Critically evaluate Plutarch and Xenophon’s view of Spartan
Society
Plutarch in On Sparta and Xenophon in Spartan Society give two differing views on
Spartan society. While Plutarch gives a historical account of significant figures in
Spartan society and attempts to keep objectivity in his writings, Xenophon openly
admires the Spartan model for a society and frequently makes it evident he is using it
to criticise the Greek society of his time. Meanwhile, it is important to note that while
Plutarch lived in the first century AD, Xenophon existed during the fourth century
BC, meaning that the two composers had different contexts and aims when writing
their accounts. Nonetheless, both composers make it clear that Sparta had “clearly
become the most powerful and most famous state in Greece” (Xenophon, p. 194). The
difference in the tone of their writings and their views on Spartan society is made
evident by examining the different aspects of the society, especially the reforms
introduced by Lycurgus. These include reforms in the social, economic, military,
political aspects, and the religious aspect of Spartan society. By such examination it
can be assessed that Sparta was a much admired society, but simultaneously was a
society that worked off a system of perfection designed by the wise lawgiver
Lycurgus.
Spartan society as described by Plutarch and Xenophon is modelled off the utopian
ideals of Lycurgus, who after extensive travels to Crete, Asia and Egypt returned to
Sparta and made “a complete change to the constitution” (Plutarch, p.7). This change
in constitution gave rise to change in all aspects of Spartan society. The aspect that
most the most affected in the new “Lycurgan Sparta” (Talbert, R.J.A. p. xix) was the
social aspect of Spartan society. One reform in this area was the establishment of
communal messes. Plutarch describes this as “his third and finest reform”, (Plutarch,
p.12) and is quick to justify himself by bringing in one of his own sources,
“Theopastrus says it was an even greater one to have made wealth undesirable and to
have produced ‘non-wealth’ by meals taken in common and by the frugality of the
diet” (Plutarch, p. 13). Even in his attempt to remain unbiased, however, Plutarch still
whispers admiration for Spartan society. On the other hand, Xenophon describes the
introduction of communal messes as a means of “(reducing) to a minimum
disobedience of orders” (Xenophon, p. 200). Additionally, Xenophon saw it as a
means of associating the young with the old, thereby that “it would be educational for
the younger men to benefit from the experience of their elders” (Xenophon, p. 200).
Xenophon here is not only complimenting communal messes, but is further
expressing the multi-purpose effect that communal messes had on Spartan society.
However, Xenophon is more explicit in his admiration of Spartan society, and his
comparison to Greek society, in the description of one of Lycurgus’ reforms in the
economic aspect of Spartan society. This was the removal of the pursuit of personal
wealth; “their sole concern should be with the things that make cities free…besides,
there is no point in making money even for the sake of clothes, since it is physical
vitality which gives these men a distinctive appearance, not lavish dress” (Xenophon,
p. 202). In this passage he is criticising Greek society as one that basks in its own
wealth and lavish dress, rather than focusing on what makes a city free. This
demonstrates Xenophon’s open admiration for Spartan society, and his cynicism of
Greek society. Plutarch, on the other hand, sees the abolition of wealth as “measures
against their [Spartans] greed” (Plutarch, p. 11). Plutarch more elaborately describes
the means by which Lycurgus removed of the pursuit of personal wealth as by making
coinage invalid, and replacing the old currency with iron, which had “…such a low
value to even a great weight and mass of this, so that a sum of ten minas demanded
substantial storage space…”(Plutarch, p.11) thereby making wealth incredibly
unattractive; it “excited no envy when possessed” (Plutarch, p.12). Plutarch’s
reasoning in this passage demonstrates his attempt to remain objective in his views on
Spartan society.
Plutarch and Xenophon also comment on the military aspect of Spartan society, which
was also affected by Lycurgus’ reforms. Plutarch attempts again to be objective in his
description of the Spartans treatment of a fleeing enemy force, “…in their view it was
neither noble nor Hellenic to butcher and slaughter men who had given up and yielded
their ground” (Plutarch p.28). He reasons this philosophy in saying“…that adversaries
saw it as more advantageous to flee…” (Plutarch, p.28) than fight the Spartans, who
would let them live if they fled. Although by describing the Spartans actions not to
slaughter fleeing enemies Plutarch is in fact complimenting the Spartans, by
mentioning the philosophy behind the actions Plutarch is keeping his objective
approach to the subject. Xenophon, on the other hand, depicts the Spartans in combat
as quite reputable and fearsome. He begins his section on the Spartan military aspect
with the line “…if anyone wishes to understand how Lycurgus also caused their
organization on campaign to be superior to that of the others, he should pay attention
to what follows” (Xenophon, p. 206). This demonstrates that Xenophon highly
admires the organization and the effectiveness of the Spartan military against “the
others”, which is a reference to other Greek states that have warred with Sparta. This
comment acknowledges the notion that Xenophon is using Spartan Society to criticise
Greek society, and clearly shows that Xenophon has a very strong admiration of
Spartan society.
In commenting on the affected political aspect of Spartan society by Lycurgus,
Plutarch and Xenophon comment on the changing role of a king. Since Lycurgus’
reforms, a king no longer is exempted from the activities of an ordinary citizen.
Plutarch mentions a specific example of where King Agis wanted to eat at home with
his wife, rather than attend the communal mess. In response, “the polemarchs would
not send (his rations),” to his home, and “the next day in his fury, he did not carry out
the required sacrifice, and then they fined him” (Plutarch, p.15). In this example,
Plutarch gives a reason why events occurred, successfully staying objective on the
matter. Xenophon, however, shows praises Lycrugus’ initiative on changing the role
of a king, mentioning not only that the prerogatives to a king at home in his lifetime
was “nothing much above the level of private citizens”, but that “the aims of the laws
of Lycurgus here is to demonstrate that they have been given special honour to
Spartan kings not as humans but as heroes”. (Xenophon, p.211) Xenophon is praising
Lycurgus here as he is admitting that the way in which Lycurgus made a king work on
the level of a citizen, and be able to do thing such as “lead the army wherever the city
despatches it” (Xenophon, p.211) that king is more respected by his people. This
further demonstrates Xenophon’s open admiration for Spartan society.
Plutarch’s attempted objectivity and Xenophon’s respect for Sparta are also
highlighted by their comments on religious aspects of Spartan society. Plutarch
highlights in On Sparta that religion was a quintessential part of their lifestyle,
especially in describing a ritual of the Spartan ephors; “the ephors pick a moonless
night, and sit in silence gazing up at the sky. Should, then, a star shoot from one
sector to another sector, they conclude that the kings have committed some fault
relating to religion”. (Plutarch, p.90) Plutarch staples a strong sense of sanctity to this
ritual, and does not give any opinion on it, therefore keeping his objectivity in this
area. On the other side of the coin, Xenophon mentions Lycurgus’ visit to Delphi
before issuing the reforms to his people, in order to gain religious justification.
Xenophon takes this opportunity to express his high opinion of Sparta once again,
noting that “…Lycurgus was responsible for many other admirable devices. One of
the most admirable is this…” (Xenophon, p. 203) before going on to describe his visit
to Delphi. This further demonstrates Xenophon’s not only respect for Lycurgus, but
his by-product of ‘Lycurgan Sparta’.
While Plutarch is evidently an admirer of Spartan society in parts of his account, he
admires it significantly more subtly than Xenophon, whose expression of admiration
for Spartan society goes as far as to say “the most extraordinary thing of all is that
despite the universal praise for such a code of behaviour, not a single city is willing to
copy it” (Xenophon, p.205). Additionally, Xenophon’s criticism of Greek society is
also expressed in his account, also evident in the earlier quotation. Through close
examination of social, economic, military, political and religious aspects of both
Lycurgus’ reforms and Spartan society, Plutarch and Xenophon’s views on Spartan
society can be successfully evaluated and distinguished from one another.
Bibliography
Plutarch. On Sparta.
Talbert, R. (1988). On Sparta (Introduction). London: Penguin.
Xenophon. Spartan Society.