism from a health professional. Criteria typically used
comes from The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders to diagnose the child, along with a battery of assessments to help verify their diagnosis.
A child who receives a medical diagnosis of Autism does not necessarily meet the educational
definition of Autism (and vice versa). The educational team must complete their own evaluation to
determine if the child meets the criteria for identification as a child with Autism in order to
receive special education programming.
CHARACTERISTICS
*Not all children with autism have the same characteristics, but at least some of these
characteristics are typically present in children with autism.
Communication/Language
o
o
o
o
o
Language develops slowly or not at all
May communicate with gestures rather than words
Difficulty expressing their ideas or processing what others are saying
Difficulty initiating or sustaining conversation with others
Pragmatic language deficits
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Shows limited interest or enjoyment of others
Tends to spend time alone rather than with others
Difficulty interacting with others
Less responsive to social cues
Lacks knowledge of unspoken social rules
Limited eye contact
Limited spontaneous or imaginative play
Does not imitate others’ actions
Social
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Stereotyped or Disruptive Behaviors
o Hand flapping, rocking, tip-toeing, wringing hands, etc.
o Inflexible adherence to routines and rituals
o Obsessions with certain topics or objects
o May throw frequent tantrums for no apparent reason
o Lack of safety skills and common sense; impulsivity
o May show aggressive or self-injurious behavior (e.g., banging head, picking skin)
Sensory
o Processes sensory information differently than typical children; all five senses can
be affected
o Unusual reactions to sensory experiences (e.g., screaming when overstimulated);
hypersensitive/over-reactive (e.g., covers ears in noisy environments or hating to be
touched or being highly sensitive to certain textures/tastes) or
hyposensitive/under-reactive to environmental stimuli (e.g., craves deep pressure or
motion, not feeling pain in normal way, constantly running or spinning)
o Engages in “stimming” behaviors to self-regulate (i.e., repetitive behaviors like hand
flapping that provide sensory input)
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
*Every child with autism is different. It is important to get to know the individual and their
particular interests, likes/dislikes, and strengths/weaknesses in order to properly plan educational
experiences:
-
Establish clear and consistent schedules and routines and adhere to them as closely as
possible
Prepare students in advance for changes in routine
Provide highly structured activities and procedures
Be mindful of the sensory stimulation in the environment and adjust as needed
Create a “sensory diet” specific to individual’s needs; consult with occupational therapist
Use visual tools, schedules, reminders, and prompts frequently; do not rely on verbal
instructions/directions
Speak slowly and clearly; clarify/restate as needed
Use hands-on materials and manipulatives; incorporate multiple modalities in instruction
Break tasks into small chunks
Use clearly defined work stations with explicit procedures
Use strategies to emphasize generalization of newly acquired skills
Use assistive technology as appropriate
Provide explicit social skills instruction
Incorporate social stories to help teach behaviors and skills
Teach the “hidden curriculum” (i.e., unwritten social rules and behaviors), how to understand
humor, how to read body language/gestures, and empathy
Incorporate daily living skills, community skills, leisure skills, and employability skills into
curriculum
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-
Incorporate student’s particular interests into instruction, do not try to extinguish them;
support their areas of interest while trying to expand them
Tailor motivators/incentives to student’s individual interests
Complete functional behavior assessment of inappropriate behaviors in order to understand
the function/communicative intent of the student’s behavior in order to develop effective
behavior plans
RESOURCES/REFERENCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages/ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicRelationID=9
68&ContentID=11128&Content=124547
Service Guidelines for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder Through The Lifespan –
developed by ODE, OCE, OCALI and Autism Society of Ohio:
http://www.ocali.org/up_doc/Autism_Service_Guidelines.pdf
Characteristics, Diagnoses, and Educational Needs of Children with Autism:
http://nwresd.k12.or.us/autism/CharacteristicsDiagnosisandEducationalNeedsofChildrenWithAutis
m2.html
Autism Speaks: www.autismspeaks.org
Autism World: www.autism-world.com
Ohio Center for Autism and Low Incidence: www.ocali.org
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EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
Significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in
adaptive behavior* and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.”
*Adaptive Behavior Deficits can include: Communication, Self-Care, Home Living, Social/Interpersonal
Skills, Use of Community Resources, Self-Direction, Functional Academic Skills, Work, Leisure, and
Safety.
CHARACTERISTICS
*Not all children with autism have the same characteristics, but at least some of these
characteristics are typically present in children with cognitive disabilities.
-
-
-
Students with mild intellectual disabilities are characterized by general delays in cognitive
development that influence the acquisition of language and academic skills. Moreover, while
these students can learn much information that is part of the general education curriculum,
they learn more slowly than do typical students.
As with any group of people, students with mild intellectual disabilities vary widely in their
ability to do schoolwork and adjust to social situations in school and other locations.
However, in contrast to most other disability categories, students with mild intellectual
disabilities tend to have more general, delayed development in academic, social, and adaptive
skills. This delayed development is reflected in low achievement across content and skill
areas as well as significantly lower scores on measures of intelligence and adaptive behavior
when compared with students who are not identified with intellectual disabilities.
Students who are identified with mild intellectual disabilities lag significantly behind gradelevel peers in developing academic skills. However, many students with mild intellectual
disabilities develop basic literacy skills and functional mathematics skills. However, most of
these students continue to have difficulty with more advanced skills related to content,
such as mathematical reasoning and applying concepts to solve problems (Beirne-Smith et
al., 2006).
