 BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 102 – ANIMAL BIOLOGY
 MASTER EXAMINATION REVIEW SHEET
THIS REVIEW SHEET IS MEANT TO BE AN AID TO YOU IN YOUR STUDIES FOR THE EXAMS.
IT DOES NOT NECESSARILY INCLUDE ALL OF THE INFORMATION WHICH WAS PRESENTED IN
LECTURE AND LAB FOR THE EXAMS. THIS REVIEW SHEET IS NOT A SUBSTITUTE FOR
REGULAR, DILIGENT STUDY OF THE COURSE MATERIAL.
THESE QUESTIONS ARE IN GENERAL, BUT NOT EXACT, CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
AS PRESENTED IN CLASS
AS WE PROCEED THROUGH THE COURSE, ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS WILL BE ADDED AT THE
END OF THIS LIST FOR EACH EXAM BASED ON SPECIFIC MATERIAL DISCUSSED IN CLASS.
I WILL LET YOU KNOW WHICH SPECIFIC QUESTIONS WILL BE ON EACH EXAM
THROUGHOUT THE SEMESTER
REVIEW QUESTIONS & VOCABULARY:
INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, EVOLUTION AND THE HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH
1. List at least 5 different specific study skills/activities you can do to help maximize your success in
this course.
2. Generally, what is your learning style(s)?
3. Briefly describe the scientific method.
4. Design and describe a biological experiment to show that you clearly understand the scientific
method. You may use a diagram if you wish.
5. Why is the observation portion of the scientific method so critical?
6. What is an hypothesis? How does a theory differ from an hypothesis?
7. How does a control group differ from an experimental group?
8. Why is it important for scientists to replicate their experiments?
9. Briefly describe or draw a diagram to show the levels of organization of life (the hierarchy of life
from atoms to biosphere).
10. What one molecule is an absolute requirement for life as we know it?
11. List the four most important atoms that form biologically important molecules?
12. Why is carbon so important to life on earth? What does carbon form?
13. Briefly describe the basic characteristics of each of Whitaker’s 5 Kingdoms of Life.
14. Briefly describe the basic characteristics of each of Woese’s 3 Domains of Life.
15. Briefly define the theory of natural selection?
16. Who was Alfred Russell Wallace and what role did he play in the development of the theory of
evolution?
17. Define the terms: evolution, mass extinction, macroevolution, microevolution.
18. How did Lamarck’s theory of evolution differ from Darwin’s.
19. In taxonomy or the classification of living things, what are the 3 domains of life?
20. Why are there 3 domains of life and not 2 or 4 different domains?
21. What was the Cambrian Explosion?
22. How many Eons are recognized with regards to the geologic timeline of Earth? What are they
called? And roughly how many years ago did each begin?
23. What was Karl von Linne's (Carolus Linnaeus') major contribution to biological science?
24. What is meant by binomial nomenclature?
25. What taxa ranks are always italicized in an organism's scientific name?
26. Which taxa ranks are always capitalized and which one is never capitalized?
27. In standard formatting of scientific names, is a genus capitalized? Is a species name capitalized?
28. How does radial symmetry differ from bilateral symmetry with regard to animal form?
29. How does a vertebrate differ from an invertebrate? To which animal phylum do vertebrates belong?
30. List at least 2 different invertebrate animal phyla.
31. How do acoelomate, psuedocoelomate, and eucoelomate animals differ? To which group do
humans belong? Draw simple diagrams of cross sections to show the differences.
32. How is having a true coelom advantageous (adaptive) versus not having a coelom?
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33. With regard to the formation of the digestive system, how does a protostome differ from a
deuterostome?
34. Define the following terms: phylogeny, systematics, taxonomy
35. What are 4 different scientific techniques used for phylogenetic analysis to determine the
evolutionary relationship between different species’?
36. Define the following terms: homology, analogy, parallelism, convergence, type specimen.
37. Explain the difference between convergent evolution and divergent evolution.
38. Provide an example of convergent evolution in the animal kingdom.
39. Provide an example of divergent evolution in the animal kingdom.
40. Provide an example of homologous structures, other than the vertebrate forelimb, in the animal
kingdom.
41. Provide an example of analogous structures, other than insect and bird wings, in the animal
kingdom.
42. What is the ICZN? What does this stand for and why is it important to zoology?
43. What is the GBIF (see the website)? What does this stand for and why is it important to biology?
44. What is ITIS (see the website)? What does it stand for and why is it useful to biology?
45. What is DNA Barcoding of species? Explain the basics of the technique.
46. Relative to phylogeny, how does a cladogram differ from a phylogenetic tree?
47. What is cladistics? Why is it useful to animal taxonomy and evolutionary biology?
48. What are the four basic/primary tissue types seen in animals and what are the basic
characteristics of each type?
49. What is metamerism? (if an animal is metameric, what does this mean?)
50. What is cephalization? Why is cephalization important to the evolution of bilaterally symmetrical
animals?
51. What are some advantages of being multicellular (as opposed to being unicellular)?
52. Are their disadvantages to being multicellular as compared to being unicellular? If so, what
53. Into how many Eras is the Phanerozoic Eon divided and when did the Phanerozoic Eon begin?
54. What other Eons are recognized other than the Phanerozoic?
55. When did the Cambrian Period begin and end?
56. What is meant by the “Cambrian Explosion”? Provide one or more hypothesis for why the
Cambrian Explosion occurred.
57. When was the Great Permian Extinction (how many millions of years ago)? Roughly what
percentage of species went extinct at this mass extinction event?
58. During what Period did the first bony ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes appear and
59. dominate the aquatic habitats of Earth?
60. When was the Great Cretaceous Extinction (how many millions of years ago)? Roughly what
percentage of species went extinct at this mass extinction event? Generally, what types of animals
survived this great extinction?
61. What periods encompass the “Age of the Dinosaurs” and dominance of large reptiles? List two
different theories about what caused the Great Cretaceous Extinction.
62. For how many years have modern humans (Homo sapiens) been a component of the Biosphere?
63. What is the estimated age of the evolution of the oldest, first prokaryotic cell on Earth? And the
oldest, first eukaryotic cell on Earth?
64. What is the Red Shift and how does it relate to the theory of the Big Bang?
65. Briefly list the major contributions of each of the following scientists: Robert Brown, Edwin
Hubble, Georges Lemaître, Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman.
66. What is Brownian Motion? What is the source of energy that drives Brownian Motion?
67. What were probably the first simple biomolecules to evolve on Earth?
68. oughly, how old is the universe based on the Big Bang theory?
69. Roughly, when did Earth first begin to form?
70. What is the Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis?
71. What experiment did Stanley Miller and Harold Urey do that helped provide evidence for the
Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis?
72. What is a ribozyme?
73. Which probably evolved first RNA or DNA? Why? What is the evidence?
74. Basically, how was the atmosphere of early earth different from the atmosphere we experience
today?
75. What does the acronym LUCA stand for? Briefly describe some of the characteristics that LUCA
likely would have possessed?
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76. Draw a simple timeline to show when each of the following events occurred in the history of life on
Earth:
 end of the major bombardment to form the planet
 first prokaryotic cells/bacteria
 first evolution of photosynthesis
 increased oxygen level in the atmosphere
 development of an ozone layer in the atmosphere
 first eukaryotic cells
 first multicellular life
 Cambrian Explosion
 age of the fishes
 age of the dinosaurs
 the Cretaceous Extinction
 evolution of modern man (Homo sapiens)
INTRODUCTION TO CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND MICROSCOPY
77. Draw and clearly label a diagram of the carbon cycle showing the flow of carbon in both the
terrestrial and aquatic/marine ecosystems.
78. Draw and clearly label a diagram of the nitrogen cycle showing the flow of nitrogen in both the
terrestrial and aquatic/marine ecosystems.
79. Draw and clearly label a diagram of the water cycle.
80. Define these terms: organic compound, macromolecule, monomer, polymer.
81. How does a monosaccharide differ from a disaccharide or a polysaccharide? Provide specific
examples of each.
82. Is fat a lipid? What is a lipid?
83. What is a phospholipid?
84. List examples of at least 4 different lipids.
85. List two different reasons why cholesterol is important to the body?
86. What type of macromolecule is cholesterol?
87. What is a peptide? What is a protein?
88. What is the primary structure of a protein?
89. What is the secondary structure of a protein?
90. How does the tertiary structure of a protein differ from the quaternary structure of a protein?
91. What type of chemical bond stabilizes alpha helices and beta pleated sheets in proteins?
92. What are two different types of nucleic acids based on their chemical structure?
93. What is a nucleotide? What are the three basic parts of a nucleotide?
94. List 3 structural differences between RNA and DNA.
95. Where is RNA found inside cells? Where is DNA found inside cells?
96. List and describe the basic function of the three different functional types of RNA in cells.
97. What is an enzyme?
98. How do enzymes act as catalysts? Are enzymes specific and selective? If so, why?
99. What is a polar molecule? Is water polar? Chemically, what makes a molecule polar?
100. What is a nonpolar molecule?
101. Define diffusion and osmosis. How does diffusion differ from osmosis?
102. How do hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic solutions differ from one another?
103. List 3 different reasons why water is important to life on Earth.
104. Is water a liquid, a solid or a gas at its greatest density?
105. Is water a liquid, a solid or a gas at its lowest density?
106. What is hydrogen bonding? Why do hydrogen bonds form?
107. How does hydrogen bonding affect the density of water at different temperatures?
108. Draw a diagram to show the hydrogen bonding pattern changes as water transitions from ice to
liquid to steam.
109. Why does water have a high heat of vaporization (it takes a lot of heat to turn liquid water into
steam)? What does this have to do with regulating body temperature in humans and environmental
temperatures near large bodies of water?
110. Why does water have a high heat capacity?
111. Briefly describe or draw a diagram to show the basic structure of a phospholipid.
112. What types of molecules comprise cell membranes in addition to phospholipids?
List ALL of the basic molecule types that might be found in an animal cell membrane.
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113. Describe and draw a diagram to show the basic structure of an animal cell membrane (show
the Fluid Mosaic Model). Clearly label all molecules.
114. Differentiate between the following terms: intracellular space, extracellular space, intercellular
space, interstitial fluid, cytoplasm.
115. Know ALL the basic parts of a microscope.
116. How is total magnification determined for a light microscope.
117. When using a microscope, what are some important techniques to keep in mind in order to
effectively utilize the microsope?
118. When using a pair of binoculars, what are some important techniques to keep in mind in order
to effectively utilize the binoculars?
119. What is light? Is light a wave, particle or both?
120. For what experiment or theory did Albert Einstein win the Nobel Prize?
121. In terms of basic physics, what is color?
122. Give 5 different specific examples where color plays an important role in the life history of
animals.
123. What is the wavelength and frequency of a wave?
124. What is the electromagnetic spectrum?
125. What wavelengths of light are visible to the human eye (what is “visible” light)? What is color
(how are colors different from one another)?
126. What is refraction? How does refraction differ from reflection?
127. What is transmittance and what is absorption? How are they different?
128. What is the relationship between the focal length and optical power and angle of view for a
lens? (eg. Are lenses with longer focal lengths stronger or weaker and do they have a narrow or wide
angle of view)?
129. What is the function of the condenser on a microscope?
130. How can one increase the depth of field when viewing a specimen under the microscope? Note
that this is depth of field, NOT the diameter of the field of view.)
131. What is the resolving power of a microscope? (This is NOT just magnification).
132. What are some typical magnifications for an electron microscope? Generally, how small are the
specimens that are viewed using an electron microscope?
133. Why can an electron microscope create focused images at much higher magnifications (up to
about 2 million times) than a light microscope (why can an electron microscope allow you to see much
smaller specimens)?
134. How does an electron microscope focus the particle beam of electrons to focus an image?
135. List 3 basic tenets of the cell theory?
136. Sphere A has a diameter of 100 centimeters (cm). Sphere B has a diameter of 100 micrometers
(um). What is the mathematical formula for the volume of a sphere? What is the mathematical
formula for the surface area of a sphere? What is the surface area to volume ratio for each sphere?
How does this help explain why cells are very small and never evolved to become large?
137. Who first coined the term “cell”? When was this term first used?
138. Name at least 2 other scientists involved in developing the cell theory?
139. Which scientist discovered the cell nucleus?
140. What is an organelle?
141. List all of the organelles that can typically be found in eukaryotic cells.
142. Briefly describe the basic functions of all of the following organelles: cell membrane,
mitochondria, flagella, cilia, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosome, nucleus, ribosomes, cytoplasm, fibers of the cytoskeleton.
143. How is the function of a mitochondrion dependent on the function of a chloroplast?
144. What are the three major types of fibers that make up the cell cytoskeleton?
145. In addition to maintaining cell shape, what is another function of the cell cytoskeleton?
146. At the most basic level, what is a ribosome and what does it do?
147. List all the organelles that are typically found in animal cells? Which are found in plant cells?
148. Do bacterial cells possess organelles? a nucleus? Can they have a cell wall? a flagellum?
149. How does a prokaryotic cell differ from a eukaryotic cell?
150. What type of cell are bacteria? What type of cell are plant cells? Animal cells? (are they
eukaryotic or prokaryotic)?
151. Why is the surface to volume relationship important with regard to cell size (why is there an
upper limit to how large a cell can be)?
152. What are at least two different advantages of compartmentalization of chemical reactions
within the organelles of a cell? (what does this allow for and what does is prevent?)
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153. List three ways in which mitosis differs from meiosis. What are the basic functions of mitosis
versus meiosis?
154. How many cells are produced at the end of mitosis versus meiosis?
155. Are the cells produced at the end of meiosis and mitosis each haploid or diploid?
156. Which type of cell division occurs in the gonads? Why?
157. What is crossing over and why is it important to the process of evolution in animals?
158. Define the following terms: autotroph, heterotroph, carnivore, herbivore, omnivore,
phagocytosis, pinocytosis.
159. Briefly describe the theory of endosymbiosis. What basic steps/processes are involved? When
in Earth's history might this first have occurred? Who first proposed the theory of endosymbosis?
160. Provide at least 3 different lines of evidence for the theory of endosymbiosis.
161. What is an organelle?
162. How does aerobic cell respiration differ from anaerobic cell respiration (answer involves
oxygen)?
163. How does alcoholic fermentation differ from lactic acid fermentation? What are the starting
products and ending molecules made during these processes? Are these processes more or less
efficient with regard to the amount of ATP made as compared to aerobic cell respiration?
164. Given the choice, why do yeast, muscle cells and other cells always choose aerobic cell
respiration if enough oxygen is available?
165. Which types of cell respiration produce carbon dioxide? From what molecule is carbon dioxide
derived from during cell respiration?
166. What does the abbreviation ATP stand for? Why is ATP useful to cells?
167. What are the three basic steps of aerobic cell respiration? In what specific part of the cell does
each step occur?
168. In which specific part of a mitochondrion does electron transport/oxidative phosphorylation
occur?
169. Basically, what molecules enter into and are produced from each of the following: glycolysis,
TCA/Kreb’s cycle, electron transport/oxidative phosphorylation, lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic
fermentation. (you do not need to learn or memorize any of the intermediate molecules or enzymes).
KINGDOM PROTOCTISTA (PROTISTS)
170. What is a metazoan?
171. Metazoans are a member of what eukaryotic clade of protists (from what lineage of protists did
animals evolve)?
172. Briefly describe one theory regarding the evolution of metazoans from unicellular protists. (eg.
colonial flagellate hypothesis)
173. Why is the syncitial ciliate hypothesis unlikely?
174. What are some of the basic characteristics of a member of the Kingdom Protoctista?
175. How does a protist differ from a protozoan?
176. All protozoans are protoctistans (protists), but not all protists are protozoans. Explain this.
177. Describe the basic cytoskeletal structure of a eukaryotic flagellum (draw a cross sectional
diagram of a eukaryotic flagellum). What energy molecule is required to cause a flagellum to move
back and forth? Name the molecular motor arms.
178. Basically, how does a cilium differs in structure from a flagellum. Are there typically many or
few cilia on an animal cell that possesses them? Are there typically many or few flagella on an animal
cell that possesses them?
179. Briefly describe the hypothesized mechanism for the movement of a pseudopodia which we
described in the text and in lecture. This is a multi-step process. You must use the names of a
variety of specific proteins in order to completely and correctly answer this question.
180. What cellular structure varies in shape in the three major groups of ameba?
181. Given an example of a member of the Phylum Euglenozoa. What are some basic characteristics
of members of this phylum?
182. To what phylum do members of the genus Plasmodium belong? What are some basic
characteristics of members of this phylum?
183. To what phylum do members of the genus Paramecium belong? What are some basic
characteristics of members of this phylum?
184. Define: symbiosis, parasitism, mutualism, commensalism.
185. Briefly describe the symbiotic relationship between a hypermastid (eg. hypermastigotes such as
Trichonympha spp. or Trichomonas spp.) and its insect host.
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186. What is the function of the contractile vacuoles in ciliates such as Paramecium? Draw a
diagram to explain your answer.
187. What is osmoregulation? Why is osmoregulation so important to all animal cells?
188. Define the following reproductive terms regarding protists and animals: binary fission,
budding, gemmulation, fragmentation.
189. In Paramecia, what changes occur in the micronucleus and the macronucleus during
conjugation? Which nucleus undergoes meiosis? Draw a diagram to explain this process.
190. Relative to protozoa, what is encystment and why is it important to the life cycle of some
protozoans?
191. What organisms cause sleeping sickness? To what phylum do these organisms belong?
192. What are some symptoms of sleeping sickness?
193. Briefly describe the life cycle of Plasmodium? Which species of Plasmodium is responsible for
most cases of malaria? What are some symptoms of malaria? How is malaria typically treated? Can it
be prevented? How? Is there an effective vaccine for malaria?
194. What animal other than humans is a host for Plasmodium?
195. Which sex of mosquito bites people? What does the other mosquito sex (gender) eat?
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
196. How does a monoecious animal differ from a dioecious animal?
197. Draw a generalized animal life cycle for a sexually reproducing animal from fertilization
through the larval stage to the adult. You must include all of the following terms in your diagram:
sperm, ovum (gametes), fertilization, cleavages, morula, blastula, gastrula, larva, adult,
metamorphosis, meiosis, mitosis, cell differentiation
198. At what embryonic stage in animals do endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm differentiate?
199. List at least 5 different animals that reproduce asexually.
200. Why is sexual reproduction important to the process of evolution?
201. Explain at least two different ways in which sexual reproduction provides greater genetic
diversity than asexual reproduction.
202. What are a few different disadvantages to sexual reproduction? What are at least 2 different
advantages to sexual reproduction?
203. Relative to metabolic energy cost, are sperm "cheaper" or are eggs "cheaper"?
204. Relative to the metabolic energy cost to produce a sperm versus an egg (ovum), explain
differences in the basic reproductive strategies of male versus female animals.
205. What are the two basic reproductive strategies in animals relative to fecundity (number of eggs
206. produced)? Which is the r-selected strategy and which is the K-selected strategy? Briefly
describe the differences between each of these strategies (what are the advantages and disadvantages
of each reproductive strategy?). Why are they called r and K – to what do these letters correspond?
Which strategy costs more energy per offspring?
207. What is an hermaphroditic animal? Do monoecious animals usually produce both sperm and
eggs at the same time? Why or why not?
208. Explain the advantages and disadvantages to each of these methods of reproduction:
209. asexual reproduction, broadcast spawning, internal fertilization.
210. Explain the difference between direct and indirect animal development.
211. What is parthenogenesis? Explain the advantages and disadvantages of parthenogenesis.
212. What are the sex chromosomes in a mammal? A bird? Which sex is heterogametic and which
sex is homogametic for birds versus mammals.
213. What is temperature dependent sex determination? Give an example of an
214. animal in which this process occurs. Use a diagram to explain how this occurs in some reptiles.
215. If an animal lacks sex chromosomes, how does sex determination occur?
216. How does sex determination occur in a monoecious animal?
KINGDOM ANIMALIA: PHYLUM PORIFERA
217. What are the basic characteristics of each of the three classes of sponges?
218. How do asconoid, synconoid and leuconoid sponges differ in their body plans? What does
surface area have to do with these body plans? Which body plans demonstrate the greatest and least
water flow?
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219. Be able to describe the basic structure of a typical sponge using the following terms: osculum,
ostia, spongocoel, prosopyle, apopyle, flagellated or radial canal, spicules, incurrent canal, excurrent
canal. Be sure you can label a diagram showing these structures on a syconoid sponge.
220. What roles do each of the following cell types play in the physiology of poriferans: choanocytes,
archaeocytes/ameobocytes, pinacocytes.
221. Which type of sponge spicules dissolve in the presence of acid such as HCl?
222. Explain how and why gemmulation occurs in freshwater sponges.
223. Explain three different mechanisms of sponge reproduction.
ANIMAL TISSUES, ORGAN SYSTEMS AND ANATOMICAL ORGANIZATION
224. List 11 different animal organs systems and their basic functions.
225. Define the following anatomical directional terms: superior, inferior, dorsal, ventral, lateral,
226. medial, anterior, posterior, superficial, deep, cranial, caudal, proximal, distal.
227. What major animal tissues and organs are formed by each of the following embryonic/germ cell
layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm.
228. List all of the various types of connective tissues.
229. What is the basic structure of connective tissue? How do each of these types appear
histologically?
230. What cells and fibers are found in each type of connective tissue?
231. Is fat a connective tissue? Is blood a connective tissue?
232. What are the 4 types of membranes found in the body? Which contains goblet cells?
233. Which produces serous fluid? Which actually lacks a basement membrane?
234. Briefly describe and be able to identify the histological characteristics of all types of
235. tissue that we discussed.
236. List at least one location in a typical animal body where each of the different specific tissue
types we discussed is found.
237. What cell types are found in each of the specific tissues types we discussed.
238. Draw and label a diagram of a typical neuron (nerve cell).
239. Can cnidaria possess ciliated cells? Give an example of a ciliated cnidarians structure.
240. Draw a simple diagram of a reflex arc.
241. What is a neuromuscular system?
242. How do cnidarian nerve nets differ from nervous system seen in bilaterally symmetrical animals?
243. Evolutionarily, which phylum shows the first example of an integrated neuromuscular system?
244. Draw a diagram of a reflex arc. Indicate the sensory (afferent) neurons, interneurons (association
neurons) and motor (efferent neurons). Are there any animals in the Kingdom Animalia that lack
reflec arcs?
245. How does an incomplete digestive system differ from a complete one?
246. Draw a simple diagram to describe the basic parts of a generalized animal digestive
247. system.
248. Draw a simple diagram to describe the most basic parts of a generalized single circuit
249. closed circulatory system.
250. Draw a simple diagram to describe the most basic parts of a generalized two circuit
251. closed circulatory system with pulmonary and systemic circuits.
252. How does a closed circulatory system differ from an open one?
253. How does simple epithelium differ from stratified epithelium?
254. What are the three basic shapes/types of epithelial cells in animals?
255. Indicate if cardiac, smooth and skeletal muscle cells:
 are uninucleate or multinucleate (syncitium)
 are voluntary or involuntary
 are striated or non-striated
 possesss intercalated disks
 posses gap junctions and desmosomes
 have branched fibers
256. List at least TWO differences between protostome and deuterostome animals?
257. How does spiral cleavage differ from radial cleavage? Which types is regulative and which type is
mosaic?
258. Explain how schizocoelous coelom formation is different from enterocoelous coelom formation.
List at least 2 different animal taxa that demonstrate schizocoely and 2 different animal taxa that
demonstrate enterocoely.
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259. Describe the basic function of each of the following organ systems and note any important basic
differences between invertebrates and vertebrates (as reviewed in lecture):











integumentary system
circulatory system
excretory system
muscular system
digestive system
nervous system
skeletal system
endocrine system
immune system
lymphatic system
reproductive system
KINGDOM ANIMALIA: PHYLA CNIDARIA AND CTENOPHORA
260. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical true jelly
(scyphozoan) including basic internal anatomy.
261. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical hard coral
(hexocorallian) including basic internal anatomy.
262. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical solitary
hydrozoan (eg. Hydra) including basic internal anatomy.
263. Draw a diagram to show the lifecycles of the following Cnidarians: Obelia sp., Aurelia sp. (label
clearly). You must clearly label all of the following: sperm, egg (ovum), fertilization, all the different
larval stages involved, meiosis, mitosis, blastula, adult.
264. Are Ctenophores bioluminescent? What is bioluminescence?
265. Explain two different molecular mechanisms of bioluminescence in animals.
266. How do the following classes and subclasses of Cnidarians differ?
 Class Hydrozoa
 Class Scyphozoa
 Class Cubozoa
 Class Anthozoa
 Subclass Hexacorallia
 Subclass Ceriantipatharia
 Subclass Octocorallia
 How do the following classes of Ctenophores differ?
 Class Tentaculata
 Class Nuda
267. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Cnidaria
cnidocyte
operculum (multiple phyla
stobila
nematocyst
involved)
ephyra
germ layer
epitheliomuscular cell
zooxanthellae
endoderm
sensory cells
pedalium
mesoderm
hydrostatic skeleton
rhobalium
ectoderm
planula larva
oral disc
gastrovacular cavity
coenosarc
siphonoglyph
polyp
perisarc
primary septa
medusa
thecate
hermatypic coral
polymorphism
athecate
fringing reef
ciliary comb plates
velum
barrier reef
nerve cell (neuron)
manubrium
atoll
nerve net
statocysts
reef crest
hydranth
ocelli
reef flat
gonangium
radial canals
cnidocil
scyphistoma
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268. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Ctenophora
statocyst
cilia
colloblasts
comb plates
tentacles
cydippid larva
PHYLA PLATYHELMINTHES AND NEMERTEA
269. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Platyhelminthes
acoelomate
protonephridia
seminal vesicle
pharynx
flame cells
miracidium
rhabdites
ventral nerve cords
sporocyst
cilia
ocelli
cercariae
columnar epithelium
ovary
redia
longitudical muscles
oviduct
scolex
circular muscles
uterus
oral sucker
extracellular digestion
testes
syncitial epithelium\
gastrovascular cavity
vas deferens
acoelomate
270. How does a triploblastic animal differ from a cnidarian?
271. What is parenchyma?
272. What is cephalization and why is it important in the evolution of various animal groups that are
cephalized?
273. What is the simplest animal phyla that has a true organ based osmoregulatory/excretory
system?
274. Briefly describe the lifecycles of all of the following helminths: Clonorchis sinensis, Schistosoma
sp., Taeniarhynchus saginatus (or similar Taenia worm), Ascaris lumbricoides, Enterobius vermicularis.
275. Clearly label the lifecycles above and be sure to include all larval stages.
276. Briefly describe a few characteristics/adaptations that show how members of the Phylum
277. Nemertea (Rhynchocoelea) differ from members of the Phylum Platyhelminthes.
278. Is an animal has a dorsoventrally flattened body, what does it look like? Do animals with this
body shape have a relatively high or relatively low surface area relative to their volume.
279. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical tapeworm
(cestode) including both basic external and basic internal anatomy.
280. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical fluke worm
(trematode) including both basic external and basic internal anatomy.
281. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical free-living
flatworm (turbellarian) including both basic external and basic internal anatomy.
282. Do flatworms have muscles? If so, where?
283. Do flatworms possess both circular and longitudinal muscles?
284. Do turbellarian flatworms possess a ciliated epidermis? If so, where are the cilia and why are
they located there?
285. What is the function of the dual-gland releasing organ in a flatworm?
286. Where are the rhabdite cells found in a flatworm and what is their function?
287. Where are the protonephridia in a flatworm and what is their function? What
288. specialized cell type is found in the protonephridia?
289. Where is the pharynx in a planarian flatworm? Do they have a mouth and an anus?
290. What is a syncitium? In addition to skeletal muscle cells, what other cells in which flatworms
form a syncitium?
291. How does a miracdium differ from a sporocyst?
292. What is a cercaria? What is a redia?
293. Why are many internal parasites monoecious (hermaphroditic)? (What are the adaptive
advantages to bein monecious for internal parasites?)
294. How does a cestode get longer – where are the least and most mature proglottids? Which
proglottids contain reproductive organs?
295. What is the function of a vitelline gland in an animal?
296. What is the evolutionary significance of a parasite having two or three different hosts? (really
think about this one – there might be multiple correct answers)
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297. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Nemertea (Rhynchocoela)
eversible proboscis
rhynchocoel
stylets
acoeolmate
flame cells
298. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical nemertean
including basic internal anatomy.
299. Which is the simplest animal group to have a closed loop (closed) circulatory system?
300. Do nemerteans possess circular and longitudinal muscles?
301. What is the function of a proboscis in most animals such as a nemertean? List at least two other
animals with a proboscis.
302. What is a pseudocoelom? Draw a diagram to differentiate a pseudocoelom from a true coelom.
303. What are some adaptive advantages of a pseudocoelom compared to the acoelomate condition?
PHYLA NEMATODA AND ROTIFERA
304. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Nematoda
pseudocoel
sensory papillae
lymph nodes
hydrostatic skeleton
copulatory spicules
microfilariae
epidermis
lymphatic vessels
305. What major animal phyla comprise the Superphylum Ecdysozoa? What characteristic do these
animals share in common?
306. How does a hydrostatic skeleton work to allow an animal to move? What do the muscles push
against?
307. Do nematodes possess both circular and longitudinal muscles?
308. Draw a basic diagram to explain how nematodes move.
309. In what habitats are nematodes typically found? Describe at least three different ecological
reasons why nematodes are important.
310. What is the importance of Caenorhabditis elegans to biological research? Provide at least two
different examples.
311. What is Evo-Devo research?
312. What is eutely? Why is this interesting and important to Evo-Devo research?
313. In nematodes, which sex possesses copulatory spicules? Why?
314. Cite three different examples of common parasitic nematodes and their basic
mode of infection – how and what organs or tissues do they infect in which species.
315. What are microfilariae?
316. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical nematode
including basic internal anatomy.
317. Briefly describe the lifecycles of all of the following nematodes: Enterobius vermicularis, Ascaris
lumbricoides, Trichinella spiralis and Necator americanus.
318. Briefly describe the lifecycle of Wucheria bancrofti. What disease does this
organism cause?
319. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Rotifera
corona
eyespots
parthenogenesis
pedal glands
syncitial epidermis
amictic eggs
foot
mastax
mictic eggs
flame bulb
trophi
320. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical rotifer
including basic internal anatomy.
321. Do rotifers possess circular and longitudinal muscles?
322. Briefly describe the lifecycle of of a rotifer in the class Monogononta. What is
unusual about this lifecycle?
323. What is parthenogenesis? Explain the advantages and disadvantages of parthenogenesis.
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324. What are the sex chromosomes in a mammal? A bird? Which sex is heterogametic and which
sex is homogametic for birds versus mammals.
325. What is temperature dependent sex determination? Give an example of an
animal in which this process occurs. Use a diagram to explain how this occurs in some reptiles.
326. If an animal lacks sex chromosomes, how does sex determination occur?
327. How does sex determination occur in a monoecious animal?
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
328. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical mollusc.
329. Roughly, how many species of living mollusks have been identified?
330. What are some basic body plan characteristic illustrated by the “hypothetical
ancestral mollusc” or HAM?
331. What are the three layers of a mollusk shell? Draw and clearly label a diagram to show them all.
332. Briefly describe how and why oysters make pearls.
333. What are metanephridia and what is their function?
334. How does a trochophore larva differ from a veliger larva? Which forms first in mollusc
development? In which larval type does the shell usually first start to grow.
335. On a mollusc shell, identify the apex, the whirls and differentiate between
sinistral and dextral shells.
336. In molluscs, what is torsion? Why might it have evolved?
337. In what larval stages does torsion occur and briefly describe what happens in each stage.
338. In molluscs, what is coiling? Why might this shell structure have evolved?
339. In a snail, what is an operculum and what is its function?
340. How do terrestrial snail and slugs (eg. garden snails such as Helix) breathe?
341. How does a prosobranch differ from an opisthobranch? Explain the etymology of these names.
Which is snails and which is slugs?
342. How do nudibranchs differ from other types of sea slugs in the Subclass Opisthobranchia?
343. Draw a basic diagram of a generalized complete animal digestive tract from mouth to anus
indicating the basic function of each organ.
344. What are 3 common accessory digestive organs in vertebrates and what is the basic function of
each. Name the invertebrate organ that normally provides these functions.
345. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical aeolid
nudibranch to show the external anatomy only.
346. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical dorid
nudibranch to show the external anatomy only.
347. What do aeolid nudibranchs primarily eat? How is this related to the cerata they possess?
348. Briefly describe how a bivalve such as a mussel or clam eats.
349. What is the function of the adductor muscles in a bivalve? Where are they found in a mussel?
350. Briefly describe the lifecycle of an oyster.
351. What is neutral bouyancy and how is this related to the function of the siphuncle in Nautilus?
352. What is the function of the chromatophores in cephalopods?
353. Draw a diagram to show the various chromatophores in a cuttlefish including leucophores,
iridiophores and melanophores.
354. Draw a diagram to explain the basic structure and musculature of a cuttlefish chromatophore.
355. When the radial muscles of a cuttlefish chromatophore contract, how does this affect the
distribution of pigment within the chromatophore?
356. What are the 3 basic chromatophore patterns that cuttlefish can generate? How is this related to
animal vision in general?
357. What is the function of the statocysts in cephalopods and crustaceans?
358. List two different groups of monoecious molluscs.
359. What were the ammonites relative to molluscs? When did they live and when did they go
extinct?
360. What is an index fossil? Why are they important to evolutionary biology?
361. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic lifecycle of a typical mollusc. Be sure to
include both the trochophore and veliger larval stages and gametes, fertilization, metamorphosis,
meiosis and embryo stages.
362. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical bivalve
such as Mytilus including basic internal anatomy.
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363. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical squid such
as Loligo including basic internal and external anatomy.
364. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical
prosobranch snail (gastropod) such as Haliotis including basic internal and external anatomy.
365. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical chiton
(polyplacophoran) including basic external anatomy.
366. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical
monoplacophoran including basic external anatomy.
367. How does the structure of a carnivorous radula differ from that of an herbivorous radula?
368. Explain some of the basic differences in body structure between members of the genus Octopus
and members of the genus Nautilus.
369. Cephalopods and earthworms both show direct development. What does this mean?
370. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Mollusca
true coelom (coelomate)
arteries
aeolid nudibranch
visceral mass
veins
filter feeding
head-foot
capillaries
umbo
mantle
torsion
valves
mantle cavity
coiling
lamellae
shell
apex
anterior adductor
radula
whorl
posterior adductor
metanephridia
dextral
incurrent siphon
trochophore larva
sinistral
excurrent siphon
veliger larva
operculum
boring bivalves
periostracum
aperture
siphuncle
prismatic layer
ammonites
funnel/siphon
nacreous layer (nacre)
conotoxins
chromatophores
open circulatory system
prosobranch
ink gland/sepia
gills (ctenidium)
opisthobranch
eucoelomate
lungs
cerata
heart
dorid nudibranch
PHYLUM ANNELIDA
371. What is metamerism and which animal phyla that we have studied have it?
372. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical leech (eg.
Hirudo) including both external and internal anatomy.
373. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical free-living
polychaete including both external and internal anatomy.
374. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical sedentary
tubeworm polychaete including both basic external and basic internal anatomy.
375. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical polychaete
including both basic external and basic internal anatomy.
376. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical oligochaete
(eg. Lumbricus) including both basic external and basic internal anatomy.
377. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of a cross-section through a stereotypical oligochaete
(eg. Lumbricus) to show its basic internal anatomy.
378. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of a cross-section through a stereotypical polychaete
(eg. Nereis) to show its basic internal anatomy.
379. Which of the following characteristics is seen in oligochaetes versus polychaetes: direct or
indirect development, a clitellum, monoecious or diecious reproduction, parapodia, many or few setae?
380. In annelids what are the names of the first and last segments and which segments are the
“oldest”? From which end does an earthworm grow?
381. What are nephridia and what is their function? Where are the nephridiopores?
382. What are parapodia and which class(es) and subclass(es) of annelids have them?
383. Describe peristalsis as it occurs in an earthworm showing the alternating contractions of smooth
and longitudinal muscles that cause locomotion.
384. Does an earthworm have reflex arcs?
385. What are the functions of the setae in annelids?
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386. Where are setae found in oligochaetes versus polychaetes?
387. On what do sedentary polychaetes feed? and errant polychaetes?
388. Draw a simple diagram to illustrate the major internal anatomical features of
the anterior end of an earthworm (see oligochaete above).
389. Can an earthworm replace lost setae?
390. Briefly describe the lifecycle of an earthworm such as Lumbricus.
391. Briefly describe the lifecycle of a free-living polychaete.
392. Where is the clitellum on an earthworm and what is its function?
393. What is the importance of Hirudo medicinalis to medicine?
394. List at least 3 different important molecules/substances that are found in leech saliva that allow
it to effectively feed on blood from a host?
395. How many segments does a leech possess?
396. Briefly describe the basic body plan of Chaetopterus and explain how the parchment tubeworm
Chaetopterus feeds and what it typically eats.
397. How does the polychaete clam worm Nereis eat?
398. Where does the giant tube worm Riftia pachyptila live and how does it obtain its nutrients?
399. Explain the potentially commensal relationship between scale worms and some echinoderms.
400. How do boring polychaete worms make their living?
401. How does a feather duster worm differ from a Christmas tree worm?
402. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Annelida
metamerism
nephridia
testes
prostomium
nephridiopore
ovaries
pygidium
closed circulatory system
small intestine
mesenteries
hemoglobin
large intestine
septa
aortic arches/dorsal hearts
clitellum
hydrostatic skeleton
pharynx
cocoon
parapodia
esophagus
cerebral ganglia
setae
crop
ventral nerve cord
cuticle
gizzard
eucoelomate
circular muscles
seminal vesicles
longitudinal muscles
seminal receptacles
INVERTEBRATE ANIMAL COMPARISONS
403. How do the following taxa differ? Provide at least 2 different characters/adaptations that you
could use to distinguish between animals in each of these taxa.
 Class Polychaeta
 Class Clitellata
 Subclass Hirudinea
 Subclass Oligochaeta
404. How do the following classes differ? Provide at least 2 different characters/adaptations that you
could use to distinguish between animals in each of these taxa.
 Class Turbellaria
 Class Trematoda
 Class Cestoda
405. How do the following classes differ? Provide at least 2 different characters/adaptations that you
could use to distinguish between animals in each of these taxa.
 Class Monoplacophora
 Class Polyplacophora
 Class Scaphopoda
 Class Gastropoda
 Class Bivalvia
 Class Cephalopoda
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406. For each of the animals listed below:
Hydrozoan
Syphozoan (true jelly)
Hexacorallian
Octocorallian
Ctenophore
Planarian flatworm
Trematode
Cestode
Nemertean
Nematode roundworm
Rotifer
Chiton
Abalone (Halitotis sp.)
Garden snail
Sea hare (Aplysia sp.)
Nudibranch
Mussel
Squid
Chambered Nautilus
Polychaete
Oligochaete
Leech
indicate if they generally possess the following structures, organs and/or organ
systems:
(you might want to make a large table based on phyla & class to help you study):
true tissues
radial symmetry
bilateral symmetry
nematocysts
tentacles
pedalium
ciliary comb plates
pedal disc
diploblastic body
plan
triploblastic body
plan
nerve net
colloblasts
free-swimming
larval stage
longitudinal/ventral
nerve cords
complete digestive
tract
gastrovascular
cavity
cerebral ganglion/
“brain”
supraesophageal
ganglion
monoecious
reproduction
dioecious
reproduction
eyespots
ocelli
compound eyes
chemoreceptive cells
proglottids
eversible proboscis
scolex
acoelomate
pseudocoel
true coelom
(eucoelomic)
hydrostatic skeleton
exoskeleton
cutaneous
respiration
gills
tracheal
tubes/system
book lungs
lungs
internal fertilization
external fertilization
corona of cilia
mantle
radula
shell
heart
stomach
gizzard
crop
umbo
kidney
funnel/siphon
ink gland
pen
closed circulatory
system
open circulatory
system
setae
protonephridia
metanephridia/nep
hridia
clitellum
circular muscles
longitudinal
muscles
reflex arcs
skeletal muscle
smooth muscle
cardiac muscle
indirect development
direct development
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
407. Describe the basic body plan characteristics of an arthropod.
408. Provide some reasons why arthropods are the most diverse and successful terrestrial animals
on planet Earth.
409. How do spiders and insects breathe? Describe this organ system.
410. How do crustaceans breathe? Describe this organ system.
411. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical
onychophoran (velvet worm) including basic external anatomy only.
412. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical trilobite
including basic external anatomy only.
413. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical
horseshoe crab including basic external anatomy only.
414. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical
pycnogonid (sea spider) including basic external anatomy only.
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415. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical spider
including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
416. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical spider
including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
417. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical spider
including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
418. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical scorpion
including basic external anatomy only.
419. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical tick.
including basic external anatomy only.
420. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a crayfish including
basic external and basic internal anatomy.
421. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical cancer
crab including basic external anatomy only.
422. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical centipede
including basic external anatomy only.
423. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical millipede
including basic external anatomy only.
424. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical insect
including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
425. Describe the basic structure of the exoskeleton of an arthropod
426. Describe the molecular structure of chitin. Are the bonds between the glucose molecules alpha
or beta configuration?
427. Describe the basic molecular structure of spider silk. Spider silk has a high tensile strength.
What does this mean?
428. How many spinnerets do most spiders possess?
429. How many different types of silk do most spider possess? List at least 4 different ways in
which spiders use their silk.
430. Briefly explain the pattern that an orb weaver spider typically uses to build its web. How long
do these webs usually last? How often must the orb weaver typically rebuild its web? Do spiders eat
their own silk?
431. Draw a simple diagram to show a typical spider lifecycle.
432. What is a hormone? How does a hormone differ from a pheromone? What is a pheromone?
433. At the molecular level, list four different classes of hormones based on their structure.
434. How are testosterone, estradiol (estrogen) and ecdysone structurally related?
435. Design a basic experiment to test the hypothesis that rat reproductive behavior is partially
regulated by pheromones.
436. What is the function of the vomeronasal organ in mammals? Where is the VNO?
437. Give three examples of how pheromones regulate animal physiology or behavior.
438. List the 4 major types of respiratory organs found in animals.
439. List at least three major differences between members of the phylum Arthropoda and the
phylum Annelida. How are members of the two phyla similar?
440. How does a harvestman in the order Opiliones differ from members of the order Aranae?
441. To what class and order do ticks and mites belong? List at least two characteristics that can
be used to tell the difference between a tick and a mite.
442. What causes Lyme disease? What animal carries Lyme disease? What is the condition named
after (why is it called Lyme disease)? What is the name of the organism that causes Lyme disease?
443. What are the symptoms of Lyme disease? Can it be cured? Can it be chronic?
444. List the function of each of the following appendages in a crustacean (see text):
first & second antennae, mandible, first maxilla, second maxilla, first, second and third maxillipeds,
cheliped, walking legs, first swimmeret, second through fifth swimmerets, uropod.
445. What is the function of the green or antennal gland in crustaceans?
446. What are the 2 different chambers of a crustacean stomach? Which chamber has “teeth”?
447. In crustacean, what is a gastrolith and what is its function?
448. Draw a simple diagram to show the lifecycle of a lobster.
449. How does an isopod differ in its basic body plan from a copepod?
450. How does a member of the class Chilopoda differ from a member of the class Diplopoda?
451. How many pairs of antennae are found in members of each of the six subphyla of the Phylum
Arthropoda?
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452. Why are members of the order Hemiptera called “true bugs”? List at least 2 different anatomical
characteristics usually seen in true bugs.
453. Describe the caste system and basic social organization in a honeybee hive. What are the
specific castes?
454. Which castes are male and which are female? Which castes are haploid and which are diploid?
455. Honeybees reproduce parthenogenetically. What does this mean?
456. What causes bees to swarm? When swarming, where did the bees come from and where are they
usually going?
457. How does a honeybee hive form a new queen if the queen dies or leaves?
458. What makes the worker bees in a honeybee hive functionally sterile?
459. What is the evolutionary benefit of the caste system in social insects?
460. How do honeybees and other insects find their food/flower nectar?
461. What organ do worker bees use to make honey?
462. What organ do worker bees use to make wax?
463. How long does a queen bee typically live?
464. Describe the basic lifecycle of a bee hive.
465. What is CCD – Colony Collapse Disorder? What are some likely causes of CCD?
466. Describe the basic circulatory system in an insect.
467. Describe the basic anatomy of the insect digestive system.
468. Describe the basic anatomy of the insect nervous system.
469. Where are the Malpighian tubules in an insect? What is the function of these tubules?
470. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in bees (hymenopterans).
471. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in ants (hymenopterans).
472. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in termites (isopterans).
473. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in dragonflies (odonates).
474. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in house flies (dipterans).
475. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in grasshoppers
(orthopterans).
476. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in butterflies (lepidopterans).
477. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in beetles (coleopterans).
478. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in fleas (siphonapterans).
479. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in sucking lice
(pthirapterans).
480. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in true bugs (hemipterans).
481. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in may flies
(ephemeropterans).
482. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in cockroaches and mantids
(dictyopterans).
483. List some interesting and differentiating anatomical structures seen in caddis flies
(trichopterans).
484. How does incomplete (hemimetabolous) metamorphosis differ from complete (holometabolous)
metamorphosis in insects?
485. What is gradual metamorphosis in insects?
486. How is a nymph different from a larva?
487. What is diapause in insects? Why does this happen and what causes it?
488. Describe how the direct flight muscles in an insect operate to allow insects to fly.
489. Describe how the indirect flight muscles in an insect operate to allow insects to fly. Draw a
diagram to support your answer.
490. Why can some insects hover?
491. Which orders of insect use indirect flight muscles?
492. Describe the basic process of ecdysis as it occurs in crustaceans and insects. What happens
when a crustacean or insect molts. Describe changes in the various layers of the exoskeleton.
493. Describe the hormone control of ecdysis in crustaceans. What organs and specific hormones are
involved?
494. Describe the hormone control of ecdysis in insects. What organs and specific hormones are
involved?
495. What is the function of juvenile hormone in insects (and some other arthorpods)? Chemically
what is JH typically and from what organ(s) is it released?
496. List at least 3 different environmental or behavioral factors that help regulate insect growth
and/or ecdysis.
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497. Explain how some pesticides work by means of the hormonal control of insect ecdysis.
498. Describe the basic structure of an insect eye. Explain how this eye allows them to create a
mosaic image.
499. What is an ommatidia? What is the rhabdom in the insect eye? What cells in the insect eye
focus light and which cells detect the photons of light. Explain the relationship between the number
of ommatidia in the insect eye and the resolution of the mosaic image created.
500. List the basic body plan characteristics and basic biological contributions (different new
adaptations) of the following animal phyla: Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes, Nemertea,
Nematoda, Rotifera, Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda.
501. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Chelicerata
tagmata
cuticle
procuticle
epicuticle
exocuticle
endocuticle
molting
ecdysis
tracheal tubes
book lungs
metamorphosis
carapace
telson
prosoma
opisthosoma
chelicerae
fangs
pedipalps
walking legs
Malpighian tubules
simple eyes
silk glands
pectines
eucoelomate
502. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Arthropoda: Subphylum Crustacea
mandibulate
antennae
antennule
cephalothorax
abdomen
biramous appendage
rostrum
uropod
carapace
telson
gills
tergum
sternum
hemocoel
green glands
supraesophageal ganglia
statocysts
ommatidia
molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH)
X organ
molting hormone (ecdysone)
Y organs
eucoelomate
503. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Arthropoda: Subphyla Myriapoda and Hexapoda
head
prothorax
mesothorax
metathorax
abdomen
ovipositor
cercus
coxa
trochanter
femur
tibia
tarsus
antenna cleaner
halteres
direct flight muscles
indirect flight muscles
phytophagous
saprophagous
sucking mouthparts
sponging or lapping mouthparts
chewing mouthparts
tracheal tubes/system
sensilla
compound eye
holometabolous (complete) metamorphosis
hemimetabolous (incomplete) metamorphosis
larva
pupa (chrysalis)
nymph
instar
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diapause
mimicry
prothoracic gland
corpora 18ardiac
corpora allata
eucoelomate
504. Know the definitions of and explain the importance of the following terms:
Phylum Echinodermata
water vascular system
dermal endoskeleton
pentaradial symmetry
ambulacral grooves
pedicellariae
tube feet
madreporite
hemal system
dermal branchiae
bilateral larvae
stone canal
ring canal
radial canals
ampullae of tube feet
pollian vesicles/sacs
pyloric ceca (digestive glands)
pyloric stomach
cardiac stomach
Aristotle’s lantern
eucoelomate
PHYLUM ECHINODERAMATA
505. Are echinoderms invertebrates or vertebrates?
506. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical sea star
including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
507. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical sea
urchin including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
508. What type of symmetry is found in most larval echinoderms? What type of symmetry is found in
most adult echinoderms? What is meant by pentaradial symmetry?
509. What is the function of the pedicellariae in echinoderms? In what portion of the marine
environment do echinoderms live? How might a pentaradial symmetry body benefit them?
510. Where is and what is the function of Aristotle’s Lantern in a sea urchin?
511. Briefly describe and draw a diagram to show the structure and function of the water vascular
system in an echinoderm. You must clearly label ALL the canals and parts.
512. Describe and/or draw and clearly label a diagram to show the digestive system of a sea star.
513. Briefly describe what happens when a sea star eats a bivalve.
514. Can the spines on a sea urchin move? How?
515. Are most echinoderms diecious or monoecious? Is their fertilization external or internal?
516. Do sea stars have eyes or other photorepectors? Do they possess statocysts? Do they have
tactile/mechanoreceptors?
517. How do sea stars get oxygen into bodies and transport it to their cells from the surrounding
seawater?
518. How do sea cucumbers get oxygen into their bodies and transport it to their cells from the
surrounding seawater?
519. How does the body plan and what characteristics of a sea cucumber in the Class Holothruoidea
make sea cucumbers different from other echinoderms?
520. Briefly describe the basic lifecycle of a sea star.
521. Briefly describe the basic lifecycle of a sea urchin.
522. What are the main anatomical differences between brittle stars in the Class Ophiuroidea from
sea stars in the Class Asteroidea.
523. To which class do sand dollars belong?
524. Do echinoderms have a circulatory system? Do echinoderms have an excretory system? If so,
briefly describe it.
525. List at least two different characteristic/adaptations per class to show how members of each of
the following classes in the phylum Echinodermata differ?
 Class Crinoidea
 Class Echinoidea
 Class Asteroidea
 Class Holothruoidea
 Class Ophiuroidea
526. What does each class of echinoderm typically eat?
18
PHYLUM CHORDATA
527. What is a notochord? What is its function?
528. What are the 5 major body plan characteristics of the Phylum Chordata? Draw a simple diagram
of Branchiostoma to support your answer. List a basic function of each of these 5 characters.
529. What is a cephalochordate? Provide a description of the characteristics of this taxa. To what
subphylum do these organisms belong?
530. What is a urochordate? Provide a description of the characteristics of this taxa. To basically
duplicate this table.
531. Are all vertebrates chordates? Are all chordates vertebrates?
532. What is a cranium? Why is it adaptive?
533. Differentiate between a spinal cord and a spinal (vertebral) column.
534. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical lancelet
such as Branchiostoma including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
535. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical tunicate
such as Molgula including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
FISH AND CLASSES OF FISH
536. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical
cartilaginous fish such as a shark including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
537. Draw and clearly label a simple diagram of the basic body structure of a stereotypical bony fish
including basic external and basic internal anatomy.
538. How does a member of the Superclass Agnatha differ from a member of the Superclass
539. Gnathostomata?
540. How does a member of the Class Actinopterygii differ from a member of the Class
541. Chondrichthyes?
542. How does a member of the Class Sarcopterygii differ from a member of the Class
543. Actinopterygii?
544. Know the basic body plan characteristics of the following animal phyla and subphyla:
Subphylum Chelicerata, Subphylum Crustacea, Subphylum Myriapoda, Subphylum Hexapoda,
Phylum Echinodermata, Phylum Chordata.
545. What is an ostracoderm fish?
546. What is a placoderm fish?
547. During what geologic periods did the placoderm and ostracderm fishes radiate and dominate
the aquatic habitats on earth?
548. How does a ray-finned fish differ from a lobe finned fish?
549. What is a coelacanth? Are there still living members of this group found today? Where?
550. How does a member of the Class Myxini differ from a member of the Class
551. Cephalaspidomorphi? (what are some body characteristics that differ between these animals?)
552. What do hagfish eat? What do lamprey eat?
553. Evolutionarily, which group of vertebrates was the first to evolve true jaws?
554. To what subclass within the subphylum vertebrata do sharks, skates and & rays belong?
555. Briefly describe the basic lifecycle of a typical salmon fish species. Are these fish anadromous or
catadromous?
556. Briefly describe the basic lifecycle of a typical lamprey fish species. Are these fish anadromous
or catadromous?
557. How does a cartiliaginous skeleton differ from a bony skeleton with regard to its
molecular/cellular structure?
558. How does a heterocercal, homocercal, and diphycercal tail differ? In what groups of fishes are
each of these caudal fins types found?
559. Describe the basic structure of vertebrate integument (skin)? How does each layer differ in its
position and other organ structures found in each?
560. Describe and draw the basic structure of a placoid, ganoid, cycloid and ctenoid scale.
561. Basically, how did fish scale structure evolve and change over evolutionary time.
562. In what fish groups are each of the above scale types found?
563. Where is and what is the function of the spiral valve in sharks?
19
564. How many sets of teeth do sharks develop on average? How are shark teethed replaced when
lost? (all at once?)
565. What is the organ (ampullae) of Lorenzini in a shark?
566. What is a cloaca? (where is it located and what are its functions) What is the etymology of
cloaca?
567. Do sharks generally have internal or external fertilization?
568. Externally, how do you tell the difference between a male shark and a female shark? What is the
function of the differentiating structure?
569. How do oviparous, ovoviviparous, or viviparous animals differ? Give two different species
examples for each.
570. To what class does the California Torpedo Ray belong? What is one way this animal can defend
itself?
571. Regarding fishes, what is an operculum and what is its function? Which fish classes have one?
572. Which part of a sharks skeleton can be ossified/bony?
573. What is a teleost fish? Give one characteristic of this fish that is different from other fish. Why
is this particular group of fish particularly important?
574. What is meant by neutral buoyancy?
575. How do sharks maintain neutral buoyancy? (two features involved here)
576. Describe how a shark "breathes" versus how a bony fish "breathes".
577. Why do most sharks constantly need to swim at least slowly? Why can some sharks stop
swimming?
578. What is the function of the spiracles in a shark?
579. Which groups of fish possess a swim/air bladder?
580. What is the function of a swim bladder in a fish? What is the rete mirable? How does air enter
and leave the swim bladder?
581. Draw and clearly label a diagram to explain the basic structure and function of the rete mirable.
VERTEBRATE ANIMAL COMPARISONS
582. Draw a simple timeline to show when each of the following events occurred in the history of life
on Earth: (general time frame/general periods)
 radiation of the modern animal phyla (what and when was the “explosion”)
 early colonization of land by arthropods
 evolution of first jawed fishes
 diversification of the bony fishes
 evolution of first amphibians
 extensive forests of vascular plants/first seed plants
 radiation of most modern insect orders
 gymnosperms plants dominate and radiation of dinosaurs
 angiosperms appear and dinosaurs go extinct
 major radiation of birds, mammals and pollinating insects
 origin of many primate groups
 ape-like ancestors of humans (Australopithecines)
 evolution of modern man/first humans (Homo sapiens)
583. Which portion of the respiratory ducts of a mammal is surrounded by smooth muscles?
584. Which portion of the respiratory system of a mammal is surrounded by a capillary bed and why?
585. Briefly describe how the digestive system of an herbivorous mammal differs from that of a
carnivorous mammal.
586. Where do birds with precocious development make their nests in contrast to birds with altricial
development?
587. Are frogs positive or negative pressure breathers? How does frog inspiration differ from that of a
mammal?
588. List two characteristics that differentiate these orders: Urodela (Caudata) from Anura (Salienta).
589. How is an axolotl an example of paedomorphosis?
590. Draw a flowchart to show the basic reproductive lifecycle of a frog (as in text).
591. What is an aminote animal? What are some major biological contributions of amniotes?
592. How do anapsid, diapsid and synapsid reptiles differ?
593. From what synapsid lineage did mammals evolve? What are some basic characteristics of this
lineage?
20
594. How does a saurischian dinosaur differ from an ornithisician dinosaur (think bones)? Which of
these groups include the theropod dinosaurs?
595. Based on current evidence, from what group of dinosaurs did modern birds evolve
(be as specific as you can – what is the suborder)?
596. Describe some interesting and differentiating anatomical characteristics of frogs.
597. Describe some interesting and differentiating anatomical characteristics of salamanders.
598. Describe some interesting and differentiating anatomical characteristics of snakes.
599. Describe some interesting and differentiating anatomical characteristics of lizards.
600. Describe some interesting and differentiating anatomical characteristics of turtles
601. Describe some interesting and differentiating anatomical characteristics of birds.
602. Describe some interesting and differentiating anatomical characteristics of mammals.
603. Basically and generally, how many millions of years ago did each of the following vertebrates first
evolve: shark, bony fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals.
604. Externally, how can you tell the difference between an alligator and a crocodile?
605. Describe the basic structure of a feather. From what reptilian structure did feathers evolve?
606. Where are the primary, secondary and down feathers found on a typical bird?
607. What are antagonistic muscle groups?
608. What are the two specific antagonistic muscles are involved in flight in most birds?
609. List 6 different evolutionary adaptations of birds that help them to fly.
610. What is Bernoulli’s principle? Why might this be important to bird flight?
611. Describe the basic structure of bird wing and how it’s shape helps a bird in soaring flight.
612. Briefly describe how flapping flight in birds differs from soaring flight. Which birds have larger
wings and why?
613. Generally, which vertebrates lay eggs? Which lay vertebrates leathery eggs? Which vertebrates
lay hard, calcified eggs?
614. What is the etymology of the word Theria? How do prototherian (protherian), metatherian, and
eutherian mammals differ?
615. What is a monotreme mammal?
616. Explain how embryonic diapauses occurs in a kangaroo? What is the benefit for these mammals
that experience embryonic diapause?
617. During what geologic era and periods did mammals radiate and become more diverse in number
of species?
618. What is the dominate protein fiber that comprises hair?
619. How does a horn differ from an antler?
620. How does the dentition (teeth) pattern of a carnivorous mammal differ from that of an
herbivorous mammal? How does the dentition pattern of an omnivore compare to both?
621. Generally, where are each of the following types of teeth found in a mammal’s mouth and what is
the basic function of each: molars, premolars, canines, incisors?
622. What are some distinguishing characteristics of the Order Primates relative to other mammals?
623. How do members of the Family Hominidae differ from other primates?
624. How do the following classes differ? Provide at least 2 different characters/adaptations that you
could use to distinguish between animals in each of these taxa.
 Class Sarcopterygii
 Class Chondrichthyes
 Class Actinopterygii
 Class Amphibia
 Class Reptilia
 Class Aves
 Class Mammalia
625. How do the following classes differ? Provide at least 2 different characters/adaptations that you
could use to distinguish between animals in each of these taxa.
 Class Amphibia
 Class Reptilia
 Class Aves
 Class Mammalia
21
626. How do the following orders and suborders differ? Provide at least 2 different
characters/adaptations that you could use to distinguish between animals in each of these taxa.
 Order Gymnophiona
 Order Urodela
 Order Anura
 Order Testudines
 Order Squamata
 Suborder Amphisbaenia
 Suborder Lactertilia
 Suborder Serpentes
 Order Crocodilia
 Order Saurischia
 Order Ornithschia
 Order Therapsida
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF THE GENE, GENETICS AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY
627. What is a peptide? What is a protein?
628. What is the primary structure of a protein?
629. What is the secondary structure of a protein?
630. How does the tertiary structure of a protein differ from the quaternary structure of a protein?
631. What are two different types of nucleic acids?
632. What is a nucleotide? What are the three basic parts of a nucleotide?
633. List 3 structural differences between RNA and DNA.
634. Where is RNA found inside cells? Where is DNA found inside cells?
635. Relative to molecular biology, briefly describe the process of transcription.
636. Relative to molecular biology, briefly describe the process of translation.
637. What is an enzyme?
638. How do enzymes act as catalysts? Are enzymes specific and selective? If so, why?
639. Specifically, what is a mutation? What effects can mutations have on the protein transcribed
and translated from the mutated gene?
640. Generally what are some chemical, physical and biological factors that can cause mutation.
List a few specific examples for each group. Are all mutations detrimental to the organism? Could
mutations lead to the production of new proteins with new functions?
641. What does the abbreviation PCR stand for?
642. At a basic level, explain how the production of proteins relates to genetic characteristics in
animals.
643. What is the Modern Synthesis (in terms of Biology)?
644. Define and understand the importance of the genetics terms listed below:
 gene
 allele
 phenotype
 genotype
 dominant allele
 recessive allele
 homozygous dominant
 heterozygous recessive
 heterozygous
 Punnett square
 population genetics
 genotypic ratio
 phenotypic ratio
645. Myopia (nearsightedness) is a single recessive gene trait. M = abbreviation for normal; m =
abbreviation for myopic allele. Draw a Punnett square to show the possible offspring of a male who
was heterozygous for myopia who mated with a female who was also heterozygous for myopia.
646. Draw another Punnett square for a mating between a homozygous recessive female and a
homozygous dominant male.
647. Draw a Punnett square to show that the probability of mammals having a male or female
offspring is typically 50%.
648. Relative to genetics, how does codominance differ from incomplete dominance?
22
649. An individual with hemophilia possesses a genetically inherited trait that prevents their blood
from clotting normally. Hemophilia is a sex linked, recessive trait carried on the X chromosome. H =
normal blood clotting allele while h = hemophilia allele. If a man who has hemophilia and a woman
who is a carrier for hemophilia have a child, what is the probability that the child will have
hemophilia?
650. Be sure to carefully review all of the genetics problems in the genetics homework assignment and
be sure you know how to correctly answer them all.
651. If a trait is polygenic, what does this mean (what is meant by polygenic inheritance)?
652. Relative to genetics, what is a carrier? If a person is a carrier for a genetic trait, what does this
mean?
653. What is the fossil record? Briefly describe how a fossil forms.
654. What is radiometric dating? Does this always involve carbon?
655. Specifically, how does radiometric dating allow for the aging of the rock strata in which various
fossils are found?
656. Specifically, what is the half-life of a radioactive isotope?
657. By definition, what is a mass extinction?
658. Based on evidence from the fossil record, list three different mass extinction events that are
generally recognized by paleontologists/biologists. How long ago did each mass extinction event
occur?
659. Based on current evidence and theories, what event or more likely series of events lead to the
extinction of the dinosaurs? How long ago did this occur? Be specific (do not provide a generalized
answer).
660. From an ecological perspective, what effect did the extinction of dinosaurs have on the
evolution of mammals? Be specific (do not provide a generalized answer.
661. Other than radiometric dating, are there other ways to “age rocks and fossils”?
662. List one contribution to the study of evolution by each of the following scientists: Carolus
Linneaus, Alfred Russel Wallace, James Hutton, Charles Lyell,
663. Why is the Galapagos Archipelago a particularly good place to study evolution (or any island
group in general)?
664. List at least 4 observations that Darwin made that helped him generate his ideas about
evolution.
665. List 3 inferences that Darwin made that led him to the theory of natural selection.
666. Define reproductive fitness.
667. Define the term: speciation. What is a species?
668. What is the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? What is the Hardy-Weinberg equation? Hardy,
Weinberg, and the population geneticists who followed them came to understand that evolution will
not occur in a population if seven conditions are met. List at least five of these conditions. What
happens to the gene pool of a population if it does not meet one of these conditions?What is adaptive
radiation?
669. Do larger or smaller populations tend to evolve faster? Why?
670. List and briefly describe four pre-zygotic (before fertilization) reproductive barriers and two
post-zygotic (after fertilization) reproductive barriers between species.
671. Briefly describe how each of the following types of natural selection is different from each other:
directional selection, stabilizing selection, diversifying selection.
672. What is speciation? Regarding speciation, what is adaptive radiation? Briefly describe one
specific animal species example of adaptive radiation.
673. List and briefly describe five pre-zygotic (before fertilization) reproductive barriers and three
post-zygotic (after fertilization) reproductive barriers between species.
674. Define the following terms listed in the questions below and relate how they could change the
genetics of a population and lead to the evolution of new species from a common ancestor:
 Mutation
 Gene Flow
 Genetic Drift
 Bottleneck Effect
 Founder Effect
 Natural Selection
23
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEMS (SKIN)
675. Define the following terms: anatomy, physiology, embryology, histology, pathology,
pathophysiology, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, radiography, evolution, evolutionary
adaptation, metabolism, homeostasis How does simple epithelium differ from stratified epithelium?
676. What are the three basic shapes/types of epithelial cells in animals?
677. List 5 different functions of the skin. What are the 3 basic layers of the skin?
678. What are the 5 layers of the epidermis in thick skin (in order from deep to superficial)?
679. Structurally/histologically, how are the 5 layers of the epidermis different from one another.
680. Where are melanocytes found in the skin?
681. What is the basic difference between the following types of skin cancer: basal cell carcinoma and
malignant melanoma?
682. What are Merkel cells useful for and where are they found?
683. What causes people to have finger, toe, palm and sole prints?
684. What is keratinized skin? What is the name of the tough, protective protein found in the
superficial, apical surface layers of skin?
685. How does thick skin differ from thin skin?
686. Why are desmosomes important to both the structure of the skin and the myocardium of the
heart?
687. What are the 2 layers of the dermis?
688. How does the structure of the dermis help the body thermoregulate?
689. List 4 different types of sensory receptors found in the dermis.
690. Where are dermal papillae and epidermal ridges? What are there functions?
691. List 5 different medical imaging techniques/procedures
692. Draw a diagram of the basic structure of a human hair follicle and label the following: shaft, hair
root, papilla, hair bulb, root sheath, arector pili.
693. What function do the Arector pili muscles serve? What type of muscle tissue are they?
694. What are the three microscopic layers of hair?
695. List 3 different glands that are epidermal derivatives of the integument in mammals.
696. What is the function of the sebaceous glands?
697. What is the function of the ceruminous glands and where are they found in the body?
698. What is the function of the mammary glands and where are they found in the body?
699. How do apocrine sweat glands differ from merocrine sweat glands? Where on the body is each
type of sweat gland found?
SKELETAL SYSTEMS
700. How many total bones in the body in a typical human? What can bones can cause this number
to vary in different people? Why do some people have a different number of bones?
701. What bones constitute the appendicular skeleton?
702. What bones constitute the axial skeleton?
703. How many of each vertebrae type? How many ribs? How do the ribs articulate with the sternum
and the thoracic vertebrae?
704. How many facial bones? How many cranial bones?
705. What kinds of bones are formed by each?
706. Why are the os coxae and cranium formed from multiple smaller bones? What are these bones?
707. Describe the basic structure of bone including: osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, collagen
fibers, periosteum, endosteum, osteon, lacunae, lamellae, canliculi, cortex, medullary cavity,
diaphysis, epiphysis, nutrient foramina.
708. What is the function of a nutrient foramen?
709. What specific protein forms most of cartilage as well as dense regular connective tissue?
710. How does compact bone differ from spongy bone? What are the trabeculae?
711. How does yellow bone marrow differ from red bone marrow?
712. From what is the matrix of bone formed?
713. How does endochondral ossification differ from intramembraneous ossification? Describe the
basic steps of each type of bone growth.
714. How does the epiphyseal plate differ from the epiphyseal line?
715. What is appositional bone growth?
716. In junior high school, why are the girls often taller than the boys?
24
717. Describe the skeletal structure of a finger/toe/hoof.
718. Describe how the bones that make up each of the following fit together (what features meet what
other bone features): pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle.
719. What basic bones comprise the axial skeleton in tetrapods?
720. List the bones in the upper appendage/forelimb of tetrapods.
721. List the bones in the lower appendage/hindlimb of tetrapods.
722. Describe the location of each of the following in a pelvis: pelvic brim, true pelvis, false pelvis,
pelvic inlet, pelvic outlet, subpubic angle, ischial spines, pubic symphysis.
723. List three ways to distinguish between a male and female pelvis.
724. What are the fontanels of the skull?
725. How do synarthrotic, diarthrotic and amphiarthrotic joints differ?
726. What is a ligament? How do ligaments differ from tendons?
727. What causes carpal tunnel syndrome? What are its symptoms?
728. What causes gigantism? What causes Pituitary dwarfism?
729. What causes osteoporosis? In what segment of the population is it most common? In the 1980s
and 1990s, how was osteoporosis treated? Today, how is osteoporosis treated?
730. What is arthritis? Differentiate between osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
731. List at least 5 adaptations that evolved in Icthyostega or a similar transitional fossil to allow it to
survive in a terrestrial environment (on land). What characteristics made Icthyostega more fish-like?
732. List four different transitional fossil species in order from oldest to most recent that have been
discovered in the evolution of amphibians from fish.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
733. Draw and clearly label a diagram to show the structure of the gills of a fish including lamellae,
gill rakes and gill arches. How does blood flow relative to water flow through the gills?
734. Describe and/or draw a diagram to show the basic anatomy of the respiratory system of a
mammal. Where is the larynx? Where are the alveoli?
735. What are the lobes of the right and left lung? How many primary bronchi are there?
736. Identify the following structures on diagrams of the pharynx and respiratory system: hard palate,
soft palate, nasal conchae (turbinates), glottis, epiglottis, tongue, vocal cords, larynx, trachea,
esophagus, tracheal cartilage rings, primary bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm, parietal pleura,
visceral pleura
737. What are and what is the function of the nasal conchae or turbinates?
738. What cells types make up a respiratory epithelium? What is another name for this type of
tissue?
