Abigail Beesley
Dr. Karen Riley
FNDS 6000 Final
2 December 2012
Travel through Education from the Ancient World to the American Revolution
Ancient World
The Ancient World philosophers had a sense of common knowledge. Their knowledge
came from experiences with the senses or they relied on interactions from other people.
The questions of what we know about education started with the Greek philosophers. The
philosophy of the Greek world was from the sixth century B.C. to the sixth century A.D.
The Greek philosophers laid the foundations for all subsequent Western educational
philosophy. Confucius, Plato and Aristotle are ancient world philosophers that helped
further education.
Confucius had two goals in his reign. They were to gain appointment as a
government official and to teach. He attempted to teach the young to be government
officials. Confucius believed the best way to build the young was to give them
knowledge they did not have before and to further their understanding of Chinese culture
and classics. He educated the whole person to be compassionate, moral and efficient.
Confucius believed in religion and rituals. He established a curriculum and goals for the
institution he created as a method of instruction. His teachings are referred to in the
Analects, which have notes and lectures that were recorded by students.
The purpose of education in his eyes was to guide a person in the right path by
leading a good life by doing what is right. The purpose of his teaching was too ultimately
to do the right thing. This would create social stability. His teachings made the person
completely accountable for everything that they did. The role of the teacher was to act as
an agent of transmission of the great truths of the past, the classics, and to analyze how
this stable body of knowledge was to be interpreted for the present situation. Plato was a
Greek philosopher who once followed Socrates in the hope of finding the meaning of his
life and life in general. He was the teacher of Aristotle.
The state had complete control of a citizen’s education. At a young age, Plato
believed that it was a crucial stage of development and laid the foundation for later
learning. From birth to age six, he wanted children removed from their families and
reared in state operated nurseries. He wanted to create positive predispositions and
attitudes in the young. During the age of 6 to 18, children learned music, literature,
mathematics and gymnastics.
People were identified in three specific classes: the guardians or philosopherkings, the defenders or the military (The Republic), and the workers. He believed these
classes gave people justice because they were capable of obtaining their status. Once the
students reached their level of capacity, they entered into the working class. If they did
not enter the working class, then they had not reached their intellectual capacity. From
age 18 to 20, they pursed physical and military training. If they had the knowledge of
philosopher-kings, then they continued their education for another ten years learning
mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and music. After they graduated from that ranking,
the students were assigned subordinate roles or they continued on for another five years
of school to obtain the overall knowledge for making strategic decisions. At the age of
50, they could join the ruling elite.
Aristotle created a Lyceum, or an educational institution. His students learned
natural sciences, politics, metaphysics, and ethics. He believed that all people shared the
same intellectual passion. His belief in education was shaped by his philosophy and
scientific theory. He wanted to answer the questions, “Why do human beings want to
know”. Aristotle believed that schools should “develop and exercise students’ potential
for reasoning; form ethical character; and provide a skill and knowledge base.
Aristotle divided schooling up into three stages: primary education, secondary
education and higher education. Ages 7 to 14 attended primary education that developed
skills related to reason and moderation. Ages 14 to 21 attended secondary school, which
was influenced by the primary education so students could start learning intellectual
development. During the years of 18 to 21, students participated in military drill and
tactics. As long as the student was interested, at the age of 21 they could go for their
higher education. This stage of development concentrated on reason and character. The
higher education was only allowed for males because Aristotle believed women were
intellectually incapable.
Throughout the ancient world, Confucius led education in the direction of
establishing goals and a curriculum for an institution. With a curriculum and goals,
students would be headed in the direction of leading a good life by accomplishing the
goals and doing what is right. Plato incorporated the goals and curriculum and focused
on students reaching their capacity of learning level. As students would reach their
intellectual capacity, they would go to a different ranking. Aristotle incorporated the
ideas of Confucius and Plato and created educational systems, as we know them today.
He created the primary, secondary and high education systems.
Medieval and Renaissance
The Ancient World led into the Medieval and Renaissance period during the 11 th
century. This was a time period of transformation. There was general acceptance of the
beliefs and education of the church. Thomas Aquinas and John Calvin were philosophers
that lived during this time period that guided education through the transformation.
Just like Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas believed that an act is either good or bad.
Committing these acts would ultimately depend on the end of our own life when we face
God. Happiness in the eyes of Thomas Aquinas required a level of intellectual capacity
and moral virtues.
Consistent happiness would help us create a morale tat was
dependable and gave humans a basis of understanding. Thomas Aquinas did not believe
in complete happiness. Eventually, ultimate and complete happiness relied on a union
with God. Thomas Aquinas believed in natural sciences, mathematics, natural and moral
philosophy and divine science. These subjects would incorporate knowledge and skills
that were needed to have a union with God. With knowledge came logic, but it could not
be separated from religious faith.
John Calvin was an influential thinker who believed biblical principles should be
enforced in every area of life. John Calvin impacted education and his writings have had
a lasting effect on education. John Calvin pushed for universal education. For every
person to reach union with God, they had to be educated in language and humanities.
Just like Thomas Aquinas, he believed that with knowledge came logic, but the two could
not be separated from religious faith. He founded an academy for Geneva’s children.
Enlightenment
The Enlightenment Period was a time when certain writers and philosophers felt
like they were more knowledgeable than some of their peers so they felt like they should
“enlighten” them. They believed human reason would build a better world.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau lived during the 18th century. He understood that society was
transforming from tradition to the age of reasoning. His outlook on education was
depicted in this work Emile. Rousseau believed children were best educated in rural areas
where they are most in touch with nature. He believed children who were educated in the
city were exposed to elements that would rub off on their nature. Rousseau concluded
that if the child can flourish without this corrupting society then the child’s self-identity
could be created with natural goodness. In Rousseau’s conventional school, the teachers
set up the classroom as an environment that was influenced by the students so it would
create specific outcomes in these students. Rousseau believed that the teachings of nature
are beyond the control of man. Nature has been kind to man. Rousseau argued that we
are inherently good, but we become corrupted by the evils of society. We are born well and that is our natural state. When the evils of society corrupt us, then we start to lose
touch of nature. Separation of nature causes the relationship to become corrupt. JeanJacques’ Emile had an influence on education because it brought to the attention that
childhood is a necessary and critical stage of development. He believed that from infancy
to five years old, a person should take as long as they needed to for these stages of
development. His child centered prospective created a liberal education, which was
implemented in higher education.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi lived during the nineteenth-century, which was
known as the post-Enlightenment stage. He was the prophet of educating the heart and
the senses. He brought significant changes to the teaching world by using his natural
method of development. During this time period, primary schools emphasized doctrine
and memorization. These schools were influenced by church instruction. On the other
hand, primary dialect schools were under church control. Students were instructed to
defend their particular religion. These schools stressed basic literacy, writing, singing,
arithmetic, and religious conformity and practice. Traditionalism still had influence of
the gymnasium, lycee and English grammar and public schools.
Pestalozzi established a career in education. His main audience was the poor. He
attracted orphans and students and invited the families into the school. He cleaned,
bathed and clothed the children. His focus on education was to teach them reading,
writing and counting by using “simultaneous instruction”. He implemented Gertrude’s
method of natural education from the work Leonard and Gertrude. Natural education
came from the influences of Rousseau. Johann influenced Europe and North American
educational philosophy. His philosophy placed emphasis on children’s interest and
needs. Rousseau’s philosophy of child-centered practice influenced natural education,
which stressed children’s dignity.
Friedrich Froebel lived during 1782-1852. He is the founder of Kindergarten. He
used the concept of simply idea, step-by-step and going slow to create his philosophy on
kindergarten. His children’s plays were a primary focus of his belief in education.
Friedrich Hegel was a professor at the University of Berlin. He stressed the power of
ideas and the mind. He influenced Froebel’s concept of Kindergarten.
