Psych 1 Cabrillo College
Charlotte Nolan Reyes, PhD
Test 1 Reading & Study Guide Draft 01, 09.27.13
The Science of Mind:
The Discipline of Psychology
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
The Matter of Mind
Watch “V.S. Ramachandran on your Mind” (March 2007). TEDTalks.
http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/vilayanur_ramachandran_on_your_mind.html (23:38).
[Accessed 25 May 2012].
1. What is unique about your mental world?
2. What did you find most compelling about Ramachandran’s lecture?
3. What do these disorders of the brain teach us about the mind?
4. What are your thoughts on creativity in light of this lecture?
5. We will use this to link to later class lectures too!
Lecture: What Is Psychology?
Psychological science provides us with explanations for behavior that we otherwise
might not know from direct observation alone. Psychology consists of multiple
perspectives (e.g., developmental, social, and biological) that, when integrated, give us a
broader context for understanding human behavior.
1. What Is Psychology?
 Psychological scientists view the mind as a way of talking about the brain and its
activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior.
 The word psychology is a combination of two Greek words: psyche (or psuche),
or the soul (“soul” in Ancient Greece was closer to our modern conception of
mind), and logos, the study of, literally translated to the study of the mind.
 Today, psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental
processes.
 “Behavior” refers to any action that we can observe.
 Studying “mental processes” has been highly dependent on the methods available
to psychologists.
 Early efforts to study mental processes relied on the use of introspection, or the
personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Because it’s
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difficult for others to confirm one’s introspections, they are hard to validate using
the scientific method.
 Brain imaging methods have dramatically improved our ability to reliably study
mental processes.
2. Psychology as a Hub Science
 Most occupations require some degree of understanding of people and their
behavior. Psychology is integral to a wide variety of professions.
 When Kevin Boyack and his colleagues used journal articles to create a map of
how different concentrations link to each other, they realized that psychology is
one of the major hub sciences—many of the articles showed strong connections
between psychology and other disciplines, such as medical sciences, education,
social sciences, etc.
WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS?
The Philosophers’ Questions/The Physical Scientists’ Methods
1. The Philosophers’ Questions
 Plato (427-347 B.C.) was one of the first philosophers to address the question,
“What is the mind?”

Plato described the mind as having three parts that must be in balance: spirit,
reason, and appetite. He used the analogy of a team of horses to explain how
these three parts work in concert. The horses (spirit and appetite) are guided by a
driver (reason). This is akin to Freud’s tripartite model of the mind: the id (inborn
aggressive and sexual impulses), the ego (self), and the superego (conscience).

Philosophers were split between dualism, the idea that the body and mind are
different and separate (Pythagoras, Socrates, and Plato), and monism, the idea
that the body and mind are not separate (Democritus and Aristotle).

With the fall of Ancient Greece and Rome, monism lost favor and dualism was
the predominant belief. Christian thinkers wrote about a duality between body and
soul. Dualism continued to have prominence throughout the Renaissance.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was a proponent of mind-body dualism, the belief
that the body is mechanical but that the mind is a non-physical entity not suitable
for scientific inquiry. He also believed that ideas and emotions were innate.

Empiricists (17th century British school of philosophy) saw the mind as a “blank
slate” or tabula rasa at birth that is filled as an individual experiences the world.

Empiricism gave rise to behaviorism (20th century), which holds that behaviors
are the result of experience and can be directly observed.
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
The philosophical debate about the source of knowledge is akin to the
psychologist’s pursuit to determine the relative contributions of nurture and nature
to behavior.

Contemporary scientists believe in monism, but accept that there is a reciprocal
relationship between biology and behavior, and that the mind is the result of
complex interactions between inborn characteristics and experiences.

Philosophy and psychology are closely intertwined, with the former giving rise to
the latter. Nineteenth century philosophers such as Alexander Bain (1818-1903)
argued for the experimental study of human behavior and as this testing occurred,
psychology took shape as a separate discipline.
2. The Physical Scientists’ Methods
 Ancient Physicians

As many as 7,000 years ago, healers used trepanation (drilling holes into the
skull) to address some conditions, indicative that they believed the head and
brain had some relationship to the mind.

Early Egyptians understood that the paralysis of the body was permanent and
due to brain damage.

As early as 500 B.C., Greek physicians began to systematically dissect human
bodies, concluding the brain was the organ of memory, thinking, and
understanding. That saw the connection of the brain to the sense organs. They
recognized the brain as the source of emotional problems.

Greek physicians held a theory of personality that is affected by “humors,” or
relative amounts of four fluids in the body: yellow bile, black bile, blood, and
phlegm. Bleeding patients was a practical application of this theory. The theory
remained popular until the 19th century.

Development of technology: 17th and 18th centuries scientists used new
technologies to make discoveries about the human body and mind. For example,
they used the light telescope to discover that a single sensory nerve carries only
one type of information.

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) discovered that it took longer for
participants to react when their toe was touched than when their thigh was
touched (because it is farther from the brain and the signal takes longer to
travel). This research contributed to a more scientific, less mystical view of the
nervous system.
II. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN?

Compare and Contrast the early movements in psychology – structuralism,
Gestalt psychology, functionalism, behaviorism, psychodynamic theory, and
humanism – in terms of leading figures, core principles, and contribution to
modern psychology.
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1. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) and Structuralism
 Credited with being the first psychologist

Conducted the first psychological experiment in his laboratory at the University
of Leipzig in 1879: a test of reaction time (How quickly after hearing a ball drop
onto a platform could a person respond by striking a telegraph key?)

Believed the goal of psychology was to understand consciousness

Viewed mental experience as a hierarchy: the mind constructs an overall
perception out of building blocks made up of separate sensations and emotional
responses
2. Edward Titchener (1867-1923)
 One of Wundt’s students who expanded on Wundt’s work to establish a theory of
structuralism
o
Structuralism: the mind can be broken down into the smallest elements of mental
experience (a parallel to the physical sciences that was focused on breaking down
matter into molecules, elements, and atoms)

o
Employed introspection as an experimental technique
Wundt’s introspection is focused on an action being representative of an internal
state. Titchener would instruct research participants to describe an object in great
detail, the details serving as the building blocks of the mind’s overall perception of
the cup.
3. Gestalt Psychology
 A group of early 20th century German psychologists, including Kurt Koffka, Max
Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Kölher rejected the structuralists’ approach and
founded Gestalt psychology.

Gestalt means “form” or a “whole”

Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking down a whole perception into its
component parts would result in a loss of important psychological information.
They emphasized the importance of context in perception. (The whole is greater
than the sum of the parts.)

Max Wertheimer conducted an experiment in 1912 that demonstrated the apparent
movement of objects, launching the Gestalt psychology movement. He used a
stroboscope to create the perception of movement, using the appearance and
disappearance of lines. He concluded that there must be more to perception than
just sending elements in order to perceive stationary lines as moving. (This
discovery has been practically applied to moving words in scrolling electric signs,
an illusion created by simply timing lights to blink on and off.)

Today, Gestalt principles of perception are applied to design to draw our eyes in
certain ways, induce us to perceive hidden messages, and create striking
memorable images.
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Reflections
 What relationship does this have with psychology?
 Think of an example.
In the first lecture, Dr. Charlotte talked about not “seeing” the partially hidden
camels (a tourist attraction) during a vacation on the beach in Mexico.
Early Movements (continued)
William James (1842-1910) and Functionalism
 Functionalism viewed behavior as purposeful because it leads to survival. It was
influenced by the publication of Charles Darwin’s Origin of the Species in 1859.

Functionalists were interested in why behavior and mental processes worked in a
particular way.

William James was the principle proponent of Functionalism. He wrote Principles
of Psychology, a textbook that dominated the field for 50 years. James offered a
course in psychology at Harvard and had a lab that predated Wundt’s, but his lab
was used primarily for demonstration, rather than research, so Wundt is still
credited as the first psychologist.

James coined the term stream of consciousness to describe the flow of ideas
people experience when they are awake. He also wrote “The Varieties of
Religious Experience”

James emphasized the role of evolution in mental processes and behavior. The
value of an activity depended on its consequences. Behavior that increased
survival is repeated and those that are irrelevant or harmful are abandoned.

Although James didn’t establish a particular school of psychology, his ideas
continue to be integral to the work of many contemporary psychologists.
Video Connection
The following is a simple but effective online clip that demonstrates the differences between
Wundt and James:
“Wundt and James: Structuralism and Functionalism.” (March 2011). Psychology 101: The
Animated TextVook. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SW6nm69Z_IE (1:11).
[Accessed 25 May 2012].
Early Movements (continued)
The Behaviorists and the Cognitive Revolution
 Behaviorism, which focuses on observable, measurable behaviors, gained favor
in the first half of the 20th century. Many behaviorists studied animals, and relying
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on Darwin’s evidence linking animals to humans, extrapolated what they learned
about animals to humans.

Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov’s (1849-1936) discovery that dogs salivate in response to
the arrival of a dog Nadler or being harnessed for an experiment (indicating that
they associated these signals with the arrival of food) gave rise to the Classical
Conditioning theory of learning.

John B. Watson (1878-1958) came to the same conclusions as Pavlov while
studying rats. He was a proponent of the British empiricists “blank slate”
understanding of the mind, believing that he could take any infant and raise them
to become any type of specialist regardless of the baby’s talents, abilities, or
history. Watson applied his theory to advertising, discovering that a product could
be made successful by building an association between the product and an
appealing image.

Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) proposed a law of effect, which suggested that
behaviors followed by pleasant or helpful outcomes would be more likely to occur
in the future, whereas behaviors followed by unpleasant or harmful outcomes
would be less likely to occur. He based this on observations of cats’ behavior in a
puzzle box—through trial and error learning, the cats would escape faster and
faster on successive trial, repeating effective behaviors and abandoning
ineffective ones.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) was interested in the effects of consequences on how
frequently behaviors were performed. He studied rats and pigeons in Skinner
boxes, generalizing what he learned to human behavior, leading to a host of
beneficial applications in smoking cessation and treatment for children with
autism.

Ulric Neisser (1928- ) first challenged the notion that internal mental states (e.g.,
information, processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving) had no bearing
on behavior. He coined the term Cognitive Psychology in his 1967 book.

Cognitive psychologists used mathematical and computer models to illuminate
mental processes leading to observable behavior.

Behavioral v. Cognitive Approaches to Psychology: The differences between the
two can be understood by looking how each explains the development of
language in children. Behaviorists like Skinner believe children acquire language
in response to feedback. Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that people are born
with innate mechanisms for learning language. Consider: Can these both be
correct? Why or why not?
Clinical Roots: Freud and the Humanists
 History of Treatment
o Throughout history, psychological disorders were largely understood to be
supernatural forces at work, and thus, there were no known effective treatments.
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o Improvements in science led to more natural explanations, but did little to lead to
effective treatments. People with disorders were experimented on, often using
dangerous and harmful methods, e.g., insulin shock.
o Between the 17th and 19th centuries, two scientific approaches, a medical model, and a
psychological model, replaced the supernatural explanations.
o Medical model: emphasizes physical causes of atypical behavior and medical
treatments, e.g., pharmaceuticals.
o Psychological model: suggests that atypical behavior can result from life experiences,
leading to maladaptive responses (fear, anxiety, anger, etc.)
o Psychological treatment: ranges from offering support to applying cognitive and
behavioral methods to help people think and problem solve in new ways.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
o Trained as a physician, he formed a theory of the impact of life experiences on
behavior known as psychodynamic theory.
o Freud formulated ideas and wrote about the existence of an unconscious mind, the
development of sexuality, dream analysis, and the psychological roots of abnormal
behavior, and developed techniques for treating disorders. It is the classic view of
therapy, an authoritarian approach in which the doctor sat in “the big chair” (Tears for
Fears song “Shout” in Songs from the Big Chair Album) and was all knowing in his
interpretations.
o Freud did no real experimentation. His ideas are based on his thinking and anecdotal
work with patients, mostly upper-class Viennese women who were not representative
of the general population and are even less representative now. Still, some of his ideas
hold up to contemporary scientific scrutiny.

Humanistic Psychology: In the 1960s, American psychology was largely
dichotomized between psychodynamic (Freudian) theory and
behaviorism(Skinner) . The humanists grew out of a reaction against the
limitations of these two theories.
o Humanists extended the work of philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau into a belief
that people are innately good, motivated to improve themselves, and only behave
badly when corrupted by society.
o Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) introduced a theory of motivation, the primary goal
of which is self-actualization—to be one’s best self.
o Carl Rogers (1902-1987) developed a client-centered approach to therapy, placing
the individual undergoing treatment on equal standing with the therapist, taking an
active role in their treatment. Unconditional love and mirroring are two principle
approaches employed in client-centered therapy.
WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES?
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1. What Are Psychological Perspectives?
 A psychological perspective is an understanding of behavior from a specific
point of view.

Psychologists often define themselves in terms of their perspective, indicating
their area of specialization (e.g., social psychologist, developmental
psychologist).

Graduate departments of psychology are typically organized by orientation, so
that students may develop expertise in this area. At the same time, many
Psychologists lay claim to 2-3 approaches in their research and orientations.

You Professor, Dr. Charlotte takes a primarily Cognitive Developmental,
Individual Differences approach. This mix is increasingly shown to also be
supportive of evolutionary perspectives.
2. Seven Perspectives of Psychology

Biological Psychology or behavioral neuroscience
o Focuses on the relationships between mind and behavior and their underlying
biological processes
o Methods for observing brain activity helped advance this field.
o Using the example of memory: Biological psychology approaches memory by
studying the mechanisms used to store and retrieve memories.

Evolutionary Psychology
o Attempts to answer how our bodies and minds have been shaped by the need to
survive and thrive
o Basic principle: Our current behavior exists because it provided some advantage in
survival and reproduction to our ancestors.
o Using the example of memory: Evolutionary psychologists would be interested in the
fact that we have a good memory for faces, particularly of those who have cheated us
in the past, because being cheated out of food would have meant starvation to our
ancestors.

Cognitive Psychology
o Focuses on the process of thinking, information processing, reasoning, and problem
solving
o Using the example of memory: Cognitive psychology addresses how different types
of information are processed, stored, and retrieved (e.g., remembering a date versus
riding a bike), why we might have difficulty remembering, and what we can do to
make our memories more efficient

Social Psychology
o Describes the effects of the social environment, including culture, on behavior
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o Basic principle: We each construct our own reality and the social environment
influences our thoughts, feelings and behavior.
o Using the example of memory: Social psychologists might investigate how being in
the presence of others influences the storage and retrieval of data.

Developmental Psychology
o Explores the normal changes in behavior that occur across the lifespan
o Using the example of memory: Developmental psychologists might look at agerelated changes in memory.

Clinical Psychology
o Seeks to explain, define, and treat abnormal behaviors and promote well-being
o Using the example of memory: Clinical psychology is concerned with how
psychological disorders impact memory, e.g., traumatic experiences that create
intrusive flashbacks.

