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Disasters
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Issue Statement
According to the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, as amended by the Disaster
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Mitigation Act of 2000 (P. L. 106-390), “major disaster means any natural catastrophe (including any hurricane,
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tornado, storm, high water, wind driven water, tidal wave, tsunami, earthquake, volcanic eruption, landslide,
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mudslide, snowstorm, or drought), or, regardless of cause, any fire, flood, or explosion, in any part of the United
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States, which in the determination of the President causes damage of sufficient severity and magnitude to warrant
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major disaster assistance under this Act to supplement the efforts and available resources of States, local
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governments, and disaster relief organizations in alleviating the damage, loss, hardship, or suffering caused
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thereby” (Title I, §§ 102, 5122).
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The steadily changing global, political, and environmental climate has led to an increase in terrorism, random acts
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of violence, and catastrophic occurrences of nature, seemingly increasing the frequency of disasters and the need
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for effective responses. The social work definition of disasters is an “extraordinary event, either natural or
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human-made, concentrated in time and space, that often results in damage to property and harm to human life or
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health and that is disruptive of the ability of some social institutions to continue fulfilling their essential
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functions” (Barker, R.L., 2003).
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A local emergency is declared when the governance of a city or county deems conditions to pose an extreme
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threat to the safety of people and property within that jurisdiction. When the disaster conditions threaten the safety
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of people and property within a state, the governor may proclaim a state of emergency, making mutual aid
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assistance mandatory from other cities, counties, and state authorities. Incidents that affect individuals, such as
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rape or other violent crime, a serious home fire, or a tragic accident, may affect the family system and certain
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community members. These incidents are not “declared” disasters, but they create upheaval in communities. The
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financial resources to address them may not be available.
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A major disaster declaration is declared when the event is clearly more than state and local governments can
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handle alone. An emergency declaration is more limited in scope and without the long-term federal recovery
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programs of a major disaster declaration (Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2012). Individual or family
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assistance may be available to those whose property has been damaged or destroyed as a result of a
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federally-declared disaster, and whose losses are not covered by insurance (Federal Emergency Management,
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Agency, 2012). Assistance may include low-interest loans, individual and family grants, temporary or permanent
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housing, assistance with basic needs, and crisis counseling. Other disaster aid programs include crisis counseling,
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disaster-related unemployment assistance, legal aid and assistance with income tax, and Social Security and
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Veteran’s benefits (Federal Emergency Management Agency, n.d.).
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Federal laws, in particular the Disaster Relief Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-606), the Disaster Relief Act Amendments of
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1980 (P.L. 96-568), and the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (P.L. 93-288),
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address disaster-related concerns. Following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the Homeland Security
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Act of 2002 and the Homeland Security Presidential Directive Five, entitled “Management of Domestic
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Incidents” issued in 2003, authorized changes in the American government’s approach to disasters. This approach
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is outlined in the National Response Plan (NRP), which specifies that extensive training is necessary for those
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operating in the system (Gillespie, 2008, p.62). The NRP is a complex, formal preparedness and response plan
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intended to provide a comprehensive policy framework for coordinating federal, state, and local governments, as
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well as nongovernmental organizations and private sector resources (U.S. Department of Homeland Security,
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2004).
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In addition to Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), other federal, state, and local government
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agencies assist with disaster planning and response including the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
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Administration Disaster Technical Assistance Center which prepares states, territories, tribe, and local entities to
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deliver an effective mental health and substance abuse response to disasters (Substance Abuse and Mental Health
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Services Administration, n.d.); the Small Business Administration which provides low interest disaster loans to
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homeowners, renters, and businesses (Small Business Administration, n.d.); the United States Department of
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Agriculture Farm Service Agency, which provides assistance for natural disaster losses (United States
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Department of Agriculture, n.d.); and the Internal Revenue Service, which advises individuals and businesses on
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tax law provisions including business continuity planning, insurance coverage and record keeping in the event of
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a disaster (Internal Revenue Service, n.d.). Additionally, several volunteer agencies assume defined roles and
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responsibilities in disaster situations including the American Red Cross and numerous national and state
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charitable and religiously-affiliated organizations and agencies.