Froebel’s philosophy on Kindergarten was one that believed children would
create their own complex, complete view of the world. They would create this view by
the their own internal thought processes developed through the curriculum. These
children could be recognized and nurtured. Immigrants came to America with the idea
and curriculum of Kindergarten. The majority of early Kindergarten classes were
established in private schools.
William Chandler Bagley was born in Detroit, Michigan. Bagley was an
educator and theorist of educational "essentialism." His goal was to determine the
scientific theoretical basis for the professionalization of teacher education. His
curriculum for the student’s included to read, write, gain knowledge of basic facts of
geography, history, literature and art. Physical and social sciences are the “essential”
subjects students must learn. His writings, books and journal articles influenced
education in America during the 19th century. His textbook, Classroom Management,
gave teachers skills and techniques to control the classroom, which was part of his
educational philosophy. Bagley had an essentialist position in education.
Sir Thomas More lived during the sixteenth century in England. He was a writer
and statesman. More’s was a humanist and was interested in philosophy. He was a
devout Catholic. Europe during this time was in social disaster. Innovations in the
sciences and arts were flourishing. “Utopia” is a word that means there is no such a
place. The utopia was given the name to More’s ideal republic. In Utopia, he points out
the defects in society and explains changes that need to be made to redeem society.
More had an impact on historical Europe and our world today. Mores’ writings have
authors a new way to express their ideas. He moved literature from entertainment
purposed to portrayals of society. He spread Christian humanism and gave rise to many
religions still practiced today.
American Revolution
From the beginning, education has been created by experimentation and is ever
changing. Ideas, morals and values have created the education system, as we know it
today.
Thomas Jefferson lived during the eighteenth century during the American
Revolution. Jefferson’s outlooks were founded on the Enlightenment, the American
Revolution and the republic. Thomas Jefferson grew up on a plantation and he learned to
read and write from a tutor. During this time, school was a private family matter rather
than a community or government responsibility. At a young age he attended a boarding
school and eventually went to the College of William and Mary. Jefferson did not
complete his schooling from a formal school. He believed in self and continuing
education.
Thomas Jefferson created concept on education that was broad and founded on
republican society. “Jefferson envisioned education as a necessary foundation for a free
people
who
governed
themselves
democratically
through
representative
institutions”(Getek). Jefferson first goal was to provide education through statesupported and local controlled schooling. He believed that it was a person’s civic right
and responsibility to be literate and education. His second goal was based on secondary
and higher education. He believed at this level of education the institution should select
students and train them for leadership positions. His third goal protected an individual’s
natural right to freedom and inquiry.
Jefferson understood that free people needed a system of accessible
education. He believed that it was one’s duty to practice education so they could be
practicing citizens of the United States. He founded the University of Virginia to create
a system of education for free people to practice. Jefferson’s idea of education stays
away from church controlled schools because he believed that this type of education
persuaded people to certain beliefs and schooling.
The common school is a public school, as we know it that evolved during the
mid-nineteenth century. Horace Mann established the philosophical and organizational
foundations of the common school. His idea for tuition free public education established
state sponsored free schools. His philosophy was based off his childhood, which was
controlled by hard work and regular church attendance. He emphasized that schooling
should develop hardworking men and women and that ethical values should be
respected. Mann believed that elected officials and representative institutions should
govern the common school. The common school should not be tied to any political
party. The common school is socially integrative so all students can learn together. The
common school idea would prepare students for everyday life. The idea of the common
school became the cornerstone of the American way of life.
In the common school the curriculum would be based off of reading, writing,
spelling, arithmetic, history geography, health, music and art. The idea of the common
school and Mann’s educational philosophy founded a civic education so all could be
united together to learn and better off society. Common schools were funded by local
property taxes and charged no tuition.
During this time, educating for citizenship was important because in the long run
educating the public would be the lasting change for society. Mann established the free
school movement for decades to come so that all citizens regardless of their race or
economic status could have the opportunity for free tuition. The more people in society
that are educated will create a long lasting educated society. During this time period,
only the rich and people with economic status had the opportunity to attend a well-based
school with a curriculum.