ASPECTS OF THE PHONOLOGY OF
KOFYAR LANGUAGE
SANNI, ADEBISI MARIAM
07/15CB095
A LONG ESSAY SUMMITED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND
NIGERIAN LANGUAGES,FACULTY OF ARTS,UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN,
ILORIN,KWARA STATE, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF
ARTS,
B. A [HONS.] LINGUISTICS.
JUNE, 2011
1
CERTIFICATION
This long essay has been supervised, read and approved as meeting the
requirements of the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, Faculty of Arts,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
_____________________________
____________________
MR. S. A. AJE
Project Supervisor
DATE
_____________________________
____________________
PROF. A. S. ABDUSSALAM
Head of Department
DATE
_____________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
____________________
DATE
2
DEDICATION
This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful,
and to my wonderful parents, Alhaji and Alhaja K.A. Sanni.
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My greatest acknowledgement goes to Almighty Allah who has proved
Himself worthy in my life and throughout my academic years on this campus.
My sincere gratitude and appreciation goes to my parents, Alhaji and Alhaja
K.A.Sanni for their love, care, guidance and support over the years.
I want to also express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Mr. S.A. Aje, who
inspite of his tight schedule took time to correct my mistakes in the course of this work.
May God Almighty grant you good health and long life.
My appreciation also goes to my siblings: Aminat, Amudalat, Hakeem and Rodiat
Sanni. Am also using this medium to thank and appreciate my Guardian Prof. and Mrs.
H.O.B.Oloyede for their support
throughout my academic years.
I would also like to appreciate Mr.Rafiu, my level adviser and other lectures
of the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, all of who have given me a
drink from their own fountain of Knowledge. May the source never go dry.
I can’t but also appreciate my lovely aunty Mrs. Dupe Sansa for her motherly
advice, Hakeem Adigun for his support and my wonderful friends, Oguntade Aishat,
4
Asagun Ronke, Bello Zainab, Jarikpe Abigal and Bakare Subomi who made my stay in
this school a memorable one. You are friends indeed.
LIST OF SYMBOLS USED

Arrow notation ‘becomes’
5
/
Environment
____ Place of occurrence
[]
Surface/Phonetic Representation
~
Tilde [nasalization symbol]

Empty/Null Element
+
Morpheme boundary
[/]
High tone
[-]
Mid tone
[\]
Low tone
V
Rising [contour] tone

Falling [contour] tone
6
LISTS OF CHARTS, TABLES AND DIAGRAMS
Genetic Classification Tree
Oral Vowel Chart
Nasal Vowel Chart
Vowel Distinctive Features Matrix
Phonetic Consonant Chart
Consonant Distinctive Features Matrix
7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgements
iv
List of Symbols Used
vi
List of Charts/Tables and Diagrams
vii
Table of Contents
viii
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRDOUCTION
1.0
Introduction
1
1.1
Historical Background of the Kofyar of People
1
1.1.1 Colonial History
3
Socio-Cultural Profile
3
1.2.1 Religion
3
1.2.2 Occupation
4
1.2.3 Cultural Festivals
4
1.2.4 Food Items
5
1.2.5 Tourist Attraction
5
1.3
Socio-Linguistics Profile
5
1.4
Genetic Classification of Kofyar Language
7
1.5
Statement of Research Problems
8
1.2
8
1.6
Aims and Objective of Study
8
1.7
Scope and Organization of Study
8
1.8
Data Collection
10
1.9
Data Analysis
11
1.10
Theoretical Framework
12
1.10.2 The Structure of Generative Phonology
13
1.10.2.1 Phonetic Representation
14
1.10.2.2 Underlying Representation
15
1.10.2.3 Phonological Rules
16
CHAPTER TWO: BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
2.0
Introduction
17
2.1
Phonology
17
2.1.1 Phonology and Phonetics
19
Phonemes and Allophones
21
2.2.1 The Phoneme and its Realities
22
2.2.1.1 Phoneme as a Phonetic Reality
22
2.2.1.2 Phoneme as a Phonological Reality
23
2.2.1.3 Phonemes as a Psychological Reality
23
Principles of Phoneme Identification
24
2.3.1 Principle of Minimal Pair
24
2.3.2 Principle of Complementary Distribution
25
2.2
2.3
9
2.5
2.3.3 Principles of Analogous Environment
26
2.3.4
27
Principle of Free Variation
Phonological Processes
27
2.5.1 Assimilation
28
2.5.2 Deletion
29
2.5.3 Insertion (Epenthesis)
30
2.5.4 Metathesis
31
2.5.5 Nasalization
32
2.5.6 Coalescence
33
2.5.7 Vowel Harmony
33
2.5.7.1 Partial or Incomplete Vowel Harmony
36
2.6
Tone
37
2.7
Syllable Structure
39
CHAPTER THREE: THE SOUND SYSTEM OF KOFYAR LANGUAGE
3.0
Introduction
41
3.1
Vowel System of Kofyar Language
41
3.1.1 The Oral and Nasal Vowel Chart in Kofyar Language
42
3.1.2 Distribution of Vowels in Kofyar Language
43
3.1.2.1 The Distribution of Oral Vowels in Kofyar Language
43
3.1.2.2 Distribution of Nasal Vowels in Kofyar
47
Phonetic Distinctive Feature Matrix
50
3.2
10
3.2.1 Distinctive Feature Matrix for Kofyar Vowels
50
3.2.2 Justification for the Distinctive Features Used for Vowels in
Kofyar Language
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
51
3.2.3 Segment Structure Constraints for Kofyar Vowels
52
Consonant Sounds in Kofyar Language
54
3.3.1 Phonetic Consonants Chart of Kofyar Language
55
3.3.2 Distribution of Consonants in Kofyar
56
Distinctive Features Matrix of Kofyar Consonants
68
3.4.1 Justification for the Features Used
71
3.4.2 Segment Redundancy of Kofyar Sounds
74
Tones in Kofyar Language
78
3.5.1 Functions of Tone in Kofyar
83
The Syllable Structure of Kofyar
84
3.6.1 Closed Syllable in Kofyar Language
86
3.6.2 Open Syllable in Kofyar Language
86
11
3.7
3.6.3 Mono-Syllable Words
87
3.6.4 Di-Syllabic Words
88
3.6.5 Tri-Syllabic Words
89
3.6.6 Quadric Syllabic Words
90
Summary
90
CHAPTER FOUR: PHONOLOGICAL PROCESS IN KOFYAR LANGUAGE
4.0
Introduction
91
4.1
Phonological Processes in Kofyar
92
4.1.1 Assimilation
92
4.1.1.1 Vowel-Vowel Assimilation
92
4.1.1.2 Consonant Vowel Assimilation
94
4.1.1.1.2.1 Labialization in Kofyar
94
4.1.1.1.2.2. Palatalization in Kofyar
95
4.1.2 Nasalization in Kofyar
96
4.1.3 Vowel Harmony
98
12
4.1.4 Insertion
101
4.1.5 Deletion
102
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0
Introduction
104
5.1
Summary
104
5.2
Recommendations
105
5.3
Conclusion
105
Bibliography
107
CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
This research work focuses on the phonology of Kofyar Language.
Kofyar language is spoken in Plateau State of Nigeria. It is spoken in fairly
sizeable area of Qua’an pan local government area of plateau state. In this
chapter, we shall discuss the historical, socio-cultural profile, socio-linguistic
profile and the genetic classification of the Kofyar Language. We shall also
13
discuss the scope and organization of study, aims and objectives of study,
the theoretical framework we intend to use, method of data collection and
analysis.
1.1 Historical Background of the Kofyar of people.
Kofyar is Afro Asiatic and it is spoken in the Qua’an pan local
government area of plateau state, Nigeria. The estimated population of the
Kofyar speakers is about 109,943 (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, P.3).
Kofyar is a good illustration of how colonial authorities become unwittingly
enmeshed
in
local
politics,
in
sustainable
subsistence
agricultural
production in crowded areas; in successful self directed development of
market oriented agriculture and the use of “traditional” cultural resources to
prosper modern Nigeria.
The migration of a large group of people believed to be of the same
stock has been ascribed to oral tradition as taking its root from the North
East at or around Kanem Borno. Dafyar, from whom the Kofyar and other
groups owe their descent is said to have procreated with his sister Nade as
they were the only survivors of a cataclysm they viewed as the collapse of
the sky attended by fire and brimstone. It is believed that all mankind
14
perished due to sins committed which attracted the wrath of God. Dafyar
and Nade migrated for years and latter hide themselves in a cave on a
promontory called chor in Kofubum near present day Kofyar. A casual study
shows that one of the may chains of volcanoes in the area of Kanem Borno
may have activated, causing the cataclysm the viewed as the sky collapsing
with fire and brimstone.
The offspring’s of Dafyar had fanned out into many other sub –groups
and sojourned or inter married thereby producing a much wider cultural
mix. The colonial expedition visit on Latok following the demise of Her
Majesty’s Administration officer Mr. Christopher Matthew Barlow in the
early 1930s sent many descendants of Dafyar away from home into
communities thereby further widening the cultural mix within the sub
region and there about.
1.1.1 Colonial History
The population known as the Kofyar actually comprises three
different “tribes” as designated by British colonial officers; the Doemak [or
15
Dimmuk], Kwalla’s and Mernyang. However, the three groups have a
common language, economic pattern and origin myth. In the 1940s, they
came together in a union called the “Koffyer Federation”. Anthropologists,
see them as a single group or groups.
When first encountered by early British colonial authorities, they lived
in the rugged hills in the south eastern corner of the Jos Plateau and in
settlements around the Plateau base. Their subjugation by the British was
largely non-violent until 1930, when a young Assistant District officer
named Barlow was killed in the hill village of Latok by a rock thrown at his
head. After this the residents of Latok and neighboring villages were forced
out of the hills and made to live on the plains below for nine years. In an
award winning study, anthropologist Robert Netting explained how Barlow
had been unknowingly used in a local political dispute.
1.2
Socio Cultural profile
1.2.1 Religion:
Majority of the Kofyar speaker are Christians, with few Islamic and
Traditional followers. Christianity which is the predominant religion of the
Kofyar people, in which about 50% of the population are Christians, and
16
mostly Catholic, reason being that, the catholic missionaries were the first to
pay a visit to the Kofyar area with the aim of Christianizing the people in the
early 20th century. 30% are traditional worshippers while 20% are Muslims
of Ahamadiya. The existence of Islam among the people was as a result of
uthman dan fodio’s jihad crusade.
1.2.2 Occupation
Except for the educated Kofyars, who occupy various positions in
administration, politics and the educational sector or academic intellectuals
employed in multi –national companies and the likes, most Kofyars are
farmers and local hunters. You can hardly look around without seeing
millet, guinea corn plants, yam and cassava which are their main plants in
the land.
1.2.3 Cultural festivals:
The Kofyar people observe two major festivals the shikaam and Kwa
Kwa festival. The annual festival which is traditionally called “SHIKAAM”
festival comprises all the speakers of Kofyar home and abroad, far and near,
present at the ceremony. These festivals are done once in a year, usually in
the first quarter of the year. During this occasion, a lot of activities are
17
usually lined up. The entire Kofyar people as well as their supporters and
neighbors participate in the activities lined up. Such activities include “Sual”
a social dance which men engage in which the women dance around them
chanting songs along. “Koem” a social dance with its music derived from dry
corn stalks and a lot more activities. The second festival which is
traditionally called the “KWA KWA” festival is observed by districts and each
district has its peculiar way of observing its festival ceremony. Also a lot of
activities are usually show cased for the entertainment of the audience that
grace the occasion.
1.2.4 Food Items:
The Kofyar people have several forms of food oils other than those
derived from animal fats. They are muorbang [palm oil], muorkom
[groundnut oil], muorpaat [oil from pie], muorteem [oil from mahogany],
muorlem [oil from benni seed], muorseer [melon oil] and several others.
1.2.5
Tourist Attraction
Kofyar federation can be said to be a tourism centre because people
from different part of the country come to kofyar to look at the rugged hills
and a lot of ancient things of interest.
18
1.3
Socio linguistics profile:
The Kofyar speakers, also known as Kofyar people are speakers of a
very unique and dynamic indigenous Nigerian Language in the North
Central of Plateau State with the slogan “Home of peace and tourism”.
Kofyar speakers are known by those in the neighboring communities
around Doemak, Kwalla and Mernyang as Kofyar speakers even officially.
Kofyar are mostly bi -lingual, using Kofyar Language as their native
language and Hausa Language as their target language. Hausa language is
usually use as a means of communication when trading with other towns, in
short, Hausa language is the language use in commerce. Kofyar language is
use in the kindergarten, pre- nursery, nursery and primary section along
with Hausa language. While, Hausa and English language is used at the
secondary level. Kofyar language is use for religious purpose and as a
means of communication in homes and public places. The older generations
are not as fluent in English language as the younger ones, who through
western education are able to speak it well than the older generations.
The Kofyar people live in the rugged hills in the South eastern corner
of the Jos Plateau, and in settlements around the plateau base. Kofyar
19
actually means “the settlement is big”. Although, most Kofyars now live in
the Benue Valley [or in cities] the Jos Plateau homeland is still inhabited
largely because of the Kofyars efforts to maintain it as a cultural and
economic resources. Many Kofyar who live elsewhere still keep secondary
homes in the homeland.
1.4 Genetic classification of Kofyar Language
Afro Asiatic
Berber
Omitic
Chadic
Cushictic
20
Egyptian
Semitic
Bumandara
Chadic
East Chadic
Masa
West Chadic A
Hausa Gumandara
Rowfier
West Chadic B
Bole tangale
Yiwon
West
Angas Proper
Angas
Jorto
Mernyang
KOFYAR
21
Source: Lewis, M. Paul [ed.], 2009 Ethnologue: Languages of
the world, Sixteenth edition. Dallas Tex: Sil international.
1.5 Statement of Research Problems
The focus of this research work is to identify the phonemes and
phonological processes in Kofyar Language. This study will discuss the
various phonological rules that may be attested in Kofyar language and
attempt a significant generalization of such rule
1.6 Aims and Objective of Study
The following are the aims and objectives of the study:
i.
Through the use of the principles of phonemic identification
ii.
To critically examine the phonological processes such as: assimilation,
dissimilation, insertion, deletion, nasalization, metatheses among others.
iii.
To show evidence of relationship between the phonological form through
phonological rules.
iv.
To show a detailed study of supra segmental features such as: tone and syllable
structure in Kofyar.
1.7
Scope and organization of study
22
This research work shall extensively discuss the phonology of Kofyar language.
First, the phonemic and the phonetic sounds of the language shall be unveiled. It will
examine the phonological processes attested in Kofyar language. Thus, the analysis and
the exemplification of the sound system of Kofyar language will form the focus of this
research work. Chapter one will take a cursory look at the general background of the
study, the historical background, socio cultural profile: religion, occupation, cultural
festival, food items and tourist attraction. We shall also examine the socio linguistic
profile, genetic classification, statement of research problem, method of data collection
and analysis, aims and objective of the study of Kofyar language. It shall also include a
review of the chosen theoretical framework [generative phonology].
The subsequent chapter two will focus on the basic phonological concept.
Definitions of phonology, concept of phoneme and allophone, phonemic identification
etc.
Chapter three shall look at the sound inventory of Kofyar language [the
consonants and vowels] alongside their distribution. A diagrammatic chart showing the
phonetic position of these sounds shall also be schematized. The distinctive features and
the binary principles shall also be looked at, alongside the tones and syllable patterns of
Kofyar language.
23
Chapter four shall attempt a phonological processes attested in the language with
the phonologically significant generalizations that are pertinent to Kofyar language.
Chapter five shall house the summary and the concluding part of the research
work, after making recommendations based on our findings.
1.8
Data collection
The technique employed in collecting data for this research work is direct data
elicitation. The direct data for this research were collected with the assistance of language
informants through the use of the” Ibadan 400 word list of basic items”. The information
concerning the informants used for this research work is given below:
Informant 1
Name: Mrs. Regina Poechigoer Kwapnoe
Age: 52years
Language Spoken: Hausa, English, Kwallak, Gamai& Doemak.
Years spent in Kofyar: 20 years
Religion: Christianity
Occupation: Teaching [Head Mistress]
24
Marital status: Married
Informant 2:
Name: Mohammed Suleiman Dani
Age: 49years
Language spoken: Arabic and Hausa
Years spent in Kofyar: 49 years.
Religion: Islam
Occupation: Farming
Marital status: Married
1.9 Data Analysis
The analysis of the data will be carried out by first transcribing all the linguistic
data collected in order to discover the sounds that are attested in the language and how
they are distributed. By this, we shall be able to establish orthography for the language.
The data will then be described using the generative phonology theory.
1.10 Theoretical framework
25
1.10.1 The theoretical framework will be the generative phonology as in Chomsky and
Halle’s[1968] publication of the sound pattern of English[SPE], phonemes are
represented as underlying representation that consist of underlying units each defined by
a distinctive feature matrix. In the SPE model, there are phonological rules that apply to
URS and then convert these into one or more surface phonetic forms. Generative
phonology is intended by phonemicistss, to stand part of the wider theory of language,
and phonological description as part of grammar. Grammar encompasses the word well formedness of the sentence of a language; syntactic and semantic components. It is made
up of two levels: the phonemic and phonetic levels, and in between these two levels, we
have what we call phonological rules.
The goal of generative phonology is to express the link between sound and meaning
[Chomsky: 1965], it gives the rule of how the mind perceives sounds, and how those
sounds are produced with the interpretation of utterances. Generative phonology accounts
for linguistics intuition, foreign accent, speech error and language acquisition among
others.
In 1959, Chomsky and Halle worked on generative phonology with the knowledge
of the sequential constraints, which are responsible, for the fact that speakers of a
language have a sense of sounds in their native language.
26
Generative phonology, sees grammar as consisting of a set of infinite rules which
operates upon a finite vocabulary, and capable of generating an infinite set of
grammatical constructions [sentences]. Hyman [1975:19] states that” generative
phonology is the description of how phonological rules can be converted into
phonological rules can be converted into phonological representation and the capturing of
the distinctive sounds in contrast in a language.
Discrete segments which are complete set of phonetic features by a distinctive
feature matrix. The basic goal of generative phonology is to express the link between
sound and meaning Chomsky [1965]. This theory of language is interested in exploring
the linguistic knowledge of a speaker, which Chomsky refers to as the competence.
1.10.2
The structure of Generative phonology
Oostendrop [2005:89] defines phonological structure as a” score of individual
instruments, roughly corresponding to the articulatory organs, which plays alongside the
same beat”. In postulating underlying forms at the systematic level from which surface
alternates are derived, the tacit knowledge that speakers have of general or systematic
relationships, termed linguistically significant phonological structure is relevant
according to Oyebade [1998:12], Generative phonology assumes three very crucial
27
components: the underlying representation, the phonetic representation and the rules
which link the two together. The three components are discussed below:
1.10.2.1
Phonetic Representation
Kentowicz [1994:8], cited in Oyebade [1998:21], says that phonetic representation
indicate how lexical item is to be realized in speech. It is characterized by a degree of
narrowness such that at the very least, any two sounds that distinguished in any human
sound are differently represented sommerstein [1977:115]. It is the surface level,
identical with what is perceived aurally, since it chacterizes…”all the set of instructions
issued by the central nervous system to the articulatory apparatus” sommerstein
[1977:115]. As further explained by him, the phonetic representation preserves every
feature of every segment, even at the risk of entertaining redundancies.
According to Oyebade [1998:21], Generative Phonology seems to consider the
level as being somewhat trivial and ”not worth too much attention… except, perhaps as a
source of verification and justification of the proposed underlying Representation”.
1.10.2.2 Underlying Representation
Sommerstein [1977:115] says that this is assumed to be an abstract representation
existing in the linguistic competence of the native speaker. At this level, items with
invariant meaning have identical representation. It is the form which is always seen at the
28
surface realizations. Oyebade [1998:13], explain that the underlying representation
accounts for so much; first, it accounts for why native speakers consider the prefix [im]
possible, [in] tolerable and [iȠ] complete to be the same even though, at the surface, the
form of the prefix differs from one utterance to the other. At the underlying level, the
form of the prefix is invariant. Secondly, he explained, the assumption of an underlying
level where there is no one to correspondence between form and meaning and which is
exactly the same from one competence speaker to another, explains the puzzling reaction
in children. Since the child shares the same competence [and therefore the same
underlying representation] as the adult, it is logical to assume that the child will expect
the same output as the adult will. Thirdly, he explain further that the assumption of an
underlying representation account for the rapid processing of defective input. But
interlocutors have a shared competence which is accurate and invariant; the decoder
participant thus has a protype with which he can restructure the defective utterance of the
decoder. The underlying representation has the property of being encoded in distinctive
features. The assumption is motivated by that language seems to target these features in
making its choices rather than segments.
1.10.2.3 Phonological Rules
Oyebade [1998:15] defines phonological rules as directives which maps
underlying forms on the surface forms. They show the derivational sequence or path of
29
an item on its journey from the underlying level to the phonetic level. Phonological rules
have to precise in a scientific account of linguistics phenomena. It was therefore
suggested that rules should have a format:
A
B⁄C
D [Oyebade, 1998:18].
Oyebade [1998:18] interpreted this as follows: “the focus [A] to the left of the
arrow defines the input to the alternation, the matrix [B] to the right of the arrow which
indicates the feature changes introduced by the rule, the structural change [SC]: the slant
“\”is read
in context of”. The accompanying environmental dash [also called the
underscore] “─” locates the focus relative to the conditioning context [Kentowicz
1994:21] as cited in Oyebade [1998:17].
CHAPTER TWO
BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
2.0
Introduction
This chapter will review some basic phonological concepts. Highlights
of this review are: phonological concepts of phonemes and allophones and
principles of phonemic identification.
2.1 Phonology
30
It is an aspect of structural linguistics; it studies the system and
patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on a theory of
what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound
patterns of that language [Yule 1995],because of this theoretical status,
phonology is concerned with the abstract or mental aspect of sounds in a
language rather than with the actual physical articulation of speech sounds.
Phonology is that branch of linguistics which studies speech sounds in
human languages i.e. it studies how sounds from system and patterns in
languages. [Yusuf 1992:35]. Phonology is a sub-field of linguistics which is
concerned with the study of sound system of a particular language.
Oyebade [1998:2] describes phonology as a scientific study of the
arbitrary vocal symbols used in human speech and the patterns into which
they enter to produce intelligent, meaningful utterances. According to
Hawkins [1984:8], phonology is the study of sound patterns in languages. It
stands alongside syntax, morphology and semantics as one of the major
branches of linguistics. He explains that while closely linked with phonetics,
phonology emphasizes the patterns of sounds to be found in any particular
language [and in languages generally] and the relationship between the
sounds, rather than the description of sounds in articulatory or auditory
31
terms [which is the subject matter of phonetics]. He also points out that
phonology is a major components of several “applied” fields such as
variation between [and within] speakers of the same language [dialects],
historical change, children’s learning of their first language [language
acquisition] and the teaching and learning of foreign languages. Hawkins
[1984:9] also states that phonology is divided into two main components.
These are segmental phonology, which deals with the individual sounds
[i.e. segments of speech] and their patterns and supra-segmental phonology
[non-segmental phonology], which has a higher domain of units of
connected speeches, words, phrases and sentences. According to him,
segmental phonology Stand as the basic and universal aspect of the
phonology of any language. This is as a result of the fact that it deals with
each and every distinctive and contrastive sound in each and every
distinctive and contrastive sound in any natural language, supra –
segmental phonology or non-segmental phonology. On the other hand,
deals with non segmental features include stress, tone, intonation, etc;
which differ from language to language.
2.1.1 Phonology and Phonetics
32
Davenport [1998:2] says that phonetics deals with speech sound
themselves, how they perceived [auditory phonetics]. Phonology deals with
how these speech sounds are organized into systems for each individual
language, for example, how sounds combined, the relations between them
and how they affect each other. Oyebade [1992:35], while drawing out the
relationship between phonology and phonetics can be compared with that
of a farmer and the cook. The farmer [phonetics] plants, harvests and the
cook [phonology] cooks it. Phonetics is concerned with how a sound is
produced, where it is produced, what kind of sound are being produced,
how the flow of the air stream is distributed, how one sound differs from
another, etc without reference to the structure of speech patterns.
Phonology, on the
other hand, is concerned with the position in a word
where a sound occurs [initially, medially or finally], i.e. the distribution of
the sound and its relationship with other phonetically similar sounds. The
following examples from oyebade [1992:6] in Yoruba language, it gives us a
better understanding of the explanation:
33
Ki
‘to greet’
Kó
‘to gather together’
Ké
‘to pamper’
Kú
‘to die’
wi
‘to say’
wó
wé
wú
‘to break down’
‘to be tiny’
‘to uproot’
As Oyebade [1992:61] explains, the four /k/ and /w/ in the examples
above, though phonemically identical, are phonetically different. Phonetics
sees the four /k/ and /w/ as different, while phonemics on the other hand,
sees them as one single phoneme on their own. The reason for the
difference is the respective /k/ and /w/ can be explained by the manner or
kind of sound they precede.
Katamba [1989:14] opines that in order to understand phonology, one
must have grasp of phonetics [and its basic concepts]. Phonetics deals with
the study of the inventory of all [human] speech sounds, which humans are
capable of producing. He identifies three branches of phonetics which are
of major importance to phonology. They are:
[1] Acoustic phonetics: this deals with the study of the physical properties
of speech sounds using laboratory instruments.
34
[2] Auditory phonetics: it is the study of speech or sound perception, i.e.
how sounds are perceived.
[3]
Articulatory phonetics: this is the study of speech sound and
production, i.e. how sounds are produced.
2.2 Phonemes and Allophones
In a language or dialect, a phoneme is the smallest segmental unit of
sound employed to form meaningful contrasts between utterances. Thus a
phoneme is a group of slightly different sounds which are all perceived to
have the same function by speakers of the language or dialect in question.
An example of the phonemes is the sound /k/ in the word s kit and skill.
Even though most native speakers don’t notice this, in most dialects, the ‘k’
in each of these words is actually pronounced differently: they are different
sounds, or phones. In our example, the /k/ in kit is aspirated, [k ], while the
/k/ in skill is not, [k]. the reason why these different sounds are nonetheless
considered to belong to the same phoneme in English is that if an English
speaker use one instead of the other, the meaning of the word would not
change: using [k ] in skill might sound odd, but the word would still be
recognized.
35
In phonetics, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spoken
sounds used to pronounce a single phoneme. For example, [p ] as in pin and
[p] as in spin are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the English language.
Although a phonemes allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a
phoneme, the specific allophones selected in a given situation is often
predictable. Changing the allophones used by native speakers for a given
phoneme in a specific context usually will not change the meaning of a
word but the result may sound non-native or unintelligible. Speakers of a
given language usually perceive one phoneme in their language as a single
distinctive sound in that language and are the allophone variations used to
pronounce single phonemes.
Jones[1967:53],in his own account, says that a phonemes is a family
of sounds in a given language which are related in character and are used
in such a way that no member ever occurs in a word in the same context as
any other member even occurs in a word in the same context as any other
member. As Katamba [1989:14] explains, the phoneme is an abstraction,
what actually occurs are the allophones which are variants of a particular
phonemes.
2.2.1 The Phoneme and its Realities.
36
According to Gleason [1956:112], the phoneme, under the Generative
Phonology framework, is viewed from three realities by three different
schools of thought. These are:
2.2.1.1 Phoneme as a Phonetic Reality.
A phoneme is described as a class of sounds which are phonetically
related and shows certain characteristics as patterns of distribution in the
language or dialect under consideration. Jones [1956:78] also holds the
view that the phoneme is only seen as a phonetic property of a sound. This
school of thought is called the classical school of thought the structuralist
approach.
2.2.1.2 Phoneme as a Phonological Reality.
This view is strongly held by the Prague school of thought led by the Czech
linguist, Trubetzkory. Trubetzkory [1939:39] defines a phoneme as “the sum of the
phonologically relevant properties of a sound”. To him phonemes are defined in terms of
opposite in a psychological system. The Prague school is of the opinion that the phoneme
cannot be satisfactorily defined as one based on psychological or phonetic nature, but
purely and solely on the basis of its functions in the system of the language.
2.2.1.3 Phoneme as a Psychological Reality.
37
Twaddle [1935:152] describes a phoneme as a mental reality as the intention of
the speaker has an internalized image or picture of the sound, a target which he tries to
picture. To the mentalists, a phoneme is a sound imagined or intended, opposed to the
emitted sound as psycho-phonetic phenomenon. Psychological reality is something that
can be confirmed outside the Conforms of linguistics discussion.
2.3 Principles of Phoneme Identification.
According to Davenport [1998:117], phonemes are most often established by
finding a contrast is identified as follows:
2.3.1 Principle of Minimal Pair.
Kensinger [1963:30], a minimal pair is two words that differ in only one sound. In
phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, which
differ in only one phonological element, such as a phoneme, toneme or chroneme and
have a distinct meaning. They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two
separate phonemes in the language. [Wikipedia.org/wiki].
According to world English dictionary, minimal pair is a pair of speech elements
in a given language differing in only one respect and thus serving to identify minimum
units such as phonemes, morphemes, etc. as stated by Davenport [1998:117], the clearest
38
sort of contrast is a minimal pair, that is, a pair of word s which different lexical items.
By lexical items, we mean distinct items of vocabulary regardless of meaning.
Examples:
Bat
tin
fur
men
fear
Cat
din
far
met
dear
let
lit
pat
bat
The difference or contrast in meaning of each word in the set is as a result of the
change in one sound. These sounds are responsible for the contrast in meaning in each
pair.
2.3.2 Principle of Complementary Distribution.
Complementary distribution in linguistics is the relationship between
two different elements, where one element is found in a particular
environment and the other element is found in the opposite environment. It
often indicates that two superficially different elements are in fact the same
linguistics unit at a deeper level. In some instances, more than two elements
can be in complementary distribution with one another.
39
Sotiloye [1992:21] holds that another way of establishing a phoneme is
the use of complementary distribution principle. Two sounds are said to be
in complementary distribution when one occur in a specific environment
where the other is not found. It is a situation whereby a pair of sounds
occur in a mutually exclusive environment as shown in the Efik data below
[sotiloye, 1992:21]
Kana
‘step over’
Kan
Sak
‘belch’
ufoxudwa
Bexe
‘belch’
wak
nka
‘I am going’
ndekpe
‘deny’
‘market store’
‘multiply’
‘I am not buying’
He explain that /k/ occurs initial and medial positions, /k / occurs at
word final position only and /x/ occurs intervocalically, Hence, it is deduced
that /k/, /k / and /x/ are said to be allophones of the same phoneme that is
of /k/.
2.3.3 Principles of Analogous Environment
Yusuf [1992:40] believes that if two sounds occur at identical
positions, before the same types of sounds or after the same type of sounds,
40
they are said to occur in similar or analogous environments. They are
therefore said to be different phonemes that is, two phones that can be
substituted for each other in the same environments without destroying the
identity of the lexical items under consideration. Sounds that are said to be
in analogous environment, if different phonemes can occur in the same
environment, yet preserve the semantic interest of each sound. The plain
/p/ and its aspirate /p / in Korean are given as example of sounds occurring
in analogous environment below:
[Yusuf, 1992:40].
41
Pal
‘leg’
p al
Pul
‘fire’
p ado
Sinpu
Stlp
‘bride’
‘door’
‘wave’
cop a
‘business man’
‘nephew’
la ida
‘being dressed’
2.3.4 Principle of Free Variation
Free variation in linguistics is the phenomenon of two [or more] sounds
or forms appearing in the same environment without a change in meaning
and without being considered in correct by native speakers.
According to Trubetzkoy [1993:49], when two sounds alternate
without causing a change in meaning, they are said to occur in free
variation. The following examples are given in Igbo language. [Oyebade,
1992:60]
Mírí
‘water’
ire
‘to sell
Mílí
‘water’
ile
‘to sell’
42
ara
ala
‘madness’
‘madness’
From the above, it can be observed that /r/ and /l/ occur in free
variation in Igbo language; hence, they are allophones of the same
phoneme.
2.5 Phonological Processes
Oyebade [2004:61] explains that phonological processes are sound modifications
motivated to maintain euphony in a language or to rectify violations of well formdness
constraints in the production of an utterance. He further says that most phonological
processes can be classified as syllable structure processes. In which case, they modify a
derived syllable structure through the manipulation of distributions of vowels and
consonants in a word.
According to Oyebade [2004:12], naturally, native speakers of a language have
some internalized, innate and naturally endowed rules which are applied as they speak
language. The rules are regular with only a few exceptions and they come about as a
result of phonological processes. They include: Assimilation, Deletion, Insertion, Vowel
harmony, Nasalization etc.
2.5.1 Assimilation
Sotiloye [1992:41] explains assimilation as a process whereby contiguous
segments influence each other by becoming more alike. In other words, segments adapt
43
to their environment. Hawkins [1998:67] describes assimilation as the phonetic processes
in which two phonemes adjacent [contiguous assimilation] or very near to each other
[incontiguous assimilation] acquire common characteristics or become identical. When
the phoneme which produces the phenomenon associated phoneme, it is called regressive
assimilation. Sotiloye [1992:41] gives the following examples of assimilatory processes
in English:
44
Possible
impossible
Balance
imbalance
Decision
indecision
Tolerance
intolerance
Complete
incomplete
[impɔsbl
Assimilatory process:
[m] a bilabial nasal occurs before [p, b] also bilabial sounds.
[n] an alveolar nasal, occur before [t, d] also alveolar sounds.
[Ƞ] a velar nasal, occur before [k, g] also velar sounds.
2.5.2 Deletion
Oyebade [2004:68] describes deletion as involving the loss of a segment under
some specifically imposed conditions. It could involve vowels or consonants. when it
involves vowels, it is known as ‘elision’. Examples are given in Yoruba language below
[oyebade, 2004:69]
kɔ +
ìwé
k‫כ‬wé
‘write’
‘book’
‘write book’
45
Mu
+
ɛmu͂
mɛmu͂
‘drink’
‘palm wine’
‘drink palm wine’
òwúrɔ
òúrɔ
òórɔ
‘morning’
òtítɔ
òítɔ
òótɔ
‘truth’
According to Davenport [1998:143], deletion rule is a rule that manipulates entire
segments, i.e. whole feature matrices.
Deletion is expressed in terms of segment
becoming Ø [zero].
2.5.3 Insertion [Epenthesis]
Oyebade [2004:73] state that ‘insertion is a phonological process whereby an
extraneous element not present originally in an utterance is introduced to break unwanted
sequence’. Sotiloye [1992:44] states that a language may add a segment to break
unwanted or unallowed cluster or make a foreign word conform to the phonology of the
host language. This concept or process is known as Epenthesis [Oyebade, 2004:73].
46
Sotiloye [1992:43] gives the following Yoruba examples:
English
Yoruba
[klas]
[kíláàsì]
‘class’
[teibl]
[tébùrù]
‘table’
[baibl]
[bíbélì ]
‘bible’
[sku:l]
[sùkúlú]
‘school’.
Insertion is done in Yoruba to disallow consonant cluster.
2.5.4 Metathesis
According to Sotiloye [1992:45], this is a process whereby segments interchange
positions. This is not common as the others mention and discussed above.
Some English example of metathesis is given below [Sotiloye, 1992:45].
English Language [Sotiloye, 1992:45]
ask
aks
‘ask’
mɔsk
mɔks
‘mosque’
jʊr neit
jʊn reit
‘urinate’.
In a longer sentence, such a process may occur as speech error; like a slip of
tongue.
47
2.5.5
Nasalization
Crystal [1991:74] describes nasalization as a process whereby an oral segment
acquires nasality from a neighboring segment. The velum is lowered to allow the air to
escape through the nose. The lower the soft palate, the higher the degree of nasalization.
The diacritic used in identifying nasality is known as tilde [~].
Examples are given in Ogberia [Chumbow 1987] as given in Oyebade [2004:66].
ìdúɳ
+
‘lizard’
òtàm
+
‘goat’
ùʃaɳ
‘book’
+
ìken
ìduɳiken
‘your’
‘your lizard’
ítén
òtamiten
‘our’
‘our goat’
ìken
ùʃaɳiken
‘your’
‘your head’.
48
2.5.6
Coalescence
Oyebade [2004:75] explains coalescence as when two contiguous segments at the
underlying representation disappear at the surface level to be replaced by a third segment
which shares features from both of the segments that disappeared. When this happens, it
is said that the contiguous segments have coalesced into one. Coalescence is the fusing
together of two segments.
For example, in Yoruba language [Oyebade, 2004:76]:
a – rí – ògbó
arúgbó
‘elderly person’
o – mu - ìwɛ
òmùwè
‘swimmer’
gbɔ - ìró
gbúróó
‘hear from someone’
oʃú - èʤì
oʃóʤì
‘fourty’.
2.5.7 Vowel Harmony
Crystal [1991:76], in his account of vowel harmony says that vowel harmony is
used to refer to ways in which the articulation of one phonological unit is influenced by
49
another unit in the same word or phrase. It is a very familiar process in many African and
some European languages.
Oyebade [2004:81] says that languages that attest this process impose the euphonic
constraint of allowing vowels from a particular group to co – occur together in a well
defined domain to the exclusion of members of the other groups. Unlike most of
processes discussed earlier, one of the few phonological processes in language that can
apply skipping elements. Yoruba language is one of the languages that exhibit vowel
harmony. For example [Oyebade 2004:81].
[A]
[B]
owó ‘money’
‫כ‬wɔ ‘hand’
òwe ‘proverb’
‫כ‬sè
‘week’
eʤ‫כ‬
‘snake’
ɛʤɔ ‘gossip’
ewè
‘leave’
ἑʤɛ
‘blood’
50
(C)
(D)
(E)
ìwo
‘horn’
oʃù
‘month’
àwo ‘plate’
ilé
‘house’
‫כ‬dú
‘year’
ate ‘broad brimmed hat’
ilἑ
‘ground’
ἑwù
‘dress’
àʤἑ ‘witch’
it‫כ‬
‘spittle’
adú
‘blackness’ aʃ‫‘ כ‬cloth’
ita
‘outside’
ewu
‘danger’
ilú
‘town’
iʃu
‘yam’
ara
‘body’
igbá ‘calabash’
The data above establish three groups of vowels. The first group contains [e, o,] the
second group has [ɛ, ɔ,] while the last group attests [i, u, a,]. Members of the first group
can co-occur with each other but cannot co-occur with the second group; likewise
members of the second group can co-occur with each other but cannot co-occur with
members of the first group. Members of the third group can co-occur with each other and
also with members of the first and second groups.
According to Oyebade (2004: 82), vowel harmony is always based on one phonetic
feature or another and accounts for the alternation perceived in some affixes or clitics.
51
The most common phonetic property of vowel harmony in Africa language, he point out
the ATR feature (Oyebade, 2004:82). Vowel harmony can be classified into complete and
partial vowel harmony.
2.5.7.1 Partial or Incomplete Vowel Harmony
According to Davenport (1998:73), partial vowel harmony is when vowels group
themselves in harmonic sets and vowel in a particular set can co-occurred with each
other.
Davenport [1998:73], says vowel harmony is regarded as full or complete when
there is no overlap, that is, when vowels in one set are not found in another set. There is
no co – occurrence between the vowels in the various sets. It is when groups of vowels
occur together in a particular domain to the exclusion of members of another group. Igbo
language exhibits a complete vowel harmony system. Vowel harmony divides Igbo
vowels into two sets: the first set consists of /i, e, u, o/ that is the + [ATR] vowels, while
the second set comprises /ʊ, i, ɔ, a/, the – [ATR] vowels. Complete vowel harmony in
Igbo language is exemplified below [Oyebade, 2004:83].
52
[a]
[b]
Ó sìrì
‘s/he cooked’
ɔ ziri
‘s/he said’
Ó sere
‘s/he quarreled’
ɔ zùrù
‘s/he bought’
Ó zùrù
‘s/he stole’
ɔ zɔrɔ
‘s/he got up’
Ó zòrò
‘s/he hid’
ɔ sara
‘s/he washed’
2.6 Tone
According to Davenport [1998:84], in many languages, pitch variation is used to
distinguish on word from other, just as English uses voicing, [pit vs. bit] or place of
articulation [pit vs. kit]. For example, in Nupe language, the sequence [ba] has three
completely different meanings depending on the pitch with which it is produced. If pitch
is high, [bá], it means ‘to be sour’, if the pitch is low [bà], it means ‘to count’ and if the
pitch is between the two, it means ‘to cut’. Languages which use pitch in this way are
known as tone languages and individual pitch associated with words or syllables are
known as ‘tone’. [Davenport, 1998:84].
Oyebade [1992:71], asserts that some languages have ‘…. Lexically significant,
contrastive but relative pitch on each syllable’. These languages are called tone languages
because ‘pitch phonemes and segmental phonemes enter into composition of at least
53
some morphemes’ [Welmers 1973:80]. However, just as it is done for consonants and
vowels, it is also necessary to the phonemic status of pitch configurations in languages
which use pitch contrastively. For instance, the concept of minimal pairs can be use to
establish the phonemic status of tones in Yoruba. [Yusuf, 1992:72].
rín
‘to laugh’
ogún
‘inheritance’
rìn
‘to walk’
ogun
‘war’
rin
‘to grate’
ògún
‘god of iron’.
Welmers [1959:2] explains that tones are marked over the vowel on the syllabic
nasals. Two kinds of tones can be attested in languages; register and contour tones.
Register tone languages are languages with tones at various level and pitch distinguishing
the feature. Register tone has three [3] level pitches: the high tone, marked with an acute
accent [ ̸ ],the mid tone, marked with a macron [ - ], but usually left unmarked, and the
low tone which is marked with a grave accent [ \ ]. A contour tone language is a
language which changes pitch either by ‘rising’, which is marked [V] or ‘falling’, which
is marked [Λ]. According to pike [1948:3], a tone language is a language having
significant but contrastive pitch on each syllable. According to him, ton performs both
grammatical and lexical functions in a language, words with the same spelling but
different tone to differentiate in meaning. For example, in Yoruba language tone perform
lexical function as given below [Yusuf, 1992:33].
54
igba
‘two hundred’
igbá
‘climbing rope’
ìgbá
‘calabash’
ìgbà
‘time/period’
ìgbá
‘locust bean tree’.
Tone performs grammatical function when the tones on words with the same
spelling are different, thereby, causing a change in their part of speech.
2.7 Syllable Structure
Ladeforged [1975:248] says that there are two types of theories attempting to define
syllable. First, there are those in which the definitions are in terms of properties of sounds
such as sonority,[acoustic energy] or prominence [some combination of sonority, length,
stress and pitch].second, there are theories based on definitions that are in terms of
activities of the speaker, principally, the notion that a syllable is a unit in the organization
of the sounds of an utterance. In one sense, a syllable is the smallest possible unit of a
speech. Every utterance must contain at least one syllable. It is convenient to talk of
speech as composed of segments such as vowels and consonants, but these segments can
be observed only as aspects of syllable.
55
A syllable can be divided for descriptive analysis into ONSET and RHYME. The
rhyming part of a syllable consists of vowel[s] and any consonant[s] that comes after it.
Any consonant[s], which is the most vocalic [most heard], and the CODA, within
consists of any final consonant[s]. This is diagrammatically shown below [Ladefoged
1975:248].
Syllabic
Rhyme
Onset
Nucleus
Coda.
The structure of a syllable. [Ladefoged,[1975:248].
The onset consists of consonant[s], the nucleus [peak] consists of vowel[s] and the
coda, final consonant[s].
So far, this chapter has reviewed the literatures of various phonological works. The
next chapter will be on the sound system of Kofyar language.
CAPTER THREE
56
THE SOUND SYSTEM OF KOFYAR LANGUAGE
3.0 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the sound system of kofyar language vis-à-vis
the vowels, consonants, syllable and tonal structure.
3.1 Vowel system of kofyar language.
Kofyar language attest, eight [8] oral vowels and eight [8] nasal vowels.
Oral vowels are produced with the air being passed out through the
oral cavity i.e. the velum retracts thereby allowing the air coming from the
larynx to pass through the oral cavity. The eight oral vowels in Kofyar are
listed below:
a, e, ε , i, o, ɔ, u and ə
While nasal vowel are produced with the velum being lowered so that the
body of the air can pass through both the nasal and oral cavities. The eight
nasal vowels in kofyar are listed below:
ã ,ẽ, ε̃, ĩ, õ, ɔ̃, ũ and ə̃
57
3.1.1 The oral and nasal vowel chart in kofyar language
ORAL VOWEL CHART
Front Central
High
Back
i
u
Mid-High e
o
Mid
ә
Mid-low
ɔ
ε
Low
a
NASAL VOWEL CHART
Front Central
High
Back
ĩ
Mid-High ẽ
ũ
õ
58
Mid
Mid-low
Low
ə̃
ɔ̃
ε̃
ã
59
3.1.2 Distribution of Vowels in Kofyar Language.
Vowel sounds can occur in all or any of the possible
environments of occurrence in a word. A vowel can occur at the word initial
position, word medial position and word final position.
3.1.2.1 The distribution of oral vowels in kofyar language is shown below:
[i] high front unrounded vowel
Medial position:
shìshik
[ʃ ìʃik]
Chìh
[ʧìh]
Lìís
[lìís]
‘body’
‘thigh’
‘tongue’
[e] mid-hisgh front unrounded vowel
Initial position:
ek-bau
[ek-bau]
‘arrow’
Medial position:
chegen
[ʧegẽ]
‘nail’
Yugeer
[jugeer]
‘breast’
Pìèp
[pìèp]
‘beard’
60
Final position:
bee
Zèé
[bee]
‘thing’
[zèé]
‘story’
[ὲ̀s]
‘feaces’
[ε ] mid-low front vowel
Initial position:
ẹ̀ss
[ε ̕ε ́s]
ẹ ẹ ́ss
ẹ p
Medial position:
sẹ̀ẹ́h
final position:
[ε p]
chẹ rẹ ̕ẹ p
sẹ ̕ẹ ́p
màng lẹẹ
mang mẹẹ
nà’amẹ
‘grind’
‘open[door]’
[ʧε rε ̕ε p]
[sε ̕ε ́p]
[sὲέh]
‘fish’
‘axe’
‘song’
[mà̃ɳ lε ε
[mãɳ mε ε ]
[nà’mε ]
61
‘carry load’
‘take[one thing]’
‘choose’
[ə ]
Initial position:
Oek
Oen
Medial position:
Final position:
Goefu
[ə k]
[ə̃]
‘goat’
‘medicine’
[gə fu]
‘mouth’
Góen
[gə̃]
‘chin’
Boèt loè
[bə̀t lə̀]
‘wall’
noegoen
[nəgə̃]
Kòen
[kə̀̃]
Pemóe
[pemə̀]
‘mother’
‘mother’s brother’
‘six’
[a] low central back unrounded vowel
Initial position:
àgàs
[àgàs]
‘teeth’
àyàbà
[àjàbà]
‘plantain’
àmtú
[àmtú]
‘thirst’
62
Medial position:
Final position:
dàpìt
[dàpìt]
‘monkey’
dàkúr
[dàkúr]
‘tortoise’
dádín
[dádí̃]
‘bat’
gyará
[gᶨ ará]
‘hawk’
soòp ka’á
[soòp ka’á]
‘hair [head]’
tàbá
[tàbá]
‘tobacco’
[u] high back rounded vowel
Initial position:
ùrẹ ’ẹ ́t
‘good’
ùrọ̀k
[ùr̀ɔk]
‘sweet [tasty]’
ùfó
[ùfó]
‘new’
Medial position: dàkúl
fu’út
Final position:
[ùrε ’ε ́t]
lẹ̀mú
gòefu
[dàkúl]
[fu’út]
[lὲmú]
[gə̀fu]
63
‘left’
‘vomit’
‘orange’
‘mouth’
lòefù
[lə̀fù]
‘word’
[o] Mid-high back rounded vowel
Medial position:
Final position:
mù’òr
[mù’òr]
‘oil’
rógò
[rógò]
‘cassava’
górò
[góró]
‘kolanut’
wo’o
[wo’o]
‘snake’
ùfó
[ùfó]
‘new’
rógò
[rógò]
‘cassava’
[ɔ] Mid-low back rounded vowel
Initial position:
ọ rung
ọ ́kk
ọ ́gọ t
[ɔrung]
[ɔ́ k]
‘dust’
‘dig’
[ɔ́gɔ́t
64
‘cover [in hand]’
kọ ́m
Medial position:
gọ̀́ng
tọ̀ọ̀k
Final position:
[kɔ́m]
[gɔ̀ŋ̃ ́ ]
‘nose’
[tɔ̀ɔ̀k]
‘neck’
[kɔ̀ɔ́ ]
kọ̀ọ́
dẹ̀lkọ̀ọ́
‘ear’
‘chicken’
[dὲlkɔ̀ɔ́ ]
‘cock’
3.1.2.2 Distribution of Nasal Vowels in Kofyar
Nasal vowels are produced with the velum lowered to allow
the air coming from the larynx, to escape simultaneously through the nose
and the mouth. Nasalization is indicated by writing a ‘tilde’ above the
symbol for the sound to be nasalized. The following nasal sounds are
attested in kofyar.
[ĩ] High Front Unrounded Nasalized Vowel
Medial position:
Final position:
shing
chin
[ʃĩŋ ]
[ʧĩ]
‘mortar’
‘make’
65
[ẽ] mid high front unrounded nasalized vowel
Final position:
shén
kien
[ʃé̃]
‘give’
[kiẽ]
pangfen
‘salt’
[pãŋfẽ]
‘grinding stone’
[ε̃] mid-low front unrounded nasalized vowel
Medial position:
tẹng
[tε̃ŋ ]
‘rope’
Final position:
ńpẹ̀n
[nẹpε̃n]
‘here’
[ə]̃
Medial position:
noeng
toeng
Final position:
chigoen
dadoen
[nəŋ̃ ]
[tə̃ŋ]
‘tree’
[ʧigə̃]
[dadə̃]
koèdoegoen [kə̀dəgə̃]
66
‘nail[finger toe]’
‘bat’
‘enter’
[ã] low central back unrounded nasalized vowel
Medial position:
ɗang
gang
muor ɓang
Final position:
[ũ]
lan
[ɗãŋ ]
[gãŋ
‘ask’[request]
‘mat’
[muor ɓãŋ ]
[lã]
wan
[wã]
ɓiuban
[ɓiubã]
‘oil paml’
‘lose’[something]
‘mud’
‘rubbish heap’
high back rounded nasalized vowel
Medial position:
wung
ọ rung
kung
Final position:
[wũŋ ]
[ɔrũŋ ]
‘grass’
‘dust’
[kũŋ ]
kun
[kũ]
‘three’
sugun
[sugũ]
‘dream’
67
loegun
[ləgũ]
‘dry season
[õ] mid-high back unrounded nasalized vowel
Medial position:
tong
long
Final position:
wuyon
bèuyon
[tõŋ ]
[lõŋ ]
‘sit down’
‘king’
[wujõ]
‘senior/older’
[bèujõ]
[ɔ̃] mid-low back unrounded nasalized vowel
[gɔ̀ŋ̃ ]
‘nose’
ɗọ ́ng
[ɗɔ́̃ŋ ]
‘well’
kọ ng
[kɔŋ ]
‘river’
Medial position:
Final position:
gọ̀ńg
kọ n
mu’uon
[kɔ̃]
‘pour’
[mu’uɔ̃]
68
‘bee’
3.2
Phonetic distinctive feature matrix
Halle and clement [1983:6] as quoted in Oyebade [1998:24]
defines distinctive feature as a ‘set of articulatory and acoustic features
sufficient to define and distinguish one from the other.’ From the above
definition, the theory of distinctive feature is aimed at describing speech
sounds in language with some specified features in a bid to distinguish one
sound from another.
Oyebade also observed that a feature is either present or absent
in a speech sounds. Based on this, generative phonology adopts the binary
principle. The principle uses ‘plus [+] or minus [-]’ to indicate that a feature is
either present or absent in a segment. This principle will be adopted in
specifying the sound present or absent in the vowels of kofyar language.
3.2.1 Distinctive feature matrix for kofyar vowels
High
i
e
ε
a
ɔ
o
u
ə
+
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
69
3.2.2
Low
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
Back
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
-
Round
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
-
ATR
+
+
-
-
-
+
+
-
Justification for the distinctive features used for vowels in Kofyar
language
The features used are based on distinctive features system by
Jakobson (1931). Jakobson’s proposal in collaboration with Trubetskoy
(1938) is that “phonology can be analysed into complexes of distinctive
features that classify the entire inventory of possible speech sounds into
densely packaged network”. Every feature can appear in two possible value,
represented by positive value [+] or a negative value [-].
SYLLABIC: All vowels are syllabic. This is because they function as the
nucleus of the syllable and carry tone. This feature captures all vowels into a
natural class. It excludes all consonant sounds in Kofyar Language, except
syllabic nasals.
70
HIGH: This feature distinguishes sounds which are produced by raising the
body of the tongue toward the palate, non-high sounds are produced
without such a gesture. This feature distinguishes [I] and [u] from other
vowels in the language.
BACK: This feature characterize sounds made when the tongue is retracted.
The feature is relevant in distinguishing [u], [o], [‫ ]כ‬and [a] from the other
vowel sounds in the language.
ROUND: This sounds are produced with protrusion of the lips. The feature
distinguishes [u], [o] and [‫ ]כ‬from the other sounds in Kofyar.
ATR (Advanced Tongue Root): This feature is implemented by drawing the
root of the tongue forward, enlarging the pharyngeal cavity and often
raising the tongue body as well [+ATR] features include vowels like [i], [u],
[e] and [o].
Nasal: This are sounds that are produced with the lowering of the velum,
such that the air passes through the nasal cavity.
3.2.3 Segment Structure Constraints for Kofyar Vowels.
71
Segment redundancies are predictable features that are specific and
not universal and the redundancies below are attested in Kofyar:
IF:
[+high]
↓
THEN: [-low]
IF:
[+low]
↓
THEN: [-high]
IF:
[+high]
↓
THEN: [-ATR]
IF:
[+back]
↓
72
THEN: [-low]
IF:
[+back]
↓
THEN: [+round]
IF:
[+low]
↓
THEN: [-back]
IF:
[+low]
↓
THEN: [-round]
IF:
[+low]
↓
THEN: [-ATR]
IF:
[-back]
73
↓
THEN: [-round]
IF:
[+ATR]
↓
THEN: [-low]
IF:
[-ATR
↓
THEN: [-high]
3.3
Consonant Sounds in Kofyar Language
Kofyar language has 29 consonant sounds which are phonetically
represented. Consonants are produced with partial or total obstruction of
the air following from the lungs.
74
Stops
Implosiv
Fricativ
e
Affricat
p, b
t, d
ɓ
f, v s,
k, g
∫
z
ʧ
ʤ
e
75
kw
h
kj, gj
dj
ɗ
e
sw
fj
Palatalizedlabiodental
Palatalizedalveolar
Palatalized-velar
Labializedalveolar
Labialized-velar
Glottal
Velar
Palatal
Palato-alveolar
Alveolar
Labio-dental
Bilabal
Nasal
m
n
Lateral
l
Trill
r
Approxi w
ɳ
j
mant
3.3.1 Phonetic consonants chart of Kofyar Language.
3.3.2 Distribution of Consonants in Kofyar.
The description of the realization of Kofyar consonants will be given
on the basis of their occurrence in a word (i.e word initial, media and final
positions).
Stop/plosives
76
They are sounds produced by a complete obstruction or blockage of
air flow followed by a sudden release of an articulator involved. In this class
are the following consonants:
[p] voiceless bilabial stop
Initial position:
pìèp [pìε p] ‘bear
Pà’àt [pà’àt] ‘five’
Pemóe [pemə ] ‘six’
Medial position:
dàpìt [dàpìt] ‘monkey’
kòm-pé [k‫כ‬m-pé] ‘leaf’
soòp ka’á [soòp ka’á] ‘hair (head)’
Final position:
sẹ ẹ p [sε ε p] ‘axe’
dúp [dúp] ‘penis’
wùzèp [wùzèp] ‘guest’
77
[b] voiced bilabial stop
Initial position:
bàgan [bàgã] ‘arm’
bu’ap [bu’ap] ‘wind’
bèé [bèé] ‘thing’
Medial position: kabál [kabál] ‘crab’
Làboel [làbə l] ‘bird’
Lápbat [lápbat] ‘reply’
[t] voiceless alveolar stop
Initial position:
tọ ọ k [tɔɔk] ‘neck’
tọ klà [tɔklà] ‘okra’
tàgàm ɗàng [tàgàm ɗãɳ] ‘buttocks’
Medial position:
àmtú [àmtú] ‘thirst’
shép ta’u [ ʃép ta’u] ‘bow (weapon)’
batu [batu] ‘cat’
78
Final position:
kú’út [kú’út] ‘crocodile’
fu’út [fu’út] ‘vomit’
ùrẹ ’ẹ ́t [ùrε ’ε ́t] ‘good’
79
[d] voiced alveolar stop
Initial position:
dàpìt [dàpìt] ‘monkey’
dàkúr [dàkúr] ‘tortoise’
dádín [dádí̃] ‘bat’
Medial position: àda [àda] ‘matchet’
mandoer [mãdə r] ‘forget’
dádín [dádí̃] ‘bat’
[k] voiceless velar stop
Initial position:
ka’áh [ka’áh] ‘head’
Kọ m [kɔm] ‘ear’
Kọ p [kɔp] ‘spear (war)’
Medial position:
tọ klà [tɔklà] ‘okra’
lòng kang [lòɳkãɳ] ‘animal’
dàkúr [dàkúr] ‘tortoise’
80
Final position:
tọ ọ k [tɔɔk] ‘neck’
gòenọ k [gə̃ɔk] ‘back’
tɔrk [tɔrk] ‘soup/sauce’
[g] voiced velar stop
Initial position:
guyi [guji] ‘donkey’
gòezum [gә zum] ‘rat’
gam ọ ek [gam ә k] ‘he goat’
Medial position: bagan [bagã] ‘arm’
tàgàm ɗàng [tàgàmɗà̃ɳ] ‘buttocks’
tàgàm [tàgàm] ‘blood’
[kw] voiceless labialized velar stop
Initial position:
kwut [kwut] ‘crocodile’
kwùàt [kwùàt] ‘pay (for something)’
kwák [kwák] ‘leg’
81
Medial position: súán kwà [súá̃ kwà] ‘maize’
wùkwààt [wùkwààt] ‘hunter’
[gj] voiced palatalized velar stop
Initial position:
gyará [gjará] ‘hawk’
gyàrá [gjàrá] ‘dance’
[dj] voiced palatalized alveolar stop
Initial position:
dyíp [djíp] ‘feather’
dyidoerr [djidә r] ‘remember’
Medial position: ndyík [ndjík] ‘build (house)’
Peedye [peedje] ‘dawn’
Fricatives
These are sounds that are produced with a partial obstruction of air
flow by the articulators that are involved in the production with a gentle or
fricative release. The following are the fricative attested in Kofyar:
[f] voiceless labio-dental fricatives
82
Initial position:
fùrìm [fùrìm] ‘knee’
fi’u [fi’u] ‘cotton’
fa’at [fa’at] ‘ashes’
Medial position: pàngfen [pà̃ɳfẽ] ‘grinding stone’
gòefu [gә fu] ‘mouth’
lòefù [lә fù] ‘word’
[v] voiced labio-dental fricative
Initial position:
váng [vá̃ɳ] ‘wash (things)’
vangshik [vãɳʃik] ‘was (beey)’
Medial position: yàgùrùm voel [jàgùrùm vә l] ‘forty’
pògòvoel [pògòvә l] ‘seven’
sàr kà vóel [sàr kà vә l] ‘twelve’
[s] voiceless alveolar fricative
Initial position:
soòp ka’á [soòp ka’á] ‘hair (head)’
83
sẹ ’ẹ h [sɛ’ɛh] ‘axe’
sugun [sugũ] ‘dream’
Medial position: fuwus ban [fuwus bã] ‘sunshine’
yàkgóesoe [jàkgә sә ] ‘run’
yàgùrùm sàr [jàgùrùm sàr] ‘two hundred’
Final position:
àgàs [àgàs] ‘teeth’
lìís [lìís] ‘tongue’
ẹ ss [ɛs] ‘feaces’
[z] voiced alveolar fricative.
Initial position:
zèéhe [zèéhe] ‘story’
zẹ ’ẹ l [zɛ’ɛl] ‘saliva’
Zùgúm [zùgúm] ‘cold’
Medial position:
gòezum [gә zum] ‘rat’
wùzèp [wùzèp] ‘guest’
84
dyígoezòeng [djígẹzə̃ɳ] ‘urinate’
[∫] voiceless palato-alveolar fricative
Initial position:
shìk [∫ìk] ‘body’
shem [∫em] ‘yam’
shìtáh [∫ìtáh] ‘pepper’
[h] voiced glottal fricative
Medial position: fhuus [fhu:s] ‘sun’
nahugur [nahugur] ‘duck’
Final position:
ka’áh [ka’áh] ‘head’
sẹ ẹ h [sɛɛh] ‘song’
chìh [ʧìh] ‘thigh’
[sw] voiceless labialized alveolar fricative
Initial position:
swúá [swúá] ‘drink’
swùá [swùá] ‘plant (tubers)’
85
[fj] voiceless palatalized labio-dental
Initial position:
few [fju] ‘cotton’
fèw [fjù] ‘spin (thread)’
Affricates
They are produced with an initial stop followed by a fricative. The
following are affricates attested in Kofyar.
[ʧ] voiceless palato-alveolar affricate
Initial position:
chìh [ʧìh] ‘thigh’
chẹ rẹ p [ʧɛrɛp] ‘fish’
chẹ t [ʧɛt] ‘cooking’
chẹ ’ẹ t [ʧɛ’ɛt] ‘cool’
chùk [ʧùk] ‘knife’
[ʤ] voiced palate alveolar affricative.
86
Initial position:
jagám [ʤagám] ‘jaw’
jáng [ʤáɔɳ] ‘calabash’
jep [ʤɛp ] ‘children’
Implosives
They are stops with a mixed glottalic ingressive and pulmonic
eggressive airstream mechanism that is airstream is controlled by moving
the glottis downward in addition to expelling air from the lungs. Implosives
can be modified by phonation.
[ɓ]
Voiced bilabial implosive
Initial position:
ɓòe làng
ɓa’áng
ɓak
[ɓә lãŋ ] ‘work’
[ɓa’ãŋ ]
‘red’
[ɓal] ‘split [tr]’
87
ɓúgàt toeg
[ɓúgàt tә g]
tà'a ɓang [tà’a ɓãŋ ]
Medial position:
‘tie rope’
‘beat’[drum]
muọ rɓáng
[muɔr ɓãŋ ]
‘oil palm’
dòe ɓul
[dә ɓul]
‘lizard’
[ɗ ] Voiced alveolar implosive
Initial position:
ɗòe gòen-lú
ɗagar
ɗel
[ɗẹ gə̃-lú]
[ɗagar]
‘star’
[ɗel]
ɗoe goen bu’ut [ɗẹ gə̃ bu’ut]
Nasal
88
‘room’
‘pass(by)’
‘stomach’
Nasals are produced by lowering the velum to block the oral cavity,
thereby allowing the body of air from the lungs to pass through the nasal
cavity. Nasals in Kofyar are:
[m] voiced bilabial nasal
muọ r ɓáng
Initial position:
Media position:
[n]
‘oil palm’
má’ar
[má’ar]
‘millet’
má’rr
[má’rr]
‘farm’
lèmú
[lmú]
tàgàm ɗàng
[tàgàmɗãŋ ]
tàgàm
Final position:
[muɔr ɓãŋ ]
kóm
[tàgàm]
[kɔm]
‘orange’
‘buttocks’
‘blood’
‘ear’
tàgàm
[tàgàm]
fùrìm
[fùrìm]
Voiced alveolar nasal
89
‘blood’
‘knee’
Initial position:
Ndyík
Nkya
Noeng
[ŋ ]
[ndjík]
[nkja]
‘build[house]’
‘vulture’
[nә ŋ ]
‘cow’ [zebu]
Nbóm
[nbóm]
‘palm wine’
Nòelóek
[nә lә k]
‘thorn’
[pàŋ fẽ ]
‘grinding stone’
Voiced velar nasal
Medial position:
pàngfen
Lòngkang
màng lẹ ẹ
Final position:
wung
ọ rung
[lõŋ kãŋ ] ‘animal’
[mãŋ l]
[wũ ŋ ]
[ɔrũ ŋ ]
carry load’
‘grass’
‘dust’
tong
[tŏ ŋ ]
‘sit down’
long
[lŏ ŋ ]
‘king’
Lateral
90
The lateral sound is produced with a continuous flow of air at the
both sides of the tongue. The following sound is attested in Kofyar.
[l]
Voiced alveolar lateral
Initial position:
lìís
[lìís]
‘tongue’
long
[lŏ ŋ ]
‘king’
làboel
[làbə l]
Medial position:
tòklà
[tɔklà]
màng lẹ ẹ
nòelóek
Final position:
‘bird’
‘okra’
[mãŋ l]
‘carry load’
[nә lә k]
‘thorn’
yàgùrùm vol [jàgùrùm vol]
Kabál
[kabál]
‘crab’
Làboel
[làbə l]
‘bird’
‘forty’
Trill
This is produced with the speech organ gravitating to touch each
other several times. Kofyar language attest
91
[r]
Medial position:
ọ run
muòrbán
fùrìm
Final position:
[ɔrũ ŋ ]
[muɔr bãŋ ]
[fùrìm]
má’rr
[má’rr]
Yàgùrùm sàr
nahugur
‘dust’
‘oil palm’
‘knee’
‘farm’
[jàgùrùm sàr] ‘two hundred’
[nahugur] ‘duck’
Approximant
An approximant is produced when the articulators get close to each
other but not so close that a consonant, such as a stop, fricative or affricate
is produced. Kofyar attest /w/ and /j/.
It should be noted that the two sounds are referred to as semi vowels
or glides, because they are neither consonants nor vowels.
[w]
Initial position:
wung
[wũ ŋ ]
92
‘grass’
Wùzèp
wan
Medial position:
[wùzèp]
‘guest’
[wã]
‘mud’
wáwúl [wáwúl]
áwúbàn
[áwúbã]
‘return’
‘bad’
[j]
Initial position:
Yugeer [jugeer]
‘breast [female]’
Yàgùrùm vol [jàgùrùm vol]
yàkgóesoe
Medial position:
àyàbà
[jàkgә sә ]
[àjàbà]
wuyon [wujŏ ]
bèuyon
3.4
‘forty’
‘run’
‘plantain’
‘senior/older’
[bèujŏ ]
‘
Distinctive Features Matrix of Kofyar Consonants
Oyebade (2004) said that, the use of distinctive features for the
formation of rules based on the generative model is important. Generative
93
phonologists have identified (20) twenty distinctive features. They saw their
importance as the only linguistically relevant features of the human vocal
production. Distinctive features are also important in distinguishing
identical or similar sounds.
94
3.4 Distinctive Features for Kofyar consonant
p b t
d
K
g kw
kj
gj
dj
fj
sw
ɓ
ɗ
f
v
s
z

h ʧ
ʤ m n ŋ
l r
wj
+ + +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
- - -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
- +
+ +
Sonorant
- - -
-
-
- -
-
--
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
Anterior
+ + +
+
-
- -
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
+ +
+ -
Coronal
- - +
+
-
- -
-
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
+
+
-
+
-
+ +
- +
Lateral
- - -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+ -
- -
Nasal
- - -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
- -
- -
High
- - -
-
+
+ -
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
- -
- +
Round
- - -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
- -
Labial
+ + -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
+
-
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
- -
+ -
Consonan
tal
Continuan
t
95
Delrel
- - -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
- -
- -
Syllabic
- - -
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
- -
- -
Voiced
- + -
+
-
+ -
-
+
+
-
-
+
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +
96
3.4.1Justification for the Features Used
The features used are based on distinctive feature system by
Jacobsonian Binary Features (1982). Jacobson, in his work proposed that
“phonology can be analyzed into complexes of distinctive features that
classify the entire inventory of possible speech sounds into densely packed
network”.
Each feature comprehends two possible values represented by a
positive [+] and a negative [-] sign, which were introduced by a principle
called “Binarity”.
Consonantal [+ cons.]: This refers to sounds produced with a noticeable
obstruction in the vocal tract. The blockage is either total or partial nonconsonantal sounds are not produced with such obstruction, e.g. obstruent,
nasal, liquids vs. vowels and glides.
Syllabic [+ syll.]: Syllabic sounds are sounds which constitute syllabic peaks.
They are more prominent than contiguous non-syllabic sounds. They
include vowels, syllabic consonants vs. glides, non syllabic consonants.
Sonorant [+ son.]: These are sounds produced with a vocal tract
configuration, sufficiently open in such a way that the air pressure inside
and outside the mouth is approximately equal. Obstruent’s or sounds that
are not sonorant produced with a vocal tract configuration sufficient to
increase the air pressure inside the mouth significantly over that of the
ambient air. This sounds includes vowels, glides, liquids, nasal vs. stops ad
fricatives.
Anterior [+ ant.]: Anteriors are produced with a primary constriction in front
of the alveolar ridge, while posterior sounds are produced without such
gesture. They include labials, dentals, alveolars vs. palