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HELLENISTIC SOCIETY
The Rise of Alexander the Great
After the pyrrhic victory of the Spartans in the Peloponnesian War, the
rest of the city-states declined as the Macedonians rose in military power.
King Philip of Macedon secured a victory in 334 B.C.E. over Athens and
Thebes. Next on his agenda was to lead a pan-Hellenic crusade against the
Persian Empire, the traditional enemy of Hellas. Philip was murdered and
his son Alexander succeeded his father. The next thirteen years saw a
dynamic, charismatic young man exceed his father’s most fantastic dreams.
All the way to Western India Alexander conquered, changing the course of
the ancient world. Alexander was twenty when he inherited the throne.
Whether it was his mother Olympia, another contender or Alexander himself
that killed Philip is still debated, but Alexander had been tutored
academically by Aristotle and militarily by his father. Under his pillow,
Alexander kept a copy of the Iliad and a dagger. Possessing all the natural
characteristics of a leader, Alexander was physically attractive, had athletic
prowess, was intellectually astute, and he inspired intense loyalty and
admiration by his followers. As a brilliant general, Alexander adapted his
battle tactics and strategy to meet the varied circumstances. He never lost
a battle. In 334 B.C.E. he led 40,000 Greco-Macedonians into Asia Minor
and beyond. In the next three and a half years, he won a series of stunning
victories over the Persian Empire, which included Syria, Egypt and the Ionian
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cities. By the time he got to the Imperial capital of Persepolis he had seized
vast treasures in the various Persian cities, and made himself Emperor of
Persia. As he left Persepolis for more conquests, he burned this remarkable
city to the ground, only leaving some pillars and other artifacts that attest to
the splendor of the Persians under their kings. Wherever Alexander went he
adapted himself to the customs of the lands, ruling Egypt as a Pharaoh, and
Persia as an oriental despot.
Greek Infusion into Conquered Lands = Hellenistic Culture
His conquest of Persia ensured the tremendous influence of the Greeks
in an age that came to be called Hellenistic or Greek-like. Greek language,
architecture, law and entertainment all were brought into these new
conquered areas since Alexander had the forethought to bring artisans,
intellectuals, and others to establish Greek culture in these regions.
Libraries, parks, gardens, and palaces were built in a more elaborate
architectural style. Greek artistic style possibly even influenced the first
representation of Buddha in human form that was modeled on the Greek god
Apollo. Greek science and medicine were also spread centuries later when
the Muslims translated Greek works into the Arabic language. All important
political, military, and diplomatic positions were filled by Greeks, however.
This exchange of ideas between Europe and Asia precipitated by Alexander
influenced many centuries of traditions in Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam.
With encouragement by Alexander, his soldiers intermarried with the
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indigenous women, and urban life was encouraged with the founding of
many cities named Alexandria.
City of Alexandria in Egypt
Alexandria in Egypt was built as the first port city for the Egyptians at
the mouth of the Nile River. It was established in 332 B.C.E., and within
eleven years it was the largest and richest city in the world with a population
of one million. There the great stone Lighthouse of Paros was erected, four
hundred feet high to guide mariners into the harbor. It became one of the
seven wonders of the ancient world. Perhaps the greatest glory of this city
was its library and university that was called the Museum.1
When
Alexander died in Babylon, his body was brought to Egypt, and it was
recorded that he was buried in a magnificent tomb in the heart of
Alexandria.
Successors to Alexander the Great
Alexander’s empire was eventually divided between three of his
generals, with Ptolemy securing the province of Egypt. This Ptolemy
dynasty lasted until the Roman Army deposed Cleopatra VII, the last of the
Ptolemies in 30 B.C.E. In the Middle East, the Seleucid Dynasty ruled
northern Syria and most of the remaining provinces of the Old Persian
Empire. In Greece the Macedonian dynasty known as the Antigonids ruled,
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Museum comes from the word Muses, which were nine semi-goddesses who presided over literature, the arts,
and sciences. Clio was the goddess for history.
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but their overall power was weaker than the other two successor dynasties.