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Every child with a cognitive disability is different. It is important to get to know the individual and
their particular interests, likes/dislikes, and strengths/weaknesses in order to properly plan
educational experiences:
Attention and Concentration: Preferential seating, make sure they are paying attention when giving
directions, have them repeat instructions in their own words
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Expressive/Receptive Language: Prompting, RACE strategy (restate question, answer question, cite
evidence from text, extend answer), previewing vocabulary, previewing questions before reading
passage, text features (title, bold words, pictures, graphs), highlighting/underlining important
information, reviewing and summarizing post reading, graphic organizer (KWL chart)
Organization: Direct instruction in organization/study skills, provide checklists, provide a daily
agenda
Academic Skills: Use concrete materials, hands-on experiences, alter the amount of work expected,
give alternate assignments, provide several practice opportunities, demonstrate steps, provide
immediate feedback
Social Skills: Direct instruction of social skills, structure positive peer interactions, role playing,
include in regular classrooms, use social stories
Generalization: Teach material in relevant contexts, reinforce generalization across material or
setting, remind students to apply what they have learned, teach information in multiple settings
Processing Speed: Repetition of material, breaking material into small sections, providing explicit
directions
Memory: Rehearsal, clustering information, mnemonic devices
RESOURCES/REFERENCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages/ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicRelationID=9
68&ContentID=11128&Content=124547
http://www.learnalberta.ca/content/inmdict/html/moderate_cognitive_dis.html
http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/intellectual
http://www.education.com/reference/article/characteristics-intellectual-disabilities/
http://nichcy.org/schoolage/accommodations
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EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
The term “hearing impairment” refers to an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or
fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance, but that is not included under
the definition of deafness. “Deafness” refers to a hearing impairment that is so severe that the
child is unable to process language through hearing, with or without amplification, and the child’s
educational performance is affected.
Additional Procedures for Evaluating Children with Deafness or Hearing Impairment:
(1) A team may determine the child has deafness or hearing impairment if the child exhibits:
(a) An average pure tone hearing loss of fifty decibels or greater, according to the “American
National Standards Institute” (ANSI) 1969, for the frequencies five-hundred, one-thousand
and two-thousand Hertz in the better ear;
(b) An average pure tone hearing loss of twenty-five decibels or greater (ANSI) for the
frequencies five-hundred, one-thousand and two-thousand Hertz in the better ear, which has an
adverse effect upon his or her educational performance related to documented evidence of;
(i) A more severe hearing loss during the developmental years than is currently measured;
(ii) A history of chronic medical problems that have resulted in fluctuating hearing,
presently or in the past; or
(iii) A delay in diagnosis, provision of amplification, and/or initiation of special programming;
or
(c) A hearing loss in excess of twenty-five decibels (ANSI) for the frequencies one-thousand
Hertz through eight-thousand Hertz in the better ear, resulting in such poor auditory
discrimination that it has an adverse effect upon his or her educational performance.
From: Procedures and Guidance for Ohio Educational Agencies serving Children with Disabilities (October, 2011) Section 3301-51-06
Modes of Communication
Students with hearing impairment will develop their mode of communication within their family unit.
This may be a manual form of communication such as American Sign Language or a variant of oral
communication. Both require training and support for the parents and child. According to the
Operating Standards for Ohio's Schools Serving Students with Disabilities, parents of students
with hearing impairments can choose their child's mode of communication for educational purposes.
This decision is included in the child's Individual Education Program and becomes the language of
instruction for that student.
There are two main communication modes and the decision regarding the use of each is based on a
number of factors including degree of hearing loss, age of the onset of the hearing loss, parental
choices, and learning styles.
9
Strategies available to Deaf/Hard of hearing (D/HH) students can be broken down into two general
categories.
Signed speech:
ASL (American Sign Language) is a communication system that incorporates the use of the hands,
arms, body and face to produce a language with its own grammar and linguistic rules.
MCE (Manually Coded English) is a mixed language system used in communication between Deaf and
hearing individuals where some signs may be compromised when there is no ASL equivalent to the
spoken word or vice versa. It was developed to code English word order, syntax and grammar. While
it was developed to ease the transition from written English to speech, it does not keep up with
spoke English as ASL does.
Cued Speech is a system of phonemically-based handshapes used to supplement speechreading. It
uses eight handshapes to represent consonants and four positions on the face to signify vowels to
aid speechreaders in distinguishing between words that look the same on the lips such as pat and
mat.
Speech/Oral Communication
This refers to the use of speechreading and auditory cues for English communication. For Deaf
individuals who have very little auditory ability, oral communication requires extensive training and
speech therapy. Only 30-40% of all speech sounds can be read on the lips and a number of common
conditions impede the process of speechreading, including: poor lighting, use of unfamiliar names or
words, rapid speech, overlapping speakers, etc.
Every student has his/her own unique needs. Many hard of hearing students will rely on speech/oral
and text communication with the assistance of a hearing aid and/or other assistive technology and
through the use of speechreading. These individuals may or may not choose sign language as their
mode of communication. Students with moderate hearing loss (65-95 decibels) or a profound loss
(over 95 decibels) are more likely to use sign language, although some individuals with moderate and
profound loss will choose oral communication. There are schools for the Deaf that focus on oral
communication. Two such schools in Ohio are Ohio Valley Voices and St. Rita's School for the Deaf.
Hearing Aids
Proper functioning of hearing aids is addressed in Title 34, Code of Federal Regulations: Sec.
300.303 which reads: "Each public agency shall ensure that the hearing aids worn in school by
children with hearing impairments, including deafness, are functioning properly. (Authority: 20
U.S.C. 1412(a)(1))" Local school districts do not usually provide hearing aids for students, however,
they bear the responsibility of ensuring that a child's hearing aids are in proper functioning order.
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INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Classroom Supports For Students With Hearing Impairments
1. Interpreter Services
Ohio's deaf and hard of hearing students often require the services of a qualified educational
interpreter to gain access to and benefit from participation in the general education curriculum.
Under IDEA, parents have the right to choose a child's mode of communication and the school
has a responsibility to address that need. Parents may request American Sign Language,
Manually Coded English or an oral program for their child. If interpreter services are required
to support a student in classes or in extracurricular activities sponsored by the school district,
the district is responsible for providing the services.
"Interpreter services includes assisting learners with hearing impairments and deaf learners by
providing interpretation in English and American Sign Language, transliteration in a manual form
of coded English or other coded forms of English." [Sec. 3301-51-01(JJ)(h) Operating Standard
for Ohio's Schools Serving Student To find out about interpreter services and requirements
for interpreters, parents may contact the Interpreter and Sign Language Resource Center,
Ohio School for the Deaf at 614-995-1566.
