Gabriela Gutierrez
B.F. Skinner
Goddard, M. J. (2012). On Certain Similarities between Mainstream Psychology and the
Writings of B. F. Skinner. Psychological Record, 62(3), 563-575.
Synopsis:
The article documents how selected writings of B.F. Skinner are compared to five
mainstream psychology topics, this includes the role of unconscious, human language, the role of
dispositions in psychology, human perceptions of conformity and bias, and mindfulness. “By
discovering or rediscovering Skinner and Skinner’s views as they really are, psychologists could
also put their own current reflections in proper perspective, in many areas of theory and of
practice, he was indeed a forerunner” (Goddard, 2012). In every topic, the article shows
similarities between mainstream psychology and B.F. Skinner’s theories.
In the role of unconscious, Goddard comments on B.F. Skinner’s theory in how human
behavior is influenced unconsciously by environmental events. “Humans have a powerful
tendency to infer that their behavior is driven by conscious acts of will” (Goddard, 2012). For
example, when a person has a route to go home from work, there will be certain days that the
person will not recall how they got home. That shows that action/movement can occur without
the conscious will. It then documents in Wegner’s theory that wrote, “External events may
unconsciously influence action and generate unconscious thoughts,” showing very similar
similarities to B.F. Skinner’s theory (Goddard, 2012).
In B. F. Skinner’s theory of human language, he indicates how creating a positive verbal
environment will increase the person’s positive behavior. “Current research on language
instruction has confirmed the strength of Skinner’s analysis, particularly in autism, in which a
preferred item may be placed in a child’s view (but out of reach) with the child rewarded when
the item is correctly named” (Goddard, 2012). One of the main reasons why many of B. F.
Skinner’s theories were not as popular as today was for men who would attack his theories; one
of these men was Chomsky. It was not till years later that “several researchers showed that
Chomsky’s critique contained serious flaws and that Chomsky may not have actually read the
entire book. For example, Chomsky criticized the drive reduction theory of reinforcement, which
never characterized Skinner’s position” as B.F. Skinner’s theory was saying to add positive
reinforcement in the environment for better positive behaviors (Goddard, 2012).
When a person has a choice, for example, to eat a vanilla or a chocolate cone, the person
believes that they were responsible for action when they were led to think about the action before
it happened. Wegner shows that “people are easily fooled into a belief in inner causality, which
may partly explain why dispositions are favored in psychology” (Goddard, 2012). This same
theory Skinner noted stating that, “an emphasis on inner causes (or dispositions) run the risk of
causing an important relation between behavior and its antecedents to be lost” (Goddard, 2012).
Stating once again the similarities of B.F. Skinner’s theories to current mainstream psychologist.
B.F. Skinner theory on human perceptions of conformity and bias speaks about how
humans cannot evaluate their own behavior and actions due to their inability to analysis their
own environment. “Skinner’s comments are supported by research showing that consciousness is
unable to access the predominantly unconscious brain processes involved in human behavior”
(Goddard, 2012). In a recent article, a psychologist name Pronin wrote the same conclusion
Skinner did many years ago that wasn’t recognized, “by focusing on the behavior of other
people, the person may detect conformity in others, supporting Skinner’s claim that another
person may better know the reasons behind a person’s behavior” (Goddard, 2012). Proving
again that many mainstream psychologists have many similarities to B.F. Skinner’s theories,
making him the forerunner.
“Mindfulness is the concept that while people often fail to pay attention to their
surroundings, they can be trained to focus on, and alter, their environments to improve personal
well-being” (Goddard, 2012). Skinner documents the importance of altering the environment to
improve well-being in 1983, then a psychologist named Langer documents in 2009 the control of
our environment has health benefits. In Langer’s theory, he noted that, “when a person reaches
for a dish on a high shelf and accidentally drops it, the person may mindlessly assume that he or
she is clumsy rather than being mindful of the possibility that the shelf was designed for
someone taller” (Goddard, 2012). While in Skinner’s theory, he mentions how doing
unnecessary things that seem to be helpful to someone can actually be depriving that person the
opportunity to learning.
“Research showing that the environment unconsciously affects human behavior supports
Skinner’s view that human verbal and nonverbal behavior can be unconsciously shaped by
environmental factors” (Goddard, 2012). This article documents different mainstream
psychologists who have very similar theories to the ones Skinner’s had and was criticized for
years before.
Theory
The article emphases on five theories of B. F. Skinner, this includes the role of the unconscious,
human, language, the role of dispositions in psychology, human perceptions of conformity and
bias, and mindfulness. “Human behavior is clearly influenced unconsciously by environmental
events, humans have a powerful tendency to infer that their behavior is driven by conscious acts
of will” (Goddard, 2012). Skinner theory on the role of the unconscious shows how a person can
do something that they do consistently without conscious recollection. “Skinner hypothesized
that a speaker’s verbal behavior could be rewarded by an audience’s attention, extinguished by
an audience’s inattention, or punished by an audience’s criticism” (Goddard, 2012). Skinner’s
theory in human language analyses how a student may be willing to raise their hand in class
voluntarily if they see that the teacher gives positive reinforcement for correct/wrong answers,
instead of giving students negative reinforcement. “Skinner was critical of hypothetical inner
causes in psychology and stated that an emphasis on inner causes (or dispositions) ran the risk of
causing an important relation between behavior and its antecedents to be lost” (Goddard, 2012).
In Skinner’s theory of dispositions, he speaks about how the person will have a decision in
making, for example to go right or left on a street but while the person believes that they were
responsible for action when in reality they have already had the answer in their mind all along.
“People readily infer that there is bias in others, such as the hindsight bias or intergroup bias, but
deny bias in themselves, as the process leading to bias may also operate outside introspective
awareness” (Goddard, 2012). B. F. Skinner’s theory of human perceptions of conformity and
bias mentions how a person cannot evaluate their own behavior due to their inability to analysis
themselves. “Mindfulness is the concept that while people often fail to pay attention to their
surroundings, they can be trained to focus on, and alter, their environment to improve personal
well-being” (Goddard, 2012). Skinner’s theory of mindfulness mentions how he noted “nursing
homes may hasten the death of their residents by giving unneeded help” (Goddard, 2012). The
article notes very specifically on B.F. Skinner’s theories on these five mainstream topics that are
rising in our society once again. The author does an excellent job in showing the similarities
from B.F. Skinner’s theories to current mainstream psychologists.
Analysis
Goddard supports B.F. Skinner’s theories by showing the similarities of his theories to
current mainstream psychologist theories. In the role of the unconscious Goddard compares
Wegner’s theory in 2002 to Skinner’s in 1974. Wegner writes in his theory that “external events
may unconsciously influence action and generate unconscious thoughts” (Goddard, 2012). While
in 1974 Skinner had stated “conscious thoughts were typically invoked as behavioral causes
because conscious thoughts may immediately precede behavior” (Goddard, 2012).
In Skinner’s theory on human language, he hypothesized that “a speaker’s verbal
behavior could be rewarded by an audience’s attention, extinguished by an audience’s inattention
or punished by an audience’s criticism” (Goddard, 2012). Although greatly criticized greatly by
Chomsky it was found in current research that Skinner’s theory in human language has accurate
and that Chomsky’s critique had many serious flaws.
“Skinner noted that dispositions were common in psychological theories that appeal to
events taking place somewhere else, at some other level of observation, described in different
terms, and measure, if at all, in different dimensions” (Goddard, 2012). This means that although
a person believes they have a choice in making, they actually already have already made their
mind up, in what they are going to do due to past influences. Years later, a psychologist named
Wegner, stated that “people are easily fooled into a belief in inner causality, which may partly
explain why dispositions are favored in psychology” (Goddard, 2012). Showing a very similar
theory then the other Skinner stated years ago.
“Skinner maintained that people should be wary of introspection because there are no
sensory nerves going to the right of the brain and introspection was like trying to hear supersonic
sounds or see electromagnetic radiation beyond the visible range” (Goddard, 2012). This means
that a person is very easy to judge and give advice to another person, but does not see their own
flaws due to their inability to judge themselves and give themselves un-bias advice. Skinner’s
theory was then supported when a psychologist Sutton prove “that another person may better
know the reasons behind a person’s behavior instead of themselves” (Goddard, 2012).
Skinner emphasizes “the importance of altering the environment to improve well-being,
particularly as a person ages in 1983. Skinner noted that nursing homes may hasten the death of
their residents by giving unneeded help” (Goddard, 2012). In 2009, psychologist Langer stated
how “the control of our environment has health benefits, like in a nursing home residents caring
for a plant in an environment that emphasized personal responsibility showed better health
compared to residents whose plants was cared for by staff in an environment that emphasized
staff responsibility” (Goddard, 2012). Not only did Goddard support every of B. F. Skinner’s
theories, but she described very clearly how the current mainstream psychologist have very
similar similarities to Skinner’s theories.
Evaluate
This article is very in-depth and descriptive about B. F. Skinner’s theories and the
similarities it has between mainstream psychology on the role of the unconscious, human
language, the role of dispositions in psychology, human perceptions of conformity and bias, and
mindfulness. Goddard does an excellent job in providing great evidence on how Skinner was a
forerunner in the theory and practice of psychology. The author provides stunning evidence that
provides that Skinner’s theories were advance for that time and that he is a true forerunner as
more and more mainstream psychologist theories start to strongly reflect on Skinner’s theories.
It’s amazing how positive reinforcement from verbal and physical environments can impact on
behavioral response. Reading the article, the reader will gain understanding on how
environmental circumstances can impact a person on who they are and the choices they make.
The article is designed for university students and it is written in a spectacular format that is very
easy to read and understand.