739. How does a type I alveolar cell differ from a type II alveolar cell?
740. Why are there macrophages in the alveoli?
741. What type of muscle surrounds the bronchioles?
742. How does bronchoconstriction differ from bronchodilation?
743. Why don’t the cartilage rings around the trachea extend all the way around the trachea?
744. Explain how Boyle’s Law relates to pulmonary ventilation.
745. Where are the respiratory control centers in the brain?
746. List four specific detrimental effects of smoking.
747. Define the following respiratory diseases or disorders: cystic fibrosis, pneumothorax, asthma,
emphysema, lung cancer.
748. Describe and/or draw a diagram to show the basic anatomy of the respiratory system of a bird.
Where is the syrinx?
749. How does the respiratory system of a bird differ from that of a mammal?
750. Explain how the cycles of bird respiration allow birds to maintain higher blood oxygen levels.
751. How does the respiratory system help birds migrate long distances?
752. From what fish structure did the terrestrial tetrapod lung most likely evolve?
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEMS
753. Draw a diagram to show the basic structure of a frog heart as compared to that of a turtle.
754. Draw a diagram to show the basic structure of a four chambered heart in a bird or mammal. Be
sure to label all the parts.
755. How does the structure of a bird heart and circulatory system differ from the structure of a
mammal heart and circulatory system?
25
756. What are the four valves and where are they found in the mammalian heart?
757. Draw a diagram to show the basic circulatory pattern from the heart to the lungs and body of a
mammal. Which vessels carry deoxygenated blood? Which vessels carry oxygenated blood?
758. Indicate which vessels in the double circuit are arteries and which are veins.
759. What is homeostasis?
760. At the molecular/cellular level, why is the maintenance of body temperature so important to
761. homeostasis?
762. Describe the composition of blood. List 4 functions of plasma proteins.
763. What is hemostasis?
764. Roughly, what diameter are erythrocytes?
765. How do red blood cells carry oxygen? What chemical element allows them to do this?
766. Describe the basic structure of hemoglobin.
767. With regard to RBC’s why is carbon monoxide poisonous?
768. Where are blood cells first formed? What organ removes old RBC’s?
769. During gestation, where are red blood cells formed? What is a pluripotent stem cell?
770. What is blood doping?
771. Describe how training at high altitude could lead to an increase in the athletes hematocrit?
772. What hormone stimulates RBC formation? From what organ is this hormone released?
773. Describe how erythrocytes/RBCs are removed from the blood when damaged and how some
components are recycled.
774. List 3 causes of anemia. What causes sickle cell anemia?
775. What is polycythemia? How does it differ from leukemia? How is leukopenia different from
leukemia?
776. Where are megakaryocytes found in the body and what is their function?
777. What is the average total number of erythrocytes and leukocytes in a milliliter/cc of blood?
778. What is the average total number of thrombocytes in a cubic millimeter of blood?
779. What are the 3 basic functions of the immune system?
780. List the histological characteristics of the 3 types of polymorphonuclear granulocytes.
781. List the histological characterisitics of the 2 types of mononuclear agranulocytes.
782. Draw a basic chart/diagram to illustrate the two circuit pattern of circulation between the heart,
lungs and systemic organs of the body.
783. Describe the structure of the pericardium.
784. What are the 3 layers of the heart wall (list both layers of the pericardium as one layer)?
785. Which layer secretes fluid?
786. Beginning at the right atrium, list the path through the heart, pulmonary and systemic circuits
that a RBC would take to complete both circuits (don’t list specific blood vessels here other than those
near the heart).
787. Know the location and basic structure of: right atrium, right AV valve, right ventricle, pulmonary
semilunar valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary veins, left atrium, left AV valve, left
ventricle, aortic semilunar valve, arch of the aorta, papillary muscles, chordae tendinae
interventricular septum, interatrial septum, interventricular sulcus (or groove), coronary sulcus.
788. How is most of the carbon dioxide in the blood transported? What important enzyme is involved?
789. How does the enzyme that helps transport carbon dioxide in the blood also function in the
stomach (what does this enzyme do in the gastric pits)?
790. Draw a diagram of the heart and to show the conduction system of the heart. Which part of the
conducting system normally sets the heart rate? Why?
791. Draw a diagram of the electrical conduction system (SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, Purkinje
fibers) in a mammalian or bird heart. Why are pacemaker cells autorhythmic?
792. Cardiac muscle cells have long refractory periods. Why is this beneficial to the function of the
heart?
793. How does systole differ from diastole? Why is the AV delay important for normal heart function?
Why are there two blood pressure numbers, one over the other?
794. What causes the first and second heart sounds (the lub, dub)?
795. What are the 2 primary factors that determine cardiac output (milliliters/minute)?
796. What are the 3 distinct layers that make up the wall of a blood vessel?
797. What are the major structural and functional characteristics of: arteries, arterioles, capillaries,
venules, veins. Which of these provides the greatest resistance to blood flow?
798. Which of these vessels has one-way valves? What is vasoconstriction? What is vasodilation?
799. Which blood vessels act as a pressure reservoir? Which blood vessels act as a volume reservoir?
800. Which blood vessels have a thicker tunica media?
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801. What is the function of capillaries?
802. What blood vessels regulate how much blood flows into a particular capillary bed?
803. What is a fenestrated capillary? What is a continuous capillary?
804. As an individual goes from a resting state to an exercising state, does blood flow increase
decrease or stay the same to the: skeletal muscles, digestive tract, skin, heart, brain.
805. At any given point in time, is there more blood in the arterial system or the venous system? Why?
806. Of the blood vessels attached to the heart, which vessels carry deoxygenated blood?
807. Which chambers of the heart carry deoxygenated blood?
808. Define the following cardiovascular diseases or disorders: pericarditis, heart murmur,
atherosclerosis, angina pectoris, myocardial infarction (MI), deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary
embolus, hypertension, aneurysm, varicose vein.
LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEMS
809. What are 3 basic functions of the immune system?
810. List 3 functions of the lymphatic system.
811. Explain how excess filtered fluid from the blood is returned to the cardiovascular system by way
of the lymphatic system.
812. What is edema?
813. What is a lacteal?
814. What are the 3 tonsils in humans?
815. Anatomically, where are each of the following organs: spleen, thymus, lacteals?
816. What is the function of the thymus?
817. List 3 different types of leukocytes and their basic functions.
818. Which leukocytes mediate immediate allergic reactions? Which mediate delayed allergic
reactions? What causes the vasodilation during a B cell mediated allergic reaction?
819. How does vaccination work? How does the immune system recognize self from non-self cells?
820. How does humoral immunity differ from cell mediated immunity? Which immune cell types
mediate each type of immunity?
821. What is an antigen? What cells make antibodies? How do antibodies help rid the body of
pathogens?
822. List the 2 types of lymphocytes. In what organ are all white blood cells first formed? Where do T
cells mature in the body?
823. What is diapedesis?
MUSCULAR SYSTEMS
824. What is the basic functional unit of muscle?
825. Draw and/or describe the sliding filament theory (hypothesis) of muscle contraction.
826. Draw and clearly label a diagram to show the molecular structure of a thin filament in a
sarcomere.
827. Draw and clearly label a diagram to show the molecular structure of a thick filament in a
sarcomere.
828. What ion is important for excitation-contraction coupling in muscles? In what intracellular
organelle is this ion stored in muscle cells?
829. List three characteristics that distinguish red muscle fibers from white muscle fibers.
830. What function does the sarcoplasmic reticulum serve in muscle?
831. Why are the T tubules important to muscle function?
832. What is the basic functional unit of skeletal muscle?
833. What is a motor unit?
834. How does an increase in intracellular calcium cause a muscle fiber to contract?
835. Relative to cardiac muscle, does skeletal muscle fatigue easily?
836. List 4 characteristics that differentiate red fibers from white fibers?
837. Define: ligament, tendon, muscle origin, muscle insertion.
838. Draw a cross section of a skeletal muscle and show the following: muscle fibers,
839. fascicles, bundles of fascicles, endomysium, perimysium, epimysium.
840. What is a neuromuscular junction? Briefly describe how a motor neuron signal (action potential)
causes a muscle to contract?
841. What specific neurotransmitter is released across an NMJ? How does black widow spider venom
affect an NMJ?
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842. What is myoglobin? Why does lactic acid fermentation occur in muscles sometimes? What is
meant by oxygen debt?
843. What does the enzyme creatine phosphate do in skeletal muscle?
844. How do anabolic steroids increase muscle mass? Anabolic steroids are mimics of which specific
sex steroid?
THERMOREGULATION
845. How does an endothermic animal differ from an ectothermic animal? Provide examples of each of
these?
846. Briefly describe how a mammal increases its body temp when it is too cold and how it decreases
its body temp when it is too warm. How does sweating help cool a human’s body?
847. What is a poikilothermic animal? What is a homeothermic animal? Provide examples of each.
848. Where and what are the nasal turbinates (conchae) in a mammal? What function do they have
relative to respiration and thermoregulation?
849. What is homeostasis?
850. At the molecular/cellular level, why is the maintenance of body temperature so important to
homeostasis?
ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
851. How does a hormone differ from a neurotransmitter?
852. How does a ligand gated channel/gate differ from a voltage gated channel/gate?
853. What is a target cell for a hormone?
854. How does an endocrine gland differ from an exocrine gland?
855. List the four major classes of hormones based on their chemical structure.
856. How does a negative feedback loop differ from a positive feedback loop?
857. Relative to the cardiovascular system, what is a portal system?
858. How does the structure of the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) differ from the structure of
the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)? Draw a diagram to support your answer. Which part
contains the hypophyseal portal system and what is the function of these capillaries?
859. Describe the basic anatomical structure and location of the adrenal glands.
860. Why is iodine important to the body? In what organ and for what purpose is iodine critical?
861. What obvious symptom can occur if someone has a diet deficient in iodine?
862. What hormones are released from the adrenal medulla?
863. Where are the parathyroid glands located?
864. What two different cell types can be found in the parathyroid glands?
865. Describe the anatomical structure and location of the pancreas.
866. What cell types are found in the pancreas? Which cells release insulin? Which cells release
glucagon? Which cells release somatostatin?
867. What are the pancreatic islets (or Islets of Langerhans)?
868. Where is the pineal gland? What is its function and what hormone does it release?
869. Name one hormone released from the thymus.
870. Name two different hormones released from the kidneys.
871. With regard to the list of hormones handout that is on the course website, be sure you can
identify the name of the hormone, the organ which releases the hormone and the general anatomical
location of the organ.
872. Define the following endocrine diseases or disorders: pituitary dwarfism, hypothyroidism,
hyperthyroidism, Type 1 diabetes, Type 2 diabetes, , diabetes insipidus.
NERVOUS SYSTEMS
873. Draw a schematic diagram showing the overall organization of the nervous system including all
of the following: CNS, PNS, afferent (sensory), efferent (motor), visceral sensory receptors, external
sensory receptors, somatic nervous system, skeletal muscle, autonomic nervous system,
parasympathetic system, sympathetic system, involuntary organs.
874. Draw diagrams of each of the four different types of neurons as they differ in their cellular
structure.
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875. Describe at a basic level describe how an action potential is generated. What ions are primarily
involved? Describe the movements of ions, opening and closing of channels and membrane
permeability changes during the depolarization and repolarization phases of an action potential.
876. Where are the Nodes of Ranvier in a neuron? What is their function?
877. List five types of glial cells and briefly describe their basic function.
878. What cells are responsible for the myelination of neurons in the CNS? In the PNS?
879. Draw a cross section of a nerve to show the epineurium, perineurium, endoneurium and nerve
fascicles.
880. Draw a diagram of a myelinated nerve cell and label all the parts (including internodes and nodes
of Ranvier). Draw another diagram to show convergence and divergence.
881. Draw a diagram of a synapse showing the presynaptic neuron, neurotransmitter vesicle,
neurotransmitter, postsynaptic neuron, neurotransmitter receptor, synaptic cleft and voltage gated
calcium channels.
882. How does white matter differ from gray matter? Where are each of these found in the spinal cord
and in the brain?
883. Draw and explain a reflex arc. Where are the cell bodies of the sensory neurons found? Where
are the cell bodies of the motor neurons found?
884. Draw a cross section of the spinal cord showing the grey matter horns, white matter, central
canal, dorsal root, ventral root, dorsal root ganglia and a spinal nerve.
885. Describe the location of each of the cervical spinal nerves (how many?). How many thoracic,
lumbar, and sacral nerves are there? What is the cauda equina?
886. Be sure you can locate all of the brain structures indicated in the online notes on a lateral view,
sagittal section and coronal section of the brain (depending on the structure).
887. What forms the blood-brain barrier?
888. What is the limbic system? What portions of the brain comprise the limbic system?
889. Where are the cardiovascular and respiratory control centers in the brain?
890. What is the function of the amygdala of the brain?
891. Briefly describe some differences in the basic structure of a fish, reptile, bird and mammal brain.
892. Describe the structural differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems. What neurotransmitters are released from pre and postganglionic neurons, how long are the
pre and postganglionic neurons, where are the ganglia with relation to the spinal cord and the organ
innervated, from what regions of the spinal cord do the preganglionic neurons originate?
893. In what physical states are the parasympathetic versus the sympathetic nervous system each
active?
894. List 6 different sensory receptor types each with a different simulating agent or modality of
stimulus.
895. What is meant by proprioception?
896. List the four different types of papillae on the human tongue and describe where taste buds are
found in adults versus infants/children.
897. Briefly describe and/or draw a diagram to show the anatomy of the relationship between the
olfactory bulb and the olfactory epithelium.
898. Draw a sagittal section diagram of the eye and show all the basic structures shown in lab and
the text.
899. Where is the aqueous humor? the vitreous humor?
900. How do rods differ from cones with regard to their cellular shape and their function?
901. Where is the highest density of rods in the retina? the cones?
902. Where is and what is the function of a lacrimal gland?
903. Why is there a blind spot in the eye? Why is there not an actual black spot in the visual field?
904. What is accommodation? Is the lens flat or round when focusing on near objects?
905. Where is and what is the function of the lateral geniculate nucleus?
906. Is the middle ear filled with fluid or air?
907. What is the function of and where is the Eustachian tube?
908. What are the anatomical names of the 3 middle ear ossicles?
909. Describe the basic structural differences between the outer, middle, and inner ear.
910. Be sure you can identify the parts of the ear as listed in the notes and from the diagram in lab.
Draw a sectional diagram of the ear and show all the basic structures.
911. Which specific structure of the ear detects sound?
912. Which specific structure of the ear detects dynamic equilibrium?
913. Which specific structure detects static equilibrium?
914. Which cranial nerve carries information from the inner ear?
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915. How and why are hair cells important to the function of the inner ear?
916. Where are otoliths found? What is the function of the otoliths?
917. Within what skull bone is the inner ear found?
918. What causes motion sickness/vertigo?
919. Where specifically are the scala media, scala vestibuli and scala tympani in the ear?
920. Define the following sensory diseases or disorders: conjunctivitis, macular degeneration,
cataracts, myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, glaucoma, otitis media.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS
921. What are major anatomical components of the digestive system.
922. What is meant by the digestive “tract”?
923. Define the following digestion related terms: ingestion, digestion, peristalsis, secretion,
absorption.
924. List the accessory digestive organs and briefly describe their anatomical position in the body.
925. Describe the basic histological structure of the digestive tract. What are the “layers” of the
digestive tract?
926. What is a mesentery? Where is the mesentery proper? Where are the greater and lesser
omentum?
927. Draw a diagram to show all of the human teeth. How many deciduous teeth in a child with all of
their non-permanent teeth? You may draw just one quadrant of the mouth if you wish.
928. Describe the basic structure of the peritoneum (visceral, parietal, etc.)
929. Name and describe the basic anatomical location of the 3 salivary glands?
930. Briefly describe the actions of the following structures during swallowing: the tongue, the uvula
(soft palate), and the epiglottis.
931. Describe the types of cells found in the gastric pits of the stomach.
932. What are the 3 major divisions of the small intestine? Where is each generally located along the
digestive tract?
933. Where and what are the mesenteries?
934. Anatomically, why is the surface area of the small intestines so large? What structures increase
the surface area?
935. Draw a diagram of the large intestine to show the following: ileocecal valve, cecum, ascending
colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, anus, internal anal sphincter,
external anal sphincter.
936. Where are the internal and external anal sphincters? What type of muscle forms each?
937. What is the taenia coli and what is a mass movement?
938. What is the largest visceral organ (e.g. exclude the skin) in the body? List at least 5 different
functions of this organ.
939. In the liver what structures comprise a portal triad?
940. How many lobes does the liver have? Briefly describe the flow of blood to and from the liver?
941. On a diagram (see figure from lab or lecture) be able to identify: liver, gallbladder, left and right
hepatic ducts, common hepatic duct, cystic duct, common bile duct.
942. Anatomically, where is the pancreas in most vertebrates?
943. To what portion of the digestive tract does the common pancreatic duct connect?
944. Define the following digestive diseases or disorders: gastroesophageal reflex disease (GERD),
peptic ulcer, appendicitis, colorectal cancer, hepatitis, cirrhosis, cholelithiasis.
EXCRETORY SYSTEMS
945. What are the major functions of the kidneys? What is the name of the tubule system that is the
basic functional unit of the kidney?
946. List 4 different functions of the urinary system.
947. Draw a diagram of the urinary system to show the anatomical relationship between the kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
948. What type of tissue lines the interior of the urinary bladder? Why?
949. Is the kidney retroperitoneal?
950. Describe the structure of a mammalian nephron including the following (you should be able to
draw a simple diagram): Bowman’s capsule, glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle,
distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct, afferent arteriole, efferent arteriole, peritubular capillaries.
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951. Generally, what types of molecules and in which direction (from blood to tubules or tubules to
blood) do molecules move during each of the three processes involved in urine formation:
 glomerular filtration
 tubular reabsorption
 tubular secretion
952. How do cortical nephrons differ from juxtamedullary nephrons? What is the particular function
of the juxtamedullary nephrons?
953. What is a podocyte? A pedicel?
954. Where are the internal and external urethral sphincters? What type of muscle forms each?
955. Generally, give one anatomical reason why women are at greater risk for developing UTI’s
(urinary tract infections) as compared to men.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
956. On diagrams of the mammalian female and male reproductive systems, be able to label a
diagram of the structures.
957. List the basic functions of: testis, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate gland, seminal vesicles,
bulbourethral gland, urethra, penis, scrotum, seminiferous tubules, interstitial tissue of testes, ovary,
fimbriae, Fallopian tube (oviduct), uterine myometrium, uterine endometrium, cervix, vagina, clitoris.
958. What is the prepuce of the penis and clitoris?
959. Briefly describe the cause of each following reproductive conditions: cryptorchidism, benign
prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), endometriosis, ectopic pregnancy.
960. Describe the basic composition of semen.
961. List the lineage of cells seen during spermatogenesis from spermatogonia to spermatozoa
including how many chromosomes would be found in each cell type. What is spermiogenesis?
962. List the lineage of cells seen during oogenesis from oogonia to “ootid” including how many
chromosomes would be found in each cell type. Which of these cells is ovulated? Which of these cells
is fertilized by an egg?
963. Describe the basic effects of the hormones FSH and LH in the male and female reproductive
system.
964. How does an ovarian follicle differ from a corpus luteum in the ovary?
965. What is inhibin? Relate changes in the level of spermatogenesis to changes in inhibin and FSH
levels.
966. Progesterone is thermogenic, what does this mean?
967. Why are progesterone and estrogen each required during a pregnancy?
968. List the basic events that occur during fertilization.
969. What is implantation? What is parturition?
970. What is the oxygen level of the blood transported by the umbilical arteries versus umbilical veins
(oxy or deoxy)?
971. List two different structures in the mammalian fetal heart that shunt blood away from the fetal
lungs and to the placenta.
972. Where does fertilization usually occur in the female reproductive system? Where does
implantation occur?
973. What is the human male gamete? the human female gamete?
974. Why is meiosis so important to sexual reproduction and the survival of species?
975. What is crossing over with reference to meiosis?
976. Explain what occurs during nondisjunction.
977. What is spermiogenesis?
978. What is amniocentesis?
979. Where are sperm stored previous to ejaculation?
980. What are the: zygote, morula, blastula (blastocyst), gastrula, embryo, fetus and where are each of
these found in the mammalian female reproductive system during gestation?
981. List the sequence of cells and embryo types as early embryonic development proceeds from the
time of fertilization to the time of implantation (eg. zygote, morula, blastula, gastrula, etc.)
982. What is the name of the embryo that actually implants in the wall of the uterus?
983. Briefly describe what happens at each of the following: fertilization, implantation, placentation,
parturtion, and lactation.
984. What is the function of the amnionic sac and fluid?
985. What are the 3 germ cell layers of a developing embryo and what tissues/organs form from each
of these layers?
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986. Relate the timing of the following events together as they occur during the menstrual cycle:
 FSH has dominant effects on the ovary
 LH has dominant effects on the ovary
 increased estrogen production
 increased progesterone production
 follicular phase of ovary & proliferative phase of uterus versus,
 secretory phase of uterus & luteal phase of the ovary
 increased basal body temperature
 copious, watery cervical mucous versus thick, viscous cervical mucous
 during the menstrual cycle, when do the menses and when does ovulation each occur?
987. Label a diagram of a mammary gland with the following: suspensory ligaments, adipose tissue,
lobe, lactiferous sinus, alveoli, lactiferous ducts, lobule, areola, nipple.
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
988. Define the following: biosphere, ecosystem, habitat
989. Define the following terms: homeostasis, tissue, organ.
990. Define the following terms: ecology, food web, trophic level.
991. How does a population differ from a community?
992. Draw simple flowcharts of examples of both a terrestrial and an aquatic food chain and label the
various trophic levels.
993. Why is decomposition so important to the survival of animals?
994. What types of organisms perform most decomposition?
995. What is a top or apex predator in an ecosystem? Give an example of a top predator.
996. What is mimicry?
997. Define the following terms: continental drift, plate tectonics.
998. What does continental drift have to do with biogeography?
999. What was Pangaea? How long ago did Pangaea start to break apart?
1000. What is chronobiology? Has the length of a day always been the same on planet Earth?
1001. What is a circadian rhythm? Give an example that occurs in animals.
1002. How does an infradian rhythm differ from an ultradian rhythm? Give an example of each that
occurs in animals.
1003. What are their seasons on Earth? Specifically, why do we have seasons?
1004. Why do most temperate animals reproduce seasonally and not all year long?
1005. What is a biome? Give four examples of different biomes.
1006. Describe the basic pattern of zonation typical of the intertidal habitat of California.
1007. What role do competition and predation play in zonation within the intertidal? (cite some
examples).
1008. Compare and contrast the nutrient cycling in a basic food web in the nearshore pelagic ocean
with a deep-sea hydrothermal vent community.
1009. Compare and contrast the nutrient cycling in a basic food web in a coral reef with a freshwater
lake.
1010. Roughly, how large was the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill? How many gallons of oil leaked?
1011. Where and when did the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill occur?
1012. Briefly describe three different impacts this oil spill has had on humans.
1013. List three different fisheries that might be affected by the oil spill.
1014. Biologically, how can the oil plumes be degraded or broken down?
1015. List six different biological effects of the oil spill on the affected environment and animal life.
1016. List two different specific effects of the oil spill on birds.
1017. List two different specific effects of the oil spill on marine mammals.
1018. What is the Dead Zone in the Gulf of Mexico? What causes it?
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