Individual Differences (Personality) Perspective
o Recognizes and investigates individual differences in personality
o Using the example of memory: Individual differences in “need for What Does It
Mean to Be a Psychologist?
Objective
 LO6: Explain why psychology’s role as a “hub science” allows psychologists to
pursue a wide range of career paths with respect to professional specialties and
research areas.

Note: In 2006-2007, more than 90,000 students in the U.S. received bachelor’s
degrees in psychology.
1. Degrees in Psychology
 An undergraduate degree allows one to seek employment in diverse fields
related to psychology, such as working in a research facility, rehabilitation center,
management, sales, service, public affairs, education, human resources, etc. This
reflects the “hub” nature of the science.

A master’s degree (two years beyond a bachelor’s) allows one to teach in a twoyear institution and, in many states, become licensed as a therapist. Master’s level
psychologists work in the healthy industry and education fields, including school
psychologists who may assess students for academic and psychological service
needs and/or counsel students.

A doctoral degree (2-5 years beyond a master’s) allows one to teach and conduct
research at colleges and universities (less than 28%), work as therapists (40%), or
other fields such as business, government, and schools.
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2. Doctoral-Level Psychology
 Those pursing a doctoral degree typically focus on a particular perspective, taking
coursework in their area of specialization.

Not all people who receive a doctorate in psychology do clinical work.

Doctoral students who want to do clinical work have internships in clinical
settings and undergo supervised training prior to government-regulated licensure
that adds another year to their graduate studies.

Psychologists differ from psychiatrists in that they are not medical doctors and,
typically, cannot prescribe medication (currently only allowed in New Mexico
and Louisiana).
The Measure of Mind: Research Methods of
Psychology
3. What Is Science?
 Science requires evidence, as opposed to “faith,” which is belief that is based on
trust and does not require evidence.

Science comes from the Latin scientia, which means “knowledge.”

Science refers specifically to a specific way of learning about reality through
systematic observation and experimentation.
4. The Scientific Mindset
 Science relies on objectivity. Objectivity means that conclusions are based on
facts, without the influence of personal emotions or biases.

Subjectivity refers to conclusions that reflect a personal point of view.

Observation of another human being is typically subjective—personal accounts of
the same event can vary greatly, based on how the facts are processed by an
individual.

Scientific methods promote objectivity and help prevent biased, subjective
observations from distorting the facts.

Scientific methods use systematic observation as opposed to “hit or miss”
observation. The latter involves making conclusions based on the events and
people around us, which is not necessarily representative of larger society.
Science relies on observable, repeatable evidence. Every day, observation often
ignores evidence, particularly that which does not support firm beliefs.

New data is always contributing to our understanding. One tenet of scientific
literacy is that scientific knowledge is always open to improvement and may
never be absolutely certain.
5. The Gold Standard
The “gold standard” for demonstrating the objective effects of a substance or
treatment is the double-blind procedure.
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
Participants do not know if they are taking a real substance or a placebo. This
controls for any effects of participant’s expectations.

A placebo is an inactive substance that cannot be distinguished from real,
active substances.

The researcher does not know if a participant has been given a real substance
or a placebo until the experiment is over, so as not to bias the researcher.

Using the double blind procedure allows the research to indicate whether
changes in the research subject can be attributed to the substance (or
treatment), or if changes are not significantly different than when taking the
placebo.
Exercise 2.6: The Gold Standard
Consider a psychology study that employs a double-blind procedure and one that doesn’t.
(Dr. Reyes’participation in a Depression During Pregnancy study at Stanford.)
Reflections:
 What are some of the difficulties in conducting double-blind studies in
psychology?
 What might be some of the ethical considerations?
The Importance of Critical Thinking
The Importance of Critical Thinking
 Critical thinking is the ability to thinking clearly, rationally, and independently.
It is essential to scientific reasoning.

A critical thinker can follow logical arguments, identify faulty reasoning,
prioritize ideas by importance, and apply logic to forming opinions, attitudes, and
values.

To develop the skill of critical thinking, apply the following questions to evaluate
new information you encounter:


What am I being asked to believe or accept?

What evidence supports this position?

Are there other ways this evidence could be interpreted?

What other evidence would I need to evaluate these alternatives?

What are the most reasonable conclusions?
Signs that one is not thinking critically include:

Preferring to be given the answer, rather than figuring out a problem
yourself

Preferring to rely on gut feelings about decisions, rather than on reasoning
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
Being unwilling to change your mind in the face of contradictory
evidence, or refusing to review mistakes

Resenting criticism of your ideas
The Scientific Enterprise
1. Scientific Theories
 Theories are sets of facts and relationships between facts that can be used to
explain and predict phenomena. Scientists seek to develop and test theories.

Scientific theories should not be confused with colloquial uses of the term to
mean “guess” or a hypothetical situation. The best theories generate new
predictions as well as explain and organize facts.

A scientific prediction is typically given in a rigorous, mathematical form that
allows the scientist to state that under a certain set of circumstances, certain
outcomes are likely to occur.

A hypothesis is an educated guess that must be falsifiable and testable.

Falsifiable means that you can imagine situations that demonstrate your
hypothesis to be false.

Testable means you can evaluate the hypothesis using known scientific methods.

Hypotheses can never be proven to be true because future information and
methods may show the hypotheses to be false. All we can do is determine when a
hypothesis is false (and thus discarded).

Testing and developing a theory:

Generate a hypothesis (e.g., a causal mechanism or mathematical relation).

Formulate a testable prediction.

Conduct systematic observation (experimental or non-experimental).

Reject or accept the hypothesis. Accepted hypotheses contribute to the
theory and help generate new hypotheses.
2. Evaluating Hypotheses
 After developing a falsifiable and testable hypothesis, scientists collect data to
evaluate the hypothesis.

Science is a collaborative enterprise—new hypotheses are generated based on
previous work, and the scientific community is called upon to scrutinize scientific
work through a process of peer review. It is added to the existing body of
information only if other experts in the field validate the study’s importance.

Other scientists attempt to reproduce study results by replicating these studies. If
data is replicated, it is quickly accepted into the body of research.
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS CONDUCT RESEARCH?
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How Do Psychologists Conduct Research?
 Psychologists use a variety of methods; descriptive, correlational, and
experimental methods are examples.
 Descriptive methods (surveys, case studies, and observations) are often the
starting place for a new research question.
 Correlational methods help describe how two variables relate to one another.
 Experimental methods allow psychologists to test their hypotheses and to
determine the causes of behavior.
 Each method has strengths and weaknesses and requires different types of
statistical analysis.
 Scientists have greater confidence in their results when they are repeated using
multiple methods.
Descriptive Methods
 Case study: An in-depth analysis of behavior of one person or a small number of
people. Interviews, background records, observation, tests and brain imaging can
be used to provide information for the case study.
o Advantages: Can be used when large numbers of participants are not available or a
particular participant possesses unique characteristics; can use gathered data to
generate and test hypotheses.
o Disadvantages: Is limited in generalizing results to larger populations
 Naturalistic observation: An in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural
setting.
o
Advantages: By looking at a larger group, strengthens ability to be applicable to the
general population; able to observe people in their everyday settings, rather than in a
lab
o
Disadvantages: May alter behavior if people are aware they are being observed;
observing while people are not aware raises ethical concerns
 Survey: Questionnaire that allows researchers to ask many people questions
about their attitudes and behavior.
o
Advantages: Provides a lot of useful information at a low cost; may have generalized
results when given to a large sample or subset representative of a population being
studied
o Disadvantages: Uses self–report, so responses and results can be influenced by
people’s desire to appear socially appropriate
Correlational Methods
 Correlational methods: Measure the direction and strength of relationship
between two variables
 Variable: Factors that have values and can vary like a person’s height or weight
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
o
o
o
o
o
A measure of a variable expresses how much of the variable you have observed.
After measures of each variable are obtained, they are compared by conducting a
statistical analysis of the results
 Three potential outcomes: Positive, negative, or zero correlations.
Positive correlation: High levels of one variable are associated with high levels of the
other variable (e.g., height and weight)
Negative correlations: High levels of one variable are associated with low levels of
the other variable (e.g., alcohol consumption and GPA)
Zero correlation: Two variables do not have any systematic relationship with each
other (knowing the variable of one does not tell you anything about the variable with
other) (e.g., crime rates and full moon)
 Correlation is not causation: We can know there is a relationship between the
two variables but we cannot know if one variable causes the other.
The relationship may be caused by a third variable
The variables may be influencing each other simultaneously
 Why use it?
There are times where it would be Impossible or unethical to use experimental
methods with humans and ask them to place themselves at risk, but we can draw
correlations between existing behaviors in people and their functioning or health.
Experimental Methods: When conducting an experiment, the researcher has a great deal
of control over the variables and context. Experiments allow researchers to talk about
cause.
 Begins designing an experiment with a hypothesis: “If I do this, then that will
happen.” To test the hypothesis , the researcher manipulates or modifies one or
more variables and observes changes in others
 The variable controlled by the experimenter is the independent variable.
 The dependent variable is the observed result of the manipulation of the
independent variable.
 Participants get assigned to one of two groups:
o Control group: The group that experiences all experimental procedures with the
exception of exposure to the independent variable
o Experimental group: The group that does experience the independent variable
 To prevent individual differences from masking or distorting the effects of the
independent variable, participants are randomly assigned to the control or
experimental group. Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to
either group.
 Confounding variables: Variables that are irrelevant to the hypothesis being
tested, such as individual differences among participants that can alter
conclusions
 Limitations:
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o Experiments can be artificial; people may change their behavior if they know they are
participants in a study. Variables may also not truly represent real-life variables.
o Making a study realistic has ethical challenges in that it could physically or
psychologically harm participants.
o Independent and dependent variables must be operationalized; that is, they can be
defined and implemented in a concrete fashion. Different researchers operationalize
variables in different ways. Thus, methods can vary widely from study to study.
Meta-analyses: A statistical analysis of many previous experiments on the same topic.
Typically it proves a clearer picture of the phenomenon being studied than
HOW DO WE STUDY THE EFFECTS OF TIME?
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Methods
Cross-sectional study: Gathers groups of people of varying ages and assess age-related
changes. Data are simultaneously obtained from people of differing ages.

Advantages: The study is looking at a slice of time; subjects are not followed
over long periods of time
 Disadvantages: Cohort effects—there may be generational effects of having
been born at a particular point in history, which could confound the data (e.g.,
kids who never lived without the Internet might respond differently to violent
video games than today’s 40-year-olds for reasons other than age)
1. Longitudinal study: A single group of people is observed over a long period of time.


Advantages: Reduces cohort effects
Disadvantages: Expensive; time-consuming; participants may drop out due to
lack of incentive or moves (impacting the size and how representative a sample
you have)
2. Mixed longitudinal design: Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods.
Participants from a range of ages are observed for a limited period of time
(approximately five years).


Advantages: Faster and less expensive than longitudinal method; avoids some of
the cohort effects of pure cross-sectional design
Disadvantages: Still retains some of the disadvantages of each (e.g., drop out
problem; still has higher costs and time associated with it)
Imagine that you are conducting a study on the effects of 9/11 on school-age
children who lived in lower Manhattan. Which would you choose: a crosssectional, longitudinal, or mixed study design? Why? What would be the benefits
and drawbacks of selecting this method?
HOW DO WE DRAW CONCLUSIONS FROM DATA?
15
Lecture: Reliability and Validity
The Importance of Valid and Reliable Measures:
 Validity: The instrument measures what it was designed to measure. To check
validity, determine if it correlates with established, existing measures of the
same concept.
 Reliability: Refers to the consistency of a measure.
o Test-retest reliability: Scores are likely to stay the same when re-tested by the same
measure
o Inter-rater reliability: Consistency in the interpretation of a measure across different
observers
Reliability is not the same thing as validity. You can obtain a consistent result
(reliability) that lacks meaning (validity), but a measure cannot be valid without also
being reliable
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics help researchers organize individual units of data into
meaningful patterns and summaries, literally “describing” the data.

Descriptive statistics only tell us about the sample we have studied (to apply to
the general population requires other methods)

Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, and Mode
o Mean: The numerical average of a set of scores, computed by adding all scores
together and dividing by the number of scores.
o Median: Represents the half-way mark in a data set, with half of the scores falling
above and half falling below. It is less affected by extreme scores or outliers than the
mean, which averages them in. It is useful when you have some very extreme scores
that would impact the mean, making it a poor “summary” of the data.
o Mode: Occurs to the most frequently occurring score, and is easy to determine from
looking at a histogram.
Descriptive Statistics (continued)

Variability refers to how clustered the scores are.

Standard Deviation (SD) tells you how tightly a group of scores cluster around
the mean. A smaller SD means that more scores are found closer to the mean and
a larger SD means that scores are more spread out away from the mean. To
calculate SD, subtract each score from the mean, square each difference, add the
squares, divide by the total number of scores, and take the square root of the
result.

Normal Curve: A figure that illustrates how scores fall in any given population:
68% of the population falls within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% falls
within two standard deviations, and 99% of the population falls within three
16
standard deviations. This allows one to know where a score falls relative to the
general population

Descriptive Statistics with Two Variables
o When looking at the relationship between multiple variables, you can illustrate with a
scatter plot. Each dot represents the intersection between scores on two variables of
interest (e.g., shoe size and height).
o You can compute the relationship using a correlation coefficient, which ranges from
+1.00 to -1.00.
o Zero correlation: The two variables have no systematic relationship at all. The
farther the correlation is from zero, the stronger the relationship.
o Positive Correlation: When one factor occurs, the other factor is very likely to occur.
o Negative Correlation: When one factor increases, the other decreases.
Inferential Statistics: Statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend
conclusions from samples to larger populations, i.e., what the results might mean more
generally if we find a “difference between two or more groups”
Statistical significance: In order to declare that an intervention shows an effect, pr that
some difference between groups is “real” it has to be statistically significant, that is, there
is only a five out of 100 chance that an observed difference is possible by chance
( p < .05 as the “gold standard” here) . We say that statistically significant means “Not
likely due to chance!”
Exercise: The Home Field Advantage
To get a better sense of how inferential statistics “work” in a everyday intuitive example like baseball (We
won’t actually compute any at this time) watch William Spaniels
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PE-W1heMZlU
RESEARCH ETHICS
GUIDELINES FOR USING HUMAN AND ANIMAL
PARTICIPANTS IN RESEARCH.
1. Research Ethics
 Institutional Review Board (IRB): Researchers working in universities and
other agencies receiving federal funding must receive the approval of IRBs for
human participant research and institutional animal care and use committees
(IACUCs) before conducting research.
17
o They must include one member of the community outside of the institution or agency
to ensure the research is not conducted in secret.
o They are guided by federal regulations and research ethics endorsed by professional
societies (e.g., American Psychological Association)
o These procedures do not extend to institutions that aren’t federally funded such a
private corporations.
2. Human Participants: At the core of ethical standards for human research is that
participation is voluntary.
 Reasonable Incentives: Pay or extra credit for participation must not be so
extreme that they become a primary motivation for prospective volunteers.
 Informed Consent: Researchers must provide prospective participants with a
form that details the purpose of the study and what types of procedures will
occur.
o This is sometimes complicated by whether the person is limited in his/her ability to
provide informed consent (often for the same reasons that person is being studied,
e.g., children, people with schizophrenia, or those with late-stage Alzheimer’s). The
IRB evaluates these ethical dilemmas case-by-case.
 Do No Harm: Researchers must take care that no harm comes to participants.
o Sometimes, mild deception is necessary to conduct a study (blinding the participant to
the true purpose of the study so that person won’t alter behavior). Afterwards,
researchers must take care to debrief the participant.
o Treatment must not be withheld: Consider the Tuskegee experiment in which 400,
impoverished African-American men who contracted syphilis were denied penicillin
in order to study the progression of the disease.
 Private and Confidential
o Participants must have control over the degree to which their information is shared
(e.g., medical records)
o Confidentiality refers to the participants’ rights to not have their information revealed
to others without obtaining consent from the participant. It is maintained by
substituting codes for names and locking away data.
Animal Subjects: Use of animals as research subjects is still hotly debated.
 Prevalence: Currently 7-8% of the published psychology research in journals
involves the use of animals as research subjects; 90% of animals used are
rodents and birds; and 5% or less involves monkeys and other primates. Use
of cats and dogs is rare.
 Necessity: Research using animals must demonstrate a clear purpose, such as
benefiting health of humans or other animals
 Care: Animals must receive excellent housing, food, and veterinary care.
 Suffering: Pain and suffering must be minimized. The APA provides
guidelines for use of pain, surgery, stress, and deprivation with animal
18
Lecture Lens: Genes
Objective
 LO1: Analyze the role of genes as the building blocks of human “nature,”
distinguishing among genotypes, gene expression, and phenotypes.
1. Introduction
 Despite the fact that two people might share the same DNA, as in the case of
identical twins, differences develop between them (e.g., amount of weight gain,
physical and psychological disorders, talents, etc.)

Genes can be turned on and off.
o
During gestation, those that that are turned on build the proteins needed to
form a particular cell.
o Interaction with the environment can turn a gene on or off.

Psychologists no longer debate about whether we are a product of nature
(genetics) or nurture (environment); we are a product of the interaction of the two.

Example: In mice, the injection of bisphenol-A (BPA), found in plastics and food
cans, turns on the Agouti gene, leading to yellow fur and obesity.
Lecture Lens: Nature and Nurture
Objective
 LO1: Analyze the role of genes as the building blocks of human “nature,”
distinguishing among genotypes, gene expression, and phenotypes.
1. Why We Say Nature and Nurture Are Intertwined
 Nature: the contributions of heredity or innate predispositions to our physical
structure and behavior

Nurture: the results of our experience with the environment

Earlier psychologists and philosophers debated nature versus nurture and the
relative contributions of one or the other to a particular trait or behavior.

Francis Galton (1869), Darwin’s cousin, is credited with being the first to describe
the contrast between contributions made by heredity and environment as “nature
v. nurture.” He believed that intelligence was inherited.
1. Genetic Variation
 Having the same biological parents as your sibling does not guarantee that you
will have the same phenotype OR genotype.
19

When a parent’s cell divides to make an egg (ovum) or sperm cell, each resulting
cell has 23 chromosomes, one from each of the parent’s original 23 pairs. Thus, a
person can produce an egg or sperm cell with 8,388,608 different combinations of
chromosomes.

Note that each parent is a source of genetic variation. When these two sources
combine, the result is even more genetic variation in their offspring.
Exercise 3.7: Ponder Pair Share – Siblings
(Estimated In-Class Time: 5 minutes)
Students should first think about the following question individually and then partner
with another student to discuss.
 Do you have a sibling? If so, in what ways do you resemble each other in
behavior, personality, or physique? In which ways are you different?
 If you do not have a sibling, choose of a set of siblings whom you know well to
answer the preceding questions.
IV. WHAT IS THE FIELD OF BEHAVIORAL GENETICS?
Lecture Lens: Behavioral Genetics
Objective
 LO3: Assess the importance of heritability estimates and epigenetic analyses in
the field of behavioral genetics.
Behavioral Genetics
 Behavioral genetics is the scientific study of the relationships between genetics
and behavior in an attempt to explain the individual differences between people
and between our species and others.
o
We share 100% of our genes, but not 100% of our alleles, giving us each a
unique genome—at least three million variations in our DNA.
o

We also share genes with other organisms. However, it is the genes we do
not share that distinguish us. The FoxP2 gene that is implicated in human
language ability is an example—mutations of this gene are associated with
speech and language disorders.
Heritability is the statistical likelihood that variations observed across individuals
in a population are due to genetics.
o
Heritability is expressed as a ratio of the amount of variation observed in a
population due to genetics, relative to the total amount of variation due to
both genetic and environmental influences.
20
o
If genes play no part in producing a phenotypical difference between
people, then heritability is 0.0 (e.g., the heart organ).
o
If genes are completely responsible for phenotypical differences between
individuals, heritability is 1.0 (e.g., Huntington’s Disease).
o
o
o
Heritability of most traits is between .30 and .60.
o
Adoption studies allow researchers to assess the relative impact of
heritability.
Heritability always refers to populations, not individuals.
Heritability must be assessed with the environment in mind. If the
environment is held constant (no differences in environment for
individuals), heritability of a trait will be very high. In variable
environments, heritability is lower.
Lecture Lens: Evolution
Objective
 LO4: Analyze the roles played by mutation, natural selection, migration, and
genetic drift as mechanisms of evolution.
3. How Evolution Occurs

Evolution: The descent with modification from a common ancestor.

Our genome is the product of millions of years of evolution.

Charles Darwin, in his book Origin of the Species, proposed that species evolve or
change from one form to the next in an orderly manner.

Natural selection: The process, as described by Darwin, by which the pressures
of survival and reproduction in the wild determine which animals breed and pass
on their genes.

Both genetics and our expanding fossil record support Darwin’s theory, which did
not have an understanding of genetics and could not account for the variability he
observed in a particular trait.
21

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) first discovered ways to outline and predict the
inheritance of traits in his research on pea plants.
Exercise 3.15: Lecture Extension – Exploring Evolution
(Estimated Out-of-Class Time: 15 minutes for the game)
Encourage student to try out this entertaining game with a partner, which illustrates
the concept of natural selection:
“Who Wants to Live a Million Years” by Robert M. Hazen and James Trefil.
(Swarm Interactive, Inc.). The Discovery Science Channel.
http://science.discovery.com/interactives/literacy/darwin/darwin.html. [Accessed
01 June 2012].
For high-quality teaching materials on evolution, visit the UC Berkeley Web site:
“Undergraduate Teachers’ Lounge,” Understanding Evolution. University of
California Museum of Paleontology.
http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/teach/undergradlounge.php [Accessed 01
June 2012].
4. Mechanisms of Evolution

Evolution can result from mutation, migration, and genetic drift.

Mutations are errors that occur when DNA is replicated.

o The average human baby is born with approximately 130 new mutations,
the majority of which do not have an effect.
o Alleles that provide an advantage spread throughout the population; those
that do not, disappear.
Migration occurs when organisms move from one geographic location to the
next.
o Traits that are advantageous in the new environment survive; those that
are not disappear.
Genetic drift produces change from one generation to the next through chance or
accident.
 Fitness: The ability of one genotype to reproduce relative to other genotypes
o Natural selection favors the organism with the highest degree of fitness.
Fitness does not refer to a particular characteristic, such as speed. Rather, it
describes the interaction between traits and the environment in which they
exist. What makes one fit at one point in history or geographic location may
not make one fit at others. Recall our slides on aggression in two cultural
tribes and whether Being “Very aggressive” is “Good” or “Bad”
evolutionarily speaking.
22
2. Adaptation refers to either the process or the result of change due to natural selection.
 A species may respond to an environment by adapting; the features of the new
phenotype are referred to as adaptations.
 Adaptations can be behaviors or anatomical features.
 Adaptations appear to be compromises between costs and benefits.
3. Evolution of the Human Brain
 The human brain is a relatively recent development in history, appearing 100,000
to 200,000 years ago.
 Hominin: The early species believed to be related to humans who walked on two
feet and had large brains.
 Over a seven-million-year period of hominin evolution, brains grew rapidly,
indicative that intelligence was essential to survival. Intelligence was necessary to
avoid predators and navigate through territories, as well as to engage in social life.
 The major factor distinguishing human intelligence from that of other species is
the complexity of social behavior supported by our brains, including:
o Distinguishing between friend and foe
o Imitation of the behavior of others
o Use of language to communicate
o Recognizing and anticipating the emotions, thoughts, and behaviors of others
o Maintaining relationships
o Cooperation
4. The Contemporary Human Brain
 We have not been able to explain why advances such as agriculture, literacy, and
urbanization have not resulted in increases in brain size.
 Lack of brain growth may be attributed to the following:
o We may have reached equilibrium between our need for intelligence and the
costs of a big brain, in terms of nutrients (15% of the body’s resources but
only 2% of our body weight).
o Brain size may be limited by the dimensions of the birth canal.
 The brain does continue to evolve:
o Genes involved with brain development changed as recently as 6,000 years
ago.
o IQ test scores have increased over the last 100 years; this may be attributable
to good nutrition and education.
HOW DOES EVOLUTION INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR?
1. Evolutionary Psychology: The branch of psychology that conceives of behavior as
having had advantages in survival and reproduction to our ancestors.

Born out of the work of Charles Darwin on evolution and William James on
functionalism
23

Explains how patterns of human behavior have been shaped by evolution
2. Origins of Social Behavior


Many factors are believed to influence social behavior, including mating,
availability of resources, exposure to predators, and competition.
Advantages for Survival and Reproduction:
o Whenever an individual comes in contact with others, the individuals may
or may not benefit from the interaction, which impacts their survival and
reproductive success.
o If they cooperate, both parties benefit.
o If selfishness is expressed, the selfish individual benefits, while the other
does not.
o If spite is expressed, neither individual benefits.
o If altruism is expressed, one sacrifices oneself for another’s benefit.
3. Altruism: The evolutionary benefit of altruism occurs when sacrificing your own life
to save a blood relative (e.g., the young) might increase the likelihood that your
alleles are passed on to subsequent generations. Also, sacrificing self for a common
good enabled tribes to be victorious over others.
 Reciprocal altruism: When one behaves altruistically towards another who is not
related because it is likely that the other individual will do the same in the future.
It typically exists where individuals are in close contact with each other (e.g., a
community).
 For a gene to survive in subsequent generations, not only must the carrier of the
gene survive, but the carrier’s offspring must survive to reproduce as well. We
depend on social structures for survival, particularly since the young are
dependent for so long.
4. Sexual selection is Darwin’s term for the development of traits that help an
individual compete for mates.

Parental investment:
o Sexual selection is influenced by the different investments in parenting made
by males and females.
o In many species, including humans, the female bears the majority of costs of
reproduction including pregnancy, birth, and nurturance. Thus, females are
more limited than males in terms of how many offspring they can produce and
must do what they can to ensure each child is as healthy and well-nurtured as
possible.
o Males, by contrast, have the capacity to father many more children, ensuring
that their genes are passed along. Though this may appear to support
promiscuity in men, a male that abandons his offspring puts their
survival at risk.
24
o
A mother can maximize her child’s chance of survival by
choosing a father that will pass along healthy genes and
will participate in childrearing. Women can make predictions about
this by looking at a man’s face: men with facial features correlated with high
testosterone are viewed as less likely to participate in childrearing than those
correlated with low testosterone (Roney, Hanson, Durante, & Maestripieri,
2006).

Traits possibly influenced by sexual selection
o Intrasexual selection: Members of one sex compete with each other for access
to the other sex. Features that lend a male success in this competition could
become sexually selected (e.g., antlers in deer).
o Intersexual selection: Characteristics of one sex that attract the other might
become sexually selected (e.g., fancy plumage in peacocks; humor and
vocabulary in people!).
The Biological Mind: (The Brain)
“A Conversation with Neurologist V.S. Ramachandran.” (July 14, 2009). Charlie
Rose. PBS.
http://www.charlierose.com/guest/view/6694 (29:00) [Accessed 04 June 2012].
Know the following definition of reductionism from the textbook (Page 128):
“Reductionism in science is defined as the explanation of complex things as sums
of simpler things.”
Explain how the classroom investigation of the biological mind will require
reductionistic thinking.
1.
Watch the first two minutes of Charlie Rose’s interview with neurologist V.S.
Ramachandran, and consider the quote:
“Even though it is common knowledge these days, it never ceases to amaze me
that all the richness of our mental life, all of our feelings, our emotions, our
thoughts, our ambitions, our love life, our religious sentiments, and what each of
us regards as his own intimate private self is simply the activity of these little
specks of jelly in your head, in your brain.”
Reflections



What is your reaction to Ramachandran’s statement?
What do you think makes you, you?
How is reductionism useful for understanding behavior and who we are as
human beings? What are its limitations?
25

Think of an example of how reductionism can either be harmful or helpful
from what you’ve read or seen in the news.
Biopsychology

Biological psychology is a rich, interdisciplinary field of study that combines the
methods and theories of psychology with those of biology, physiology,
biochemistry, the neurosciences, and other related fields.
1. Where Mental Processes Reside

The idea that specific mental processes are located in various parts of the brain
first came about in the 1800s when the German physician Franz Gall invented
phrenology.

Phrenologists believed that the pattern of bumps on an individual’s skull
correlated with his or her personality traits and abilities.

Gall examined many different brains from different species and concluded that
higher mental functions corresponded with brain size. While this approach is
somewhat flawed, he did demonstrate that animals with larger brains tended to
have more complex and intelligent behavior, convincing scientists that the brain
was the center of mental processes.

Through observation, Gall identified areas of the brain that he believed
corresponded with 37 different traits, including “amativeness” (sexual drive),
musical ability, verbal memory, and hope, among others.

People used phrenology to screen job applicants, presidential candidates, and
prospective marital partners.
2. Contemporary Approaches to The Brain

John Hughlings Jackson (1835-1911) proposed that the nervous system is
organized as a hierarchy, with progressively more complicated behaviors being
managed by more recently evolved and complex structures, based on his
observations of patients with seizure disorders. Paul Maclean’s Triune Brain
Concept elaborated on this work through 1990.

The Twentieth Century marked an explosion of knowledge of the nervous system,
with the 1990s being designated by the U.S. Congress as “The Decade of the
Brain.” Scientists can now map basic brain functions such as language and
memory and are now investigating more complex behaviors like morality,
empathy, and understanding of “self.”
The development of brain imaging techniques such as PET and fMRI now allow
scientists to observe the activity of the living brain while people are engaged in various
tasks and behaviors.
How Do Neurons Communicate? In an Electrical and
Chemical Langauge
26
Parts of a Neuron-See Illustrations
“Neuron Structure.” (August 25, 2008). GeneEd.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9EMpPJM1U-s (00:39) [Accessed 04 June
2012].
o “Neurons, Synapse and Information Transfer” by Larry Keeley. (October
5, 2011). Physioviva Educational Videos.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXDU7sBcer8 (14:46) [Accessed 04
June 2012].
Note: play only the first 1:30 of this video.
Electrical Signaling
o A neuron is a sophisticated communication and information processing
system that receives input, evaluates it, and decides whether to transmit
any information to neurons downstream.
o The first step takes place in the signaling neuron’s axon. The neuron
generates an electrical signal known as an action potential. The signal
travels the length of the axon from its junction with the cell body to its
terminal.
o The second step takes place between two neurons. The arrival of an action
potential at the axon terminal of the first neuron signals the release of
chemical messengers, which float across the extracellular fluid in the
synapse and separate it from the second neuron.
o The third step is the stimulation of the second neuron. These chemicals
influence the likelihood that the second neuron will respond with its own
action potential, sending the message along.
o A neuron that is not processing information is “at rest.” When a cell is at
rest, the exterior of the axon is more positively charged than the interior of
the axon in a state known as the resting potential.
o Neurons can respond to incoming chemical signals by becoming either
depolarized or hyperpolarized. When a neuron depolarizes, it means that
the difference between the electrical charge of the extracellular and
intracellular recordings is decreasing. Hyperpolarization means that the
difference is increasing.
o When a neuron is depolarized by sufficient input, it will reach a threshold
for producing an action potential.
o When the threshold is reached, channels open, allowing sodium ions in
the fluid outside the neuron to rush into the neuron. Because sodium ions
carry a positive electrical charge, this creates a more positive charge inside
the neuron. At the peak of the action potential, the charges have
completely reversed from the resting state.
o Near the peak of the action potential, channels that allow positively
charged potassium ions to move across the membrane begin to open, and
27
potassium begins to leave the cell. As the interior loses these positively
charged potassium ions, the charge inside the neuron becomes negative.
o As the neuron returns to its resting state, it requires a refractory period.
During this time, the cell is unable or unlikely to respond to further input
by producing another action potential.
o Action potentials do not affect the entire axon all at once. The process first
takes place in a very small segment of the axon where the axon connects
to the cell body. Then the electrical signal is propagated down the length
of the axon to the axon terminal, where it will initiate the release of
chemical messengers.
o In an unmyelinated axon, action potentials occur in a step-by-step
manner, from one small section of the axon to the next, adjacent section,
down the entire length of the axon. In contrast, action potentials in
myelinated axons are formed only at the sections of the axon membrane
between adjacent segments of myelin, known as nodes of Ranvier.
o “Action Potential.” DNATube. http://www.dnatube.com/video/1310/Actionpotential (2:17) [Accessed 04 June 2012].
o “Action Potential.” (Summer 2005). Life Sciences-HHMI Outreach Program.
http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential_short.swf
(≈04:00). [Accessed 04 June 2012].
Podcast – Neurons That Fire Together, Wire Together
“Brain Bugs: Cognitive Flaws that Shape our Lives” by Dean Buonoman. (July 14,
2011). Fresh Air. NPR. http://www.npr.org/2011/07/14/137552517/brain-bugs-cognitiveflaws-that-shape-our-lives (25:56).[Accessed 04 June 2012].
Psychologists explain that “neurons that fire together, wire together” and new “nodes” of
understanding are built upon previous understanding through neuronal activity (starting at
05:06).
o
“ How Neurotransmission Works.” (2010). The Brian: Understanding
Neurobiology. National Institutes for Health. http://scienceeducation.nih.gov/supplements/nih2/addiction/activities/lesson2_neurotransmi
ssion.htm (≈02:00) [Accessed 04 June 2012].
(You only need
to know the neurotransmitters for Test 1, not Disorders
and Drugs, though these may help you memorize)
Neurotransmitters, Disorders & Psychotropic Drugs
28
Neurotransmitter
Disorder
Drug
Acetylcholine (Ach)
Involved in:
Arousal, Memory,
Motivation, and Movement
Deficiency: Alzheimer’s Disease
Symptoms:
Forgetting recent
events/conversations, difficulty
solving problems, misplacing items,
forgetting the name of familiar
objects, difficulty performing tasks
such as play complex games, getting
lost on familiar roads, disorientation
to time and place
Ach Agonists
Alzheimer’s Drugs
(Aricept, Exelon)
Serotonin (5-HT)
Involved in:
Sleep, Mood, Pain Appetite,
and Impulsivity
Deficiency: Depression
Symptoms:
Low mood, loss of pleasure in usual
activities, trouble sleeping/excess
sleeping, change in appetite with
weight loss/gain, tiredness, feeling of
worthlessness, feelings of
hopelessness, difficulty concentrating,
avoiding usual activities, thoughts of
death or suicide
5-HT Agonists
SSRIs (Prozac, Zoloft),
MAOIs, BuSpar
Dopamine
Involved in:
Movement and Reward
Deficiency: Parkinson’s Disease
Symptoms:
Slowing of automatic movements,
difficulty swallowing/drooling,
impaired balance and walking,
movement problems, shaking/tremors
in limbs at rest, rigid/still muscles,
slowed speech
Excess: Schizophrenia
Symptoms:
Flat affect, delusions, hallucinations,
extremely remote mental associations,
bizarre behaviors, social isolation
DA Agonists
Parkinson’s Drugs:
levodopa;
Amphetamines for
ADHD and Narcolepsy
DA Antagonists
Schizophrenia Drugs:
haloperidol
GABA
Involved in:
Sleep (calming) and
Movement
Deficiency: Anxiety
Symptoms: Excessive worry,
difficulty concentrating, fatigue,
irritability, problems falling/staying
asleep, restlessness
GABA Agonists
Benzodiazepines:
Diazepam (Valium),
Lorazepam (Ativan),
Alprazolam (Xanax)
Alcohol
How the Nervous System is Organized
29




The nervous system is divided into two major components, the central nervous
system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which are
technically not separate structures but made out of one continuous length of
tissue.
The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch out from the
CNS all over the body.
Nerves of the CNS are encased in bone; nerves of the PNS are not.
History of the Brain
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The first neural nets appeared 700 million years ago in primitive animals; nerves
throughout the body had equal importance—the locus of neural activity was not in
the head.
Brains did not appear in heads until animals formed skeletons 500 million years
ago.
The first human brain didn’t appear until 7 million years ago.
The current model of the brain came about in the last 100,000-200,000 years.
The social complexities and demands of the human species contributed to the
rapid increase in human brain size and intelligence
Brain Labeling
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The brainstem, limbic region, and cortex comprise the “triune brain,”
(Concept of Neurologist Paul Maclean 1990) which has developed in layers
over the course of evolution. It is a basic and simplified yet powerful
organizing concept for understanding the brain and for self development. (See
below for “Reptile Brain”, “Mammal” Brain, and Human Brain.)
The brain is also divided into two hemispheres, left and right. The front lobe
or prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for “executive functioning,” the
conscious focus of attention, impulse control, planning, and decision making,
deliberated judgments, creativity, deliberated emotion and motivation.
The parietal lobe, which integrates sensory information at the lower top of
your head.
occipital lobe, the part of the brain responsible for vision, is locate d at the
back of the head.
The sides are the temporal lobes, which are involved in hearing.
Inside the temporal lobes are the hippocampus, which is associated with
memory, and the amygdala, which is involved in emotional reactions such as
anger or fear.
Inside the brainstem is the medulla, which regulates involuntary movements
like your heartbeat and breathing. The reticular formation can also be found
here, which is involved in the regulation of arousal.
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Inside the basal ganglia, which are associated with initiating movement and
controlling fine motor activity; the thalamus, which sends messages between
the lower brain centers and the cerebral cortex; and the hypothalamus, which
is involved in the regulation of appetite, thirst, emotion, and body
temperature. Along with the pituitary gland, it plays a role in controlling the
endocrine system and hormonal drives
The Triune Brain Concept
1. The Spinal Cord, Brainstem, and Cerebellum, (THE
REPTILE BRAIN)
 Spinal cord: extends from lowest part of brain to the middle of your back. It
serves as the conduit of information flowing between the brain and the body.
 Brainstem: located at the base of the brain; supports the cerebral hemispheres.
 Medulla: merging with the brainstem, it contains bundles of axons that travel to
and from higher levels of the brain. It is responsible for heart rate and blood
pressure.
 Pons: located above the medulla, it is involved in the management of sleep,
arousal, and facial expressions.
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 Cerebellum: connected to the rest of the brain via the pons, it is essential for
maintaining balance and coordination.
 Midbrain: sits above the pons and contains a number of structures involved in
sensory reflexes, movement, and pain.
 Reticular formation: runs the length of the brainstem’s core from the upper
medulla into the midbrain and participates in the control of mood, arousal, and
sleep.
2. Subcortical Structures, (The Mammal Brain)
Subcortical structures lie below the cerebral cortex (the wrinkled outermost covering
of the cerebral hemispheres). Early anatomists collected some of these subcortical
structures into a limbic system, also known as the “emotional brain.” We now know
that they have functions beyond emotions but the Mammalian analogy is still very
accurate when thinking how the sense of self and self-control development mature
over the 20’ through 40’s for many people.
Thalamus: at the center of the brain, it receives information from our sensory system
and “relays” these messages to the cerebral cortex. It’s the traffic cop.
 Basal ganglia: a collection of large structures involved with voluntary movement
that curve around to cup the thalamus. The basal ganglia receive input from all
areas of the cerebral cortex and from motor structures located in the brainstem. In
turn, the basal ganglia send information to the cortex.
 Hypothalamus: a collection of structures involved with motivation and
homeostasis, or the regulation of body functions such as temperature, thirst,
hunger, biological rhythms, and sexual activities.
 Hippocampus: a seahorse-shaped structure, essential to the formation of longterm memories.
 Cingulate cortex: a fold of tissue on the inner surface of each cerebral
hemisphere. The forward two-thirds participates in the control of the autonomic
nervous system, and has recently been found to play a role in decision-making,
emotion, anticipation of reward, and empathy. The rear third participates in
memory and visual processing.
 Amygdala: an almond-shaped structure deeply embedded in the temporal lobe.
The amygdala appears to have a role in identifying, remembering, and responding
to fear and aggression.
 Nucleus accumbens: an important part of the brain’s reward and pleasure circuitry
that originates in the midbrain and forms connections with many cortical
structures.
3. The Cerebral Cortex (THE HUMAN (DOLPHIN? BRAIN)
 Corpus callosum: a large bundle of axons that connects the two cerebral
hemispheres atop the brainstem.
 Cerebral cortex: the thin layer of cells covering the outer surface of the cerebral
hemispheres.
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 The brain is divided into four lobes: the frontal lobe (at front of brain), the
parietal lobe (directly behind the frontal lobe), the occipital lobe (the back of the
brain), and the temporal lobe (the sides of the brain). Because the brain is divided
into two hemispheres, it has pairs of each type of lobe, denoted right or left (e.g.,
right frontal lobe and left frontal lobe).
 sensation and action, language, and abstract thought.
 The frontal lobe:
o Broca’s area participates in the production of speech.
o Prefrontal cortex is involved with the planning of behavior, attention,
and judgment.
o Orbitofrontal cortex plays important roles in our emotional lives using
emotion to help inform decision making through a pathway that can be
strengthened with the emotional and memory areas. Values and Creativity
 The occipital lobe is home to the primary visual cortex, which processes input
from the eyes by responding to basic information about an image, such as its
borders, shading, color, and movement. One pathway connecting the occipital
lobe with the temporal lobe allows us to recognize objects we see, and a second
connects the occipital lobe with the parietal lobe, allowing us to process the
movement of objects.
 The temporal lobe is home to the primary auditory cortex, which allows us to
process incoming sounds. It also processes some higher visual system tasks,
including the recognition of objects and the faces of familiar people.
o Wernicke’s area is involved in the comprehension of speech.
 The parietal lobe is home to the primary somatosensory cortex, which helps us
localize touch, pain, and body position in space.
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BRAIN LATERALIZATION
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Lateralization is the localization of a function in either the right or left cerebral
hemisphere. Movement and sensation on the right side of the body is processed
by the left hemisphere, and movement and sensation on the left side of the body
by the right hemisphere.
In most people, the left hemisphere is specialized for use of language and logical
analysis. The right hemisphere, in contrast, is specialized for spatial processing
and other nonverbal tasks
Much of what we know of lateralization results from the careful analysis of splitbrain operations in the 1960s that were used to treat extreme cases of epileptic
seizures. Severing their corpus callosum produced no changes in personality,
intelligence, or speech.
For most people, language is lateralized to the left hemisphere, although a
minority of individuals either process language in the right hemisphere or both
hemispheres.
The lateralization of language is correlated, although not completely, with a
person’s handedness.
Other processes that are likely lateralized include mathematical computation and
logical reasoning (left hemisphere); music, spatial information, intuition, and the
visual arts (right hemisphere); and emotion. Activity in left hemisphere is
correlated with positive emotions, whereas activity in the right hemisphere is
correlated with negative emotions.
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One of the most popular myths about lateralization is the idea that individual
differences in artistic talent or logical thinking correlate with one’s dominant
hemisphere.
 Advantages of lateralization:
o May provide us with the ability to multitask
o May provide left-handed people (males twice as likely as females) with an
advantage in combat and athletic situations
o May have made language possible
Brenda Milner used the Wada test to determine hemisphere dominance for language,
and then correlated these results with people’s handedness.
Handedness exists along a continuum, with some people being ambidextrous, and
others having very strong preferences for using one hand or the other.
Video -Specialization
Watch the early video of the Wada test demonstrating how language is lateralized in the brain.
Brain Hemisphere Specializations. (September 29, 2007). Documentary with a demonstration by a
professor at the University of British Columbia. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBbilBZ46Eg
(04:25) [Accessed 04 June 2012].
Brain Recording and Imaging Techniques
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Initially, autopsy was the only method with which we understood brain
functioning; now there are far less invasive methods for investigating how our
brains work.
Electroencephalograph (EEG): records electrical activity in the brain
Computed tomography scan (CT scan): measures the reflection of a narrow Xray beam from various angles as it passes through the brain and other bodily
structures
Positron emission tomography (PET scan): provides a computerized image of the
brain and other organs at work
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): provides a detailed image of the soft matter
of the brain or other body parts
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): allows for assessment of
function and structures in the brain
Experimental Methods
 Lesioning: part of the brain is destroyed in animal subjects to observe the effects
on behavior.
 Electrical recording: electrodes are implanted and records of electrical changes
are gathered.
 Electrical stimulation: a mild electric current is passed through parts of the brain
to observe the effects.
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