2. Assistive Technologies in the Classroom
A range of assistive technologies can be used in the classroom to support the education of
students with hearing impairments. Other technologies used in the classroom would be
identified by the IEP team and can include:
Captioned Media is a free service funded by the U.S. Department of Education that loans
captioned videos and DVD's to deaf and hard of hearing individuals, their families and teachers,
interpreters and anyone who works with deaf or hard of hearing persons. There are no charges
for postage. A catalog of available items is available on the internet of by catalog. The user
must register and request an account to participate.
The Sound Field System consists of a microphone that the teacher uses that is connected to
speakers mounted in the room to help students hear the teacher above the ambient classroom
noise. They can be important for some students with mild hearing impairments and in improving
the achievement of other children in the classroom. Some research has been done regarding
sound field systems. Following is the introduction to Sound Field Systems by two researchers.
FM System or frequency modulated systems, also called auditory trainers, consist of a
microphone that the teacher uses to transmit his/her voice directly to a student who is using a
receiver. The receiver can be a small amplifier at the student's desk, or to headphones or
transmitted directly to the student's hearing aid. Wherever the teacher stands or the
direction the teacher faces, the student is able to hear the teacher's voice at the same level
above ambient room noise.
11
CART (Communication Access Realtime Translation) is a transcription system that provides a
word-for-word translation of everything that is said is settings such as courtroom, classrooms,
churches, meetings or conferences. CART captions can be displayed on a computer for one
person to read, or it can be projected to a large screen or broadcast via satellite or the
internet. A trained transcriber must be used to provide this service.
TypeWell is a transcription system that is used as a realtime communication access or
notetaking service provided by a TypeWell-trained transcriber. The transcriber does not Type
word-for-word, but is trained to capture the meaning of what is said as well as how it is said.
Students read on a computer the notes as the transcriber writes. Students can also type
questions and comments to the transcriber for clarification. Transcriber notes can be used as
notes after the class.
Voice-to Text-to-Sign Language Technologies offer the promise of real time sign language
interpretation using technology, however, the accuracy of the interpretation is not high enough
for consistent use at this time. All of these products, whether voice-to-text or voice-to-sign
language depend upon voice recognition and the software programs must be trained for a specific
speaker. Accuracy rates are higher in a quiet environment limiting practical application classroom.
3. Preferential Seating
Both noise and lighting impact a D/HH student’s ability to hear and receive information
visually. Please consider the following when assigning student seating:
• Seat the student with his/her back towards the light source (typically a window or open door)
since it is difficult to speechread or see other visual clues when looking into the light.
• If a child has a “better” ear, seat him/her with his/her better ear towards the teacher.
• During group activities, encourage the student to watch the faces of the other children when
they speak. Semi-circle seating is especially helpful to a D/HH student.
• Try not to seat D/HH students near air conditioners, heaters, open doors or windows,
computers, overhead projectors, or near other high noise areas of the room.
• Seat the student near the front of the classroom with good visual access to the teacher.
Sitting off to one side also allows greater access to the majority of students in the room during
class discussions.
• Seat the child near a peer “buddy” to assist in keeping the student on track. By watching
his/her buddy, the D/HH student will also gain clues to missed information.
4. Improving Communication
Many D/HH students rely on speechreading to obtain information from a speaker’s facial
expressions to supplement their auditory input. Here are some ideas for a number of commonsense accommodations the teacher can do to improve both auditory and visual communication:
• Speak naturally at normal volume. Exaggeration and over emphasis of speech will hinder the
student’s ability to speechread and auditorily process language.
• Get the attention of the student before addressing him/her (call the child’s name or tap
his/her shoulder).
12
• Make sure the speaker’s face is visible to the student . . . trim large mustaches, avoid
covering the mouth or chewing on pencils, etc.
• Do not talk while walking around the room or turn towards the white board while giving
instructions. (An overhead projector can be effective teaching tool if the fan noise doesn’t
overwhelm the D/HH student).
• Since D/HH students have difficulty following conversations that move around the room,
identify who is speaking and repeat peer comments during class discussions.
• Repeat any announcements given over the PA system.
• Restate rather than simply repeat information when the student is having difficulty
understanding after one repetition.
• On the white board, write instructions and information such as new vocabulary words,
assignments, announcements, simple outlines for the lesson, and key words or phrases as the
lesson progresses.
• Check for understanding. Ask the student questions that require him/her to repeat content
rather than respond with yes or no answers.
• Provide the student with a written copy of the daily bulletin.
• When homework is corrected within the classroom, give the student the answer sheet to
correct his/her work.
• When doing a Read Aloud activity, have the student read first, or have them read the passage
silently.
• During video tape presentations, try to use a captioned version (the itinerant teacher may
have a catalog . . . ask in advance!). If one is not available, give the student a script of the video
or assign an alternate activity.
• Reduce visual distractions by reducing excessive artwork, limiting the number of mobiles
hanging from the ceiling and removing general clutter. However, providing additional visual
support such as pictures, charts, diagrams, and objects, to reinforce concepts being taught is
helpful.
• Transitioning into new content is difficult for D/HH students. Using phrases such as, “Does
anyone have any more questions?,” “To summarize what’s been discussed . . . ,” and “Let’s move
on” will help the student follow changes in activities.
5. Cochlear Implants
A cochlear implant is a small, complex electronic device that can help to provide a sense of
sound to a person who is profoundly deaf or severely hard of hearing. The implant is surgically
placed under the skin behind the ear. An implant has four basic parts: microphone, which picks
up sound from the environment; a speech processor, which selects and arranges sounds picked
up by the microphone; a transmitter and receiver/ stimulator, which receive signals from the
speech processor and convert them into electric impulses; and electrodes, which collect the
impulses from the stimulator and send them to the brain. n implant does not restore or create
normal hearing. Instead, under the appropriate conditions, it can give a deaf person a useful
auditory understanding of the environment and help him or her to understand speech.
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RESOURCES/REFERENCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/DocumentManagement/DocumentDownload.aspx?DocumentID=123912
Ohio Coalition for the Education of Children with Disabilities
http://www.ocecd.org/hearingImpDis.php
American Society for Deaf Children (ASDC)
http://www.deafchildren.org
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)
http://www.asha.org
Hearing Loss Association of America (HLAA)
http://www.hearingloss.org
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)
http://www.nidcd.nih.gov
Council on Education of the Deaf (CED)
http://www.deafed.net
Hands & Voices National
http://www.handsandvoices.org
Mainstreaming the Student who is Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing
http://www.handsandvoices.org/pdf/mainst_cal.pdf
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities
http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/hearingloss
http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/fs3.pdf
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EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of
time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
a) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health
factors.
b) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers
and teachers.
c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
e) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or
school problems.