The early Ptolemies successfully searched the world for valuable
manuscripts, and it is thought that 750,000 papyrus rolls were housed in the
museum, including Aristotle’s personal library. Philosophers and scientists
from all over the Greek world came to study, teach, and do research at this
famous institution. Euclid wrote his geometry here, and Eratosthenes
studied the heavens from an observatory, where he calculated the
circumference of the earth. So great were the intellectual achievements of
the scholars at Alexandria that much of their work remained current for
centuries. In 48 B.C.E. when Julius Caesar set fire to the Egyptian fleet in
the harbor, many manuscripts were destroyed. In 40 B.C.E. Mark Antony
tried to repair the loss by giving to Cleopatra the Library from Pergamum.
More of the Alexandria Library was destroyed in the third century C.E., and
finally in the seventh century C.E. the Muslims completely obliterated it.
Specific Aspects of Hellenistic Society
Economically, the Hellenistic times were prosperous, but there were
very few rich people who could enjoy the successful fruits of this Hellenistic
culture. Slavery continued and may have even increased. Peasants and
urban commoners were kept at an economic level of bare subsistence.
Large plantations were worked by slaves, and the Greek peninsula was an
economic backwater. Hellenic religion with its traditional civic orientation
was all but transformed in this new Hellenistic age. Ancient bonds and
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loyalties were broken as the Greeks moved into Alexander’s conquered
lands. Personal fulfillment or salvation was more important than community
involvement. No longer were the Olympic deities of paramount importance
as the people were moving towards more personal gods and goddesses.
There was a vigorous revival of mystery cults such as Demeter and the
Eleusian mysteries, and the Egyptian cult of Osiris and Isis. Almost all were
centered on death and resurrection by a god and the promise of personal
salvation. From Persia the cult of Mithras, a variation of Zoroastrianism was
practiced. Added to the original tenets of the struggle between good and
evil was the concept of a savior-hero who redeemed mankind. As the
various religions became more homogenized, the people felt they were
worshiping the same god but with a different name. Personal immortality
was the common denominator, which was a possible preparation for the
later triumph of Christianity.
Hellenistic Philosophy
Many Hellenistic Greeks did not relate to these religious ideas, but
sought to adapt elements of Hellenic intellectual traditions to new conditions
and customs. This is when the philosophies called Skepticism, Cynicism,
Stoicism and Epicureanism were established. Skeptics denied the possibility
of any knowledge whatever whether it was of the gods, men, or nature. For
them everything was unverifiable and they doubted everything.
Cynics
demonstrated in various forms of eccentric behavior their contempt for
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conventional piety and patriotism. They rebelled against the hypocrisy that
they saw in the lives and beliefs of their contemporaries. Diogenes was the
most famous cynic; something of a fourth century hippie, and next to
Alexander the most illustrious man of his age. He and other cynics rejected
all official and traditional religions, marriage, public games, and the theater.
Diogenes honored the simple life, rejecting wealth, power, and civilization.
Man should live like a dog without pretenses and worldly possessions; return
to nature. The word cynic originally meant canine or dog-like. Diogenes
lived in a large pipe, obeying no laws, and not recognizing the polis. Two
ethical systems emerged also at this time. These were Stoicism and
Epicureanism.
Both philosophies taught men to fortify their souls against
the harshness of life, and would come to influence human thought and
conduct for centuries. Like the Cynics, they stressed the vanity of worldly
things, and the importance of individual virtue. What was important was
effort not accomplishments. A good stoic was immune to the vicissitudes of
life. He might lose his property, be imprisoned and tortured, but no one
could take away his virtue, which was his only precious possession. Zeno
was the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy. Epicureans were the
great rivals of Stoics. Epicurus taught that man should seek happiness
rather than virtue. Happiness however was not the pursuit of thrills and
euphoria, but a quiet and balanced life. This meant being kind and
affectionate to one’s friends, and learning to endure pain when it comes.
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Good Epicureans did not differ noticeably from good Stoics in actual behavior
for virtue was the pathway to happiness. Epicureans rejected the Stoic
doctrine of divine purpose. For the Epicureans, the world was not the
handiwork of god but a chance configuration. If the gods exist they do not
care anything for humans.
The various tenets of Hellenistic culture continued to influence major
events and periods of history for many centuries. The Ancient Romans and
the Christian religion were profoundly stimulated and effected by the
achievements and culture of these Hellenistic centuries.