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In a community affected by disaster, in addition to people directly affected, several special populations can be
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identified. Among these groups of disaster survivors and victims are subpopulations historically of concern to
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social work including older adults, people with low incomes, people with preexisting mental illness, children,
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immigrants, refugees, people with disabilities, and people who are isolated, institutionalized, or otherwise at
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social or physical risk. These populations are among the most vulnerable disaster survivors and require special
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attention during preparedness, immediate relief, and recovery phases. People who have a history of trauma are
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also a group at risk. Virtually no one experiences or responds to disasters unscathed. Rescue workers and military
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personnel, witnesses to the event, first responders, people who are physically injured, mental health professionals,
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and the skilled workers on the scene all constitute at-risk populations. The makeup of the at-risk population group
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is determined by the nature and location of the disaster.
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Access to numerous media sources, especially television and the internet has broadened the scope and awareness
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of disasters. On one hand, covering a disaster is a public service, commanding the attention of the world to the
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needs of the people affected. However, the coverage can also deepen the wounds and intensify the anxiety of
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people affected because of the constant repetition of the stories, the misinformation that breaking news is often
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fraught with, and the response of people and government as a result of the media coverage. It can also affect those
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following the media coverage through experience of vicarious trauma.
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Social workers are critical components of the overall disaster response team. Along with emergency management
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agencies, police and fire departments, and other organizations, social service agencies are important participants
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in the inter-organizational efforts to respond to disasters (Robards, K.J., Gillespie, D.F., & Murty, S.A., 2000,
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p.41). Inherent in social work policy is the recognition of individual as well as systems considerations.
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Disaster social work is concerned with the intervention in the social and physical environments of individuals and
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groups as a means of preventing serious long-term emotional, spiritual, and mental health problems after a
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disaster (Rogge, 2003). With community connections and knowledge of local values and norms, social workers
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can be involved with disaster mitigation, including mobilizing communities to support land-use planning and
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management, lobbying for stronger building codes and standards, expanding the use of disaster insurance,
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creating improved disaster warning systems, and working toward safer infrastructure to reduce vulnerability
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(Gillespie, 2008, p.63).
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Social workers also facilitate access to those in need, linking vulnerable populations to services and creating
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connections across service systems to improve distribution of resources (Gillespie, 2008, p.63). They provide
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traumatic stress services including psychological debriefing to help victims understand typical stress response and
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teach useful coping mechanisms (Miller, 2003). Interventions at the community level have been developed to
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prevent long-term damage to vulnerable populations (Zakour, M.J., n.d.). Effective interventions must be tailored
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to phases of recovery. Crisis intervention occurs during and immediately after a disaster to help people cope with
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stress reactions. Typically, the goal of this intervention is to help survivors’ return to their pre-crisis level of
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well-being and ability to function and to regain control over their lives (Rosenfeld, et.al., 2010, p. 258). Clinical
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social workers also provide psychological first aid which the American Red Cross (2009) defines as a set of
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supportive actions that help people cope more effectively during times of stress.
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Post disaster intervention is also critical and can be characterized by “mental and physical suffering that continues
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and sometimes escalate after the disaster is over” (Rosenfeld, et.al, 2010, p.298). The goals of post disaster
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intervention include ameliorating mental pain and social anguish (Rosenfeld, et. al, 2010, p.298).
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There is a range of reactions to stress. Exposure to severe psychological trauma including disasters can result in
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psychological and physical health problems (Adams, R.E, & Boscarino, J.A., 2009). Post-traumatic stress
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disorder (PTSD) is a serious potentially debilitating condition that can occur in people who have experienced or
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witnessed a natural disaster, serious accident, terrorist incident, or other life-threatening event (Anxiety and
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Depression Association of America, n.d.). Approximately 3.5 percent of the United States adult population is
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currently classified as having post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and 36.6 percent of those cases are classified
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as severe (NIMH, n.d.). Studies indicate that almost 90 percent of adults have experienced at least one lifetime
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traumatic event, yet only 15 percent of those exposed developed PTSD (Breslau, et al., 2004). Interventions
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models must be based on resilience and strengths rather than pathology and deficit.
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Because of the chaos that ensues after a disaster, a well-ordered and coordinated mass response system is needed
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for effective disaster management. NASW has adopted a disaster policy at the national level for four primary
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reasons:
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1. Disasters are large-scale catastrophes that affect whole communities or multiple communities in
geophysical, social, and psychological ways.
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2. The trauma and deprivation resulting from disasters often are magnified for those with few resources and
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reduced opportunities to rebuild homes and replace losses. As such, vulnerable populations are likely to be among
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those especially affected by disasters.
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3. Social workers are well suited to interpret the disaster context, to advocate for effective services, and to
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provide leadership in essential collaborations among institutions and organizations. Furthermore, compatible with
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social work epistemology, disaster assistance must be construed holistically, encompassing the physical,
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developmental, psychological, emotional, social, cultural, and spiritual needs of individuals and systems.
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4. Social workers continue to respond quickly and effectively to need in the immediate aftermath of disasters.
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The importance of the potential contribution and role of social work warrants more than spontaneous responses on
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a disaster-by-disaster basis. Effective disaster leadership and a proactive presence on the part of the profession
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require preparation, direction, training, and practice.
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The broad range of social work practice allows social workers to provide services in a variety of settings and
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social workers from all fields of practice must have knowledge and understanding about disasters and the course
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of recovery. Due to the increasing number and scope of disasters worldwide, multidisciplinary partnerships,
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training, research, and coordination of response efforts are needed.
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NASW entered into the first of a succession of professional agreements with the American Red Cross in 1990 to
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facilitate social work participation in the planning, training, and provision of mental health services to disaster
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victims. Further, the NASW Foundation created a Social Work Disaster Assistance Fund to provide financial
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assistance to social workers affected by disasters. Donations go directly to social workers and/or social welfare
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organizations that can provide assistance to those who have suffered loss and are in need of financial or other
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assistance due to a disaster (NASW Foundation, n.d.).
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POLICY STATEMENT
NASW supports participation in and advocates for programs and policies that serve individuals and
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communities in preparation for, during, and in the wake of disaster. NASW supports:
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• prevention or mitigation of the adverse consequences of disaster and effective preparation for disaster by
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individuals, families, social networks, neighborhoods, schools, organizations, and communities, especially where
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vulnerable populations are concentrated
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efforts to prevent exacerbation of problems related to the disaster
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relationship rights for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender people and undocumented immigrants
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empowerment, with sensitivity to the phases of disaster recovery and with understanding of the unique cultural
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characteristics of the affected community and its populations
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support.
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and other disaster workers
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response
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continued research on the impact of disasters, effective interventions, and disaster management strategies
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development of a cadre of well-trained, culturally competent disaster professionals committed to effective
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interdisciplinary and inter-organizational collaboration in disaster planning and disaster response
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coping methods, and strategies for accessing and successfully using the disaster assistance systems.
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enhancement of the efficiency, effectiveness, orchestration, and responsiveness of disaster relief and recovery
policies and procedures that provide access to disaster relief services and resources to all (including
provision of behavioral health and social services to survivors in a context of normalization and
attention to the long-term recovery phase of disasters, including in regard to mental health services and
attention to the special training needs, stress management techniques, and support needs of first responders
education of social workers and social work students in the specialized knowledge and methods of trauma
provision of accurate and effective public information on the normal phases of disaster reaction, functional
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