As defined by the IDEA, serious emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia but does
not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have a
serious emotional disturbance.
CHARACTERISTICS
As is evident in IDEA’s definition, emotional disturbances can affect an individual in areas
beyond the emotional. Depending on the specific mental disorder involved, a person’s
physical, social, or cognitive skills may also be affected.
Some of the characteristics and behaviors seen in children who have an emotional
disturbance include:





Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness);
Aggression or self –injurious behavior (acting out, fighting);
Withdrawal (not interacting socially with others or excessive fear or anxiety);
Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills; and
Learning difficulties (academically performing below grade level).
Children with the most serious emotional disturbances may exhibit distorted thinking,
excessive anxiety, bizarre motor acts, and abnormal mood swings.
Many children who do not have an emotional disturbance may display some of these same
behaviors at various times during their development. However, when children have an
emotional disturbance, these behaviors continue over long periods of time and to a marked
degree. Their behavior signals that they are not coping with their environment or peers.
15
Emotional disturbances can affect many different aspects central to student learning,
including (but not limited to): concentration, stamina, handling time pressures and multiple
tasks, interacting with others, responding to feedback, responding to change, and
remaining calm under stress. Many of the medications prescribed to address the
disturbance also have side effects that can impact student learning.
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS








Educational programs for children with an emotional disturbance need to include
attention to providing emotional and behavioral support as well as helping them to
master academics, develop social skills, and increase self-awareness, self-control,
and self-esteem.
Coordinate services between home, school, and community, keeping the
communication channels open between all parties involved.
Learn more about the student’s specific mental health disturbance.
Learn more about the student’s strengths.
Support the student’s inclusion.
There may also be times to let the student work alone, take a break, or have a hall
pass for some quiet time apart.
Set clear behavioral rules and expectations for the entire class.
Provide accommodations. Although accommodations will vary depending on the
nature of the student’s emotional disturbance, often the appropriate
accommodations will address: side effects of medication, behavioral
unpredictability and impairments in concentration and memory.
REFERENCES/RESOURCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages/ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicRela
tionID=968&ContentID=11128&Content=124547
The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) http://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml
Ohio Department of Education Office for Exceptional Children:
http://edresourcesohio.org
Project IDEAL http://projectidealonline.org/
The National Association of Special Education Teachers: http://www.naset.org
The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY):
http://nichcy.org
16
EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
Concomitant impairments (such as mental retardation-blindness or mental retardationorthopedic impairment), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs
that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the
impairments. “Multiple Disabilities” does NOT include deaf-blindness.
CHARACTERISTICS
Students with severe or multiple disabilities may exhibit a wide range of characteristics,
depending on the combination and severity of disabilities, and the person's age. There are,
however, some traits they may share, including:





Limited speech or communication;
Difficulty in basic physical mobility;
Tendency to forget skills through disuse;
Trouble generalizing skills from one situation to another; and/or
A need for support in major life activities (e.g., domestic, leisure, community use,
vocational).
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Educational programming is likely to begin as early as infancy. At that time, as well as later
on, the primary focus is upon increasing the child's independence.




Incorporate a variety of components to meet the considerable needs of individuals
with multiple disabilities.
Programs should assess needs in four major areas: domestic, leisure/recreational,
community, and vocational. These assessments enable the identification of
functional objectives.]
Instruction should include: Expression of choice; communication; functional skill
development; and age-appropriate social skills training.
The multidisciplinary approach is crucial. Appropriate people such as speech and
language therapists, physical and occupational therapists, and medical specialists
need to work closely with classroom teachers and parents. Because of problems
with skill generalization, related services are best offered during the natural
routine in the school rather than removing a student from class for isolated
therapy.
17


Classroom arrangements must take into consideration students' needs for
medications, special diets, or special equipment. Adaptive aids and equipment enable
students to increase their range of functioning.
Attending the same school and participating in the same activities as their
nondisabled peers are crucial to the development of social skills and friendships for
people with severe/multiple disabilities.
REFERENCES/RESOURCES
The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) http://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml
Council for Exceptional Children http://www.cec.sped.org/
Ohio Coalition for Children With Disabilities http://www.ocecd.org/index.php
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages/ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicRela
tionID=968&ContentID=11128&Content=124547
Ohio Department of Education Office for Exceptional Children:
http://edresourcesohio.org
Project IDEAL http://projectidealonline.org/
The National Association of Special Education Teachers: http://www.naset.org
The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY):
http://nichcy.org
18
EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
Having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental
stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that is due to
chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia,
nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette’s syndrome; and adversely affects a
child’s educational performance.
“Minor” vs “Major” Designation: A student is identified as other health impaired “major” when the
child has a condition that meets the criteria of a medically fragile child. This would include children
who require services of a medical doctor at least once per week to the instability of the child’s
medical condition, children who require services of a registered nurse on a daily basis, or children
who are at risk of institutionalization in a hospital, skilled nursing facility or intermediate care
facility. Additional conditions that would meet the definition of a medically fragile child include
children who have or require a tracheotomy, central IV line, ventilator, tube feedings, percussion
and drainage, suctioning, or are oxygen dependent. Students are identified other health impaired
“minor” when they meet the definition of other health impaired in the rules, but do not meet the
conditions that are required to be medically fragile.
CHARACTERISTICS
There are many disabilities/medical conditions that fall under the umbrella of “other health
impaired”, and all of those conditions differ significantly from each other. This makes it difficult
to provide generalizations on characteristics or instructional needs. If you have a student
identified as other health impaired, you must first find out what medical condition is the basis for
that identification and then seek resources that address that specific condition. Of primary
importance would be to discuss the student’s condition with his/her parents, as well as to read the
student’s most recent multifactored evaluation and IEP, to learn about that student’s particular
needs and services. Depending on how the student’s strength, vitality, and/or alertness is affected,
classroom supports and accommodations will need to be implemented. Some main issues to consider
are fatigue, mobility, attention, coordination, muscle weakness, frequent absences or lateness to
school, stamina, and concentration. Some students may require school health or school nursing
services during the school day. While most common for those students who are medically fragile
(i.e., “Major” designation), these services may also be needed for students who require things such
as daily medication for ADHD, blood sugar checks/management for diabetes, emergency action
plans for seizures, etc. Other students may also require occupational or physical therapy to
address motor skill development. Consideration needs to be given to accessibility for more severely
disabled students as well (e.g., physical adaptations, technology to aid in communication, etc).
19
The most common (but far from only) medical condition that school-based educators will encounter
with students identified as Other Health Impaired is Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder.
Therefore, some key characteristics and implications for this condition specifically are given below.
However, it is noted that not all students with ADHD will require or qualify for special education
services. The student must meet the requirements in the definition for Other Health Impaired to
be identified for special education services.
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: One Example of
Other Health Impaired (Minor)
CHARACTERISTICS – “Inattentive” Type
-
Does not pay attention to detail and often makes careless mistakes
Difficulty maintaining attention
Does not complete schoolwork or other activities
Difficulty with organization, loses materials
Forgetful
Easily distracted
Avoids activities that require mental effort or concentration
CHARACTERISTICS – “Hyperactive-Impulsive” Type
-
Fidgets or squirms in seat, leaves seat frequently
Runs about or climbs when not appropriate, generally restless
Difficulty engaging in work or play quietly
Talks excessively
Blurts out answers
Difficulty waiting his/her turn
Interrupts others
*Note: many students may be identified as “Combined” Type, which means they exhibit signs of
both inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity.
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
-
Post rules, schedules, and assignments
Use clear rules and routines, call attention to changes in schedule
Use clear consequences
Teach the student how to use an assignment book and daily schedule
Directly teach study skills and learning strategies
Provide regularly scheduled breaks
Give clear and concise directions, both verbally and in writing; repeat directions
Provide preferential seating away from distraction
Give verbal and/or nonverbal cues and prompts to remain focused
Break longer assignments down into smaller chunks, provide task structure
Teach specific organizational strategies
20
-
Provide extra time for transitions and completion of work; set timers for specific tasks
Allow doodling or other appropriate, mindless motor movement (e.g., squeezing a small stress
ball)
Highlight or underline key information
REFERENCES/RESOURCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/Templates/Pages/ODE/ODEDetail.aspx?page=3&TopicRelationID=9
68&ContentID=11128&Content=124547
Ohio Department of Education Office for Exceptional Children: http://edresourcesohio.org
Project IDEAL: http://projectidealonline.org/
The National Association of Special Education Teachers: http://www.naset.org
The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY): http://nichcy.org
21
EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
The term "specific learning disability" means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical
calculations, including such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. (The term does not include learning problems that
are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional
disturbance or of environmental cultural or economic disadvantage). There are eight general
categories of specific learning disabilities:

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

Basic reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension are the three broad categories
of reading disabilities. Dyslexia is another term by which reading disabilities may sometimes
be known.
Language or listening comprehension and speaking or expressive language are the two main
types of language disorders.
Written expression. Some diagnostic systems refer to writing disorders as dysgraphia.
Basic math and math problem solving are the two main types of math disorders. Some
diagnostic systems refer to math disorders as dyscalculia.
CHARACTERISTICS
While there is no one “sign” that a person has a learning disability, there are certain clues. A few
are listed below. Most relate to elementary school tasks, because learning disabilities tend to be
first identified in elementary school. This is because school focuses on the very things that may be
difficult for the child—reading, writing, math, listening, speaking, and reasoning. A child probably
won’t show all of these signs, or even most of them. However, if a child shows a number of these
problems, then parents and the teacher should consider the possibility that the child has a learning
disability.
When a child has a learning disability, he or she:


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





may have trouble learning the alphabet, rhyming words, or connecting letters to their
sounds;
may make many mistakes when reading aloud, and repeat and pause often;
may not understand what he or she reads;
may have real trouble with spelling;
may have very messy handwriting or hold a pencil awkwardly;
may struggle to express ideas in writing;
may learn language late and have a limited vocabulary;
may have trouble remembering the sounds that letters make or hearing slight differences
between words;
may have trouble understanding jokes, comic strips, and sarcasm;
22







may have trouble following directions;
may mispronounce words or use a wrong word that sounds similar;
may have trouble organizing what he or she wants to say or not be able to think of the word
he or she needs for writing or conversation;
may not follow the social rules of conversation, such as taking turns, and may stand too close
to the listener;
may confuse math symbols and misread numbers;
may not be able to retell a story in order (what happened first, second, third); or
may not know where to begin a task or how to go on from there.
If a child has unexpected problems learning to read, write, listen, speak, or do math, then teachers
and parents may want to investigate more. The same is true if the child is struggling to do any one
of these skills. The child may need to be evaluated to see if he or she has a learning disability.
Learning disabilities are usually first noticed when children begin to fail in school. Parents and
preschool teachers are often the first to see early signs of learning disabilities. In elementary
school years, difficulty with school work and underachievement may signal more serious symptoms
of learning problems. Children may have difficulty learning basic skills in reading or understanding
reading. Difficulty in writing, math, or language may also signal a problem. Some students may easily
learn basic skills but have difficulty applying skills in problem solving or higher level school work.
Students with symptoms that do not improve over time with appropriate interventions may have
learning disabilities. Suspect learning disability symptoms when students:

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Make poor grades despite significant effort;
Need constant, step-by-step guidance for tasks;
Cannot remember problem solving steps because they do not comprehend tasks or the logic
behind them;
Have poor memory of spoken or written material;
Have difficulty mastering tasks or transferring academic skills to other tasks;
Cannot remember skills and facts over time;
Have strong general knowledge but cannot read as in dyslexia, write as in dysgraphia, or do math
as in dyscalculia at that level;
May have difficulty with communication and language processing, expressive, and receptive
language;
May be very frustrated with school and homework; and
May have low self-esteem.
IDENTIFYING STUDENTS WITH SPECIFIC LEARNING DISABILITIES
Prior to IDEIA 2004, students had to demonstrate a "severe discrepancy" between intellectual
ability and achievement in order to be considered "learning disabled" for the purposes of special
education. This often meant they had to fail before they could be referred for an evaluation. With
the introduction of IDEIA in 2004, however, a process known as Response to Intervention (RtI)
required that students be provided with effective instruction before determining that a specific
learning disability existed.
23
More specifically, RtI is a process that refers to how well students respond to research-based
instruction. The purpose of this process is to provide a safety net for at-risk students, some of
whom may have learning disabilities. Rather than waiting for students to fail, the idea of RTI is to
catch students when they begin to struggle. RtI supports their success through scientific, research
based instruction, progress monitoring of students’ response to this instruction over time, and
adjustment to the level and/or intensity of the instruction. The child is monitored and assessed to
see how well the instruction works. Those students who do not respond to interventions in an
expected manner may then be referred for a multifactored evaluation to determine whether or not
a specific learning disability exists.
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Children with Specific Learning Disabilities may benefit from:



Support called "Specially Designed Instruction" (SDI) which can include everything from
structured small group or individual instruction to frequent stretch breaks.
"Direct" Instruction, often using repetitive and highly structured programs for reading and
math.
Modifications to curriculum and/or classroom accommodations
General practices:
Students with learning disabilities have different learning styles and rates, strengths and
weaknesses. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) requires that an
Individualized Education Program (IEP) be developed for each child with a disability so that these
individual differences can be addressed. This is often referred to as “differentiated instruction,”
which addresses individual learning needs and adjusts instruction to fit the skills and experience
level of each student in a classroom. (A partial list of classroom modifications and accommodations
that may be considered when developing the IEP can be found in the Appendix).
RESOURCES/REFERENCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/DocumentManagement/DocumentDownload.aspx?DocumentID=123912
LD Online
http://www.ldonline.org
National Center for Learning Disabilities
http://www.ncld.org
http://ldnavigator.ncld.org
24
TeachingLD A service of the Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) of the Council for Exceptional
Children
http://www.dldcec.org
Learning Disabilities Association of America
http://www.ldanatl.org
All Kinds of Minds
http://www.allkindsofminds.org/learning-library
do2learn: A resource for individuals with special needs
http://www.do2learn.com
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities
http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/ld
http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/fs7.pdf
25
EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
An injury to the brain caused by external physical force or by other medical conditions, including
but not limited to stroke, anoxia, infectious disease, aneurysm, brain tumors and neurological insults
resulting from medical or surgical treatments. The injury results in total or partial functional
disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child's educational
performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries, as well as to other medical
conditions that result in acquired brain injuries. The injuries result in impairments in one or more
areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment;
problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions;
information processing; and speech. The term does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or
degenerative, or brain injuries induced by birth trauma.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Traumatic Brain Injuries (TBIs) are classified by severity and include mild, moderate, or severe
injuries. The vast majority (50–75%) of TBIs fall into the mild category. If the child has
experienced a TBI, then symptoms will vary based on the extent of the injury, location of injury,
secondary complications, and factors related to risk and resiliency.
Experiencing a TBI may alter how a child acts, thinks, or moves. These changes may cause profound
shifts in how the child learns or behaves in school or at home. These transformations can range
from mild impairment in one area to broad deficits in global functioning. Some of the changes might
include:
- Cognitive impairments, which include short- or long-term memory problems, difficulties in
concentration, attention problems, deficits in planning and problem solving, impairment of judgment,
and difficulties with tasks requiring information processing, such as reading and listening
- Behavioral changes, which include improper interpretation of social cues, defiance, lying,
restlessness, temper tantrums, changes in sleep patterns, lethargy, fatigue, withdrawal from
family/friends, and hyperactivity
- Physical impairments, which include speech, vision, or hearing difficulties; other sensory
impairments; headaches; paralysis or muscle weakness; seizures; balance problems; gait changes;
nausea; need for support devices in standing or walking; and lack of motor coordination
- Academic difficulties, which include communication deficits, delayed reading skill acquisition,
problems in math, slowed thinking, inconsistent classroom participation, difficulties in sequencing,
loss of interest in school, messy handwriting, poor test performance, failure in some subjects with
success in others, and grade retention or failure to meet graduation requirements
- Personality changes, which include difficulty controlling emotions, irritability, agitation,
depression, anxiety, impulsiveness, mood swings, increased use of drugs and/or alcohol, and reduced
self-esteem
26
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Attention/Concentration: Reduce distractions in work area, divide work into smaller sections, have
student summarize information presented orally, cue student to pay attention, reinforce
lengthening periods of attention
Memory: Repeat information frequently, summarize information, have student fill out planner, teach
student to categorize or chunk information, link new information to prior knowledge,
Organization: Additional time for review, written checklist of steps for complex tasks, schedule of
daily routine, color code materials by subject, assign peer to review the daily schedule/organize
materials
Following Directions: Provide oral and written instructions, have student repeat directions,
underline/highlight key words/steps, rewrite complex directions in simple steps, check for accuracy
and provide immediate feedback, slower paced instruction
Academic Skills: Show the student how to perform new tasks, provide examples, provide lots of
practice opportunities, small groups, repetition of material, provide extended time
Fatigue: Allow resting period, provide frequent breaks, slowly increase time on task
Expressive/Receptive Language: Prompting, avoid figurative language, use concrete vocabulary,
preview and review material
Behavior: Reinforce appropriate behaviors, redirect student, model appropriate behavior, teach
social skills (social stories, role-plays)
RESOURCES/REFERENCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/DocumentManagement/DocumentDownload.aspx?DocumentID=123912
http://specialed.about.com/od/disabilities/a/tbi.htm
http://main.uab.edu/tbi/show.asp?durki=10072
http://www.cbirt.org/tbi-education/instruction-strategies/
27
EDUCATIONAL DEFINITION
The term “visual impairment,” including blindness, means an impairment in vision that, even with
correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial
sight and blindness. Visual impairment for any child means:
(i) A visual impairment, not primarily perceptual in nature, resulting in a measured visual acuity of
20/70 or poorer in the better eye with correction; or
(ii) A physical eye condition that affects visual functioning to the extent that special education
placement, materials and/or services are required in an educational setting.
A number of terms are used to refer to students with visual impairments; the terms partially
sighted, low vision, legally blind, and totally blind are used in the educational context to describe
students with visual impairments. They are defined as follows:

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

"Partially sighted" indicates some type of visual problem has resulted in a need for special
education
"Low vision" generally refers to a severe visual impairment, not necessarily limited to
distance vision. Low vision applies to all individuals with sight who are unable to read the
newspaper at a normal viewing distance, even with the aid of eyeglasses or contact lenses.
They use a combination of vision and other senses to learn, although they may require
adaptations in lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, braille
"Legally blind" indicates that a person has less than 20/200 vision in the better eye or a
very limited field of vision (20 degrees at its widest point)
Totally blind students learn via braille or other non-visual media
Visual impairment is the consequence of a functional loss of vision, rather than the eye disorder
itself. Eye disorders which can lead to visual impairments can include retinal degeneration, albinism,
cataracts, glaucoma, muscular problems that result in visual disturbances, corneal disorders,
diabetic retinopathy, congenital disorders, and infection.
INSTRUCTIONAL IMPLICATIONS
Instructional Accommodations and Modifications
Children with visual impairments need to have access to both written and oral instruction and to
demonstrations in all subject matter. Accommodations and modifications can help a student better
understand the instruction provided by the regular education teacher in the classroom. This can
include such adaptations as hands-on experiences, models, more easily readable visual aids, clear
directions, peer/classmate note-taker, extra time for responses in class, oral description or
narration, experiential learning, and verbalization of writing.
28
Accommodations and Modifications for Instructional Materials
Instructional materials need to be put into an accessible format for visually impaired students. It is
important that all materials be considered—not just textbooks, but worksheets and all supplemental
reading materials. It is also important for your child to receive them at the same time as sighted
classmates who read print. Adaptations can include use of Braille, tactile graphics, audiotape
materials, electronic access, print book for parents, highlighting, large print, and manipulatives.
Accommodations and Modifications for Assignments
To make the best use of their education, students need to be responsible for all classroom and
homework assignments. Additional time, or alternatives to visual tasks, may be important modifications for your child, as would use of models, descriptive responses, and reduction of copy work.
Accommodations and Modifications for Classroom Testing
Different types of accommodations and modifications can help visually impaired students take their
class tests along with their sighted classmates. These might include extended time, use of
maninpulatives, spelling tests for braille readers, dictation of responses to a scribe, and screen
access to tests administered on a computer.
Assistive Technology Accommodations and Modifications
Your child may need assistive technology tools to learn or to communicate with others, including low
vision devices (near and distance), Braillewriter, slate and stylus, electronic braillewriter, a personal
digital assistant (PDA), notetaker (Braille or speech), computer, refreshable Braille, speech access
software, Braille translation software, large monitor for computer, scanner, magnification software,
Braille embosser, print printer, tactile graphics maker, word processor, e-mail access, talking calculator,
large-print calculator, talking dictionary, tape recorders, digital players, alternative computer access,
augmentative and alternative communication devices, and adapted devices for daily living.
Accommodations and Modification to the Educational Environment
Students who are visually impaired often cannot perceive information directly from their environment,
but accommodations and modifications help them do so. Something as simple as the flexibility to move
around or to sit closer to the chalkboard may meet your child's needs, or it could be necessary to alter
the physical arrangement of the environment by providing additional furniture/work space, shelving,
lighting, or access to electrical outlets for the operation of specialized equipment.
Accommodations and Modifications for Other Activities
Students with visual impairments need to be able to participate in all the educational activities
their school offers, not just those that take place in the classroom. More specifically, they may
benefit from special subscriptions or periodicals, mobility tools, adapted equipment for physical
education, organizational tools, emergency procedures, use of a sighted reader, and other health
accommodations.
*Additional resources and adaptations can be found from the American Foundation for the Blind
(www.afb.org)
29
RESOURCES/REFERENCES
Whose IDEA Is This? A Parent’s Guide to the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act of 2004
http://www.ode.state.oh.us/GD/DocumentManagement/DocumentDownload.aspx?DocumentID=123912
Ohio Coalition for the Education of Children with Disabilities
http://www.ocecd.org/visualDis.php
National Association for Parents of Children with Visual Impairments (NAPVI)
http://www.spedex.com/napvi
American Foundation for the Blind
http://www.afb.org
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities
http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/visualimpairment
http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/fs13.pdf
30
APPENDIX
Classroom Modifications/Accommodations:
Below is a list of many suggested accommodations. Not all of these ideas are appropriate for all
students or for every classroom. This is not meant to be an exhaustive list; rather, it should serve
as some recommendations to get your mind thinking about the type of accommodations that you can
provide to struggling students in the classroom. Remember: these are only accommodations, and
are NOT considered interventions.
PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF ROOM:
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seating student near the teacher
seating student near a positive role model
standing near the student when giving directions or presenting lessons
avoiding distracting stimuli (air conditioner, high traffic, hall, etc.)
increasing distance between desks
LESSON PRESENTATION:
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pairing students to check work
writing key points on the board
providing visual aids, large print, tapes
providing peer note taker
repeating directions to the student after they have been given to the class; then have
student repeat and explain
providing written outline, copies of notes
allowing student to tape record lessons
having child review key points orally
teaching through multi-sensory modes: visual, auditory, kinesthetic
accompanying oral directions with written directions or picture schedule
highlighting key words
providing graphic organizers, manipulatives, and models
ASSIGNMENTS/WORKSHEETS
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giving extra time to complete tasks
simplifying complex directions
handing worksheets out one at a time
reducing the reading level of the assignments
requiring fewer correct responses to achieve grade (quality vs. quantity)
shortening assignments or giving one piece at a time
breaking long-term assignments down into smaller short-term pieces with clear due dates
for completion
31
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allowing computer-printed assignments prepared by the student or dictated by the student
and recorded
using self-monitoring devices
reducing homework assignments
not grading handwriting
allowing oral responses rather than written
allowing oral presentations to be given one-on-one with teacher or recorded away from
peers
listening to books on tape
providing alphabet strips, number lines, facts charts, formula sheets, calculators, etc.
TEST TAKING:
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allowing open book/open note exams
giving exam orally
providing outlines for extended responses
providing a word bank for fill-in-the-blank questions
providing multiple choice options and/or reducing number of answer choices
giving frequent short quizzes, not long exams
allowing extra time for exam
reading test items to student
avoiding placing student under pressure of time or competition
allowing for retakes to better grade
ORGANIZATION:
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allowing an extra set of books at home
sending daily/weekly progress reports home
color-coding folders/notebooks by subject
BEHAVIORS
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using timers to facilitate task completion
providing written or picture schedules
structuring transitional and unstructured times
using self-monitoring strategies
allowing for short breaks between assignments
cueing student to stay on task (verbal or nonverbal signal)
marking student’s correct answers, not their mistakes
allowing student time out of seat to run errands, etc.
ignoring inappropriate behaviors not drastically outside classroom limits
allowing legitimate movement
allowing a “cooling-off” period when frustrated or upset
32
Additional classroom modifications and accommodations that may be considered when developing an
IEP or when intervening with students prior to suspecting a disability:
• Relate the class lesson to real life skills and experiences
• Limit expectations to two or three concepts per unit
• Evaluate projects rather than doing traditional testing
• Concentrate on student strengths and apply those strengths to the lesson
• Use concise written and oral directions
• Use short answers rather than long essay responses
• Create small group activities
• Provide lecture outlines
• Pre-teach vocabulary, draw pictures, use concept mapping, webbing, organizers, and simplified
vocabulary
• Be aware of academic levels in order to address reading and vocabulary problems
• Model assignment expectations and show an example of the end product
• Use multiple intelligence approaches when teaching the same lesson
• Extended time for completion of assignments or tests
• Additional time for reading assignments
• Time for repeated review or drill
• Small groups
• Reduction of paper/pencil tasks
• Shortened assignments
• Assignment notebooks
• Study sheets/summary sheets/outlines of most important facts
• Supplemental aids (vocabulary, multiplication cards, etc.)
• Visual demonstrations
• Presentation of material in small steps
• Read or paraphrase subject matter
•Instructions/directions given in different channels (written, spoken, demonstration)
• Visual or multisensory materials
• Functional level materials
• Mnemonic aids/devices
• Overhead/outline for desk use
• Taped textbooks
• Highlighted textbooks
• Large print material
• Word processor/spell checker; calculator
• Assistance with notetaking
• Taped lectures
• Self-testing
• Grade only on completed classwork
• Credit for class participation, effort and attendance
• Additional time for test preparation
• Review/testing matched to student pace
• Test directions read/explained thoroughly
33
• Fewer repetitive test items
• Test format allowing more space
• Oral, short-answer, modified tests
• Manuscript writing rather than cursive
• One-to-one contact for at least 10-20 minutes daily
• Tutoring assistance (peer, pal, teacher, etc.)
• Assistance with organization and planning of classwork and/or homework
• Emphasis on successes
• Seating to reduce distractions
• Frequent breaks
• Clearly defined limits
• Cooling-off period
• Behavior check cards
• Concrete, positive reinforcers
When the Student Experiences Difficulty with Reading:
• Allow partner reading
• Use peer tutoring
• Use taped materials (text or study guides)
• Use videos with advanced organizer
• Use computer games
• Allow students to read aloud quietly (subvocalization)
• Teach self-questioning
• Paraphrase key points and have students paraphrase them
• Summarize key points and have students summarize them
• Use graphic organizers
• Sequence key points
• Identify main ideas
• Identify the 5 W's: who, what, when, where, why
• Allow students to highlight texts, passages, key words, or concepts
• Preview units, chapters, etc.
• Use visual imagery
• Use pre and post-reading activities to pre-teach or reinforce main ideas
• Explain idioms that appear in reading passages
• Allow silent pre-reading
• Using new vocabulary and concepts contained in a reading passage, give a preparatory talk about
the assignment
When Students Experience Difficulty with Writing:
• Allow them to dictate ideas to peers
• Shorten writing assignments
• Require lists instead of sentences
• Use Post-it notes for organization
• Provide note-takers
• Allow the student to dictate the written assignment into a tape recorder
• Allow the student to use a computer for outlining, word-processing, spelling, and grammar check
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• Provide a fill-in-the-blank form for note-taking
• Allow visual representation of ideas
• Allow collaborative writing
• Provide a structure for the writing
• Provide a writing model for the assignment
• Allow the use of a flow chart for composing ideas before the student writes them
• Narrow the choice of topics
• Grade on the basis of content, and do not penalize for errors in mechanics and grammar
• Allow the student to use different writing utensils and paper (example: grip on pencil)
When Students Experience Difficulty with Mathematics:
• Allow use of fingers and scratch paper.
• Use diagrams and draw math concepts.
• Present activities that involve all sensory modalities – auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic.
• Arrange peer assistance and tutoring opportunities.
• Have graph paper available so students can align numbers in math problems.
• Use colored pencils to differentiate problems.
• Offer manipulatives throughout instruction.
• Teach students to draw pictures of word problems.
• Use mnemonic devices to teach steps of a math concept (e.g. order of operations: “Please Excuse
My Dear Aunt Sally”).
• Use rhythm and music to teach math facts and to set steps to a beat.
• Schedule computer time for drill and practice with math facts.
• Practice new strategies until students are comfortable with them.
• Explain why learning math strategies are important while teaching, and match strategies with the
material.
• Encourage and monitor use of strategies to ensure correct usage and generalization.
• Teach students to understand the problem, develop a plan to solve the problem, carry out the plan,
and look back to be sure the answer solves the problem.
• Use materials such as games for practice, which are interactive and motivational.
• Use distributed practice, meaning practice in small increments (e.g. two 15-minute sessions per
day, rather than an hour session three times a week).
• Use small numbers of math facts per group for mastery, and frequently practice with mixed
groups.
• Emphasize "reverses," or "turnarounds" (e.g., 1+ 2/2 + 1, 1x2/2x1) in vertical, horizontal, and oral
formats.
• Have students self-chart progress by keeping track of how many and which facts are mastered,
and how many more there are to go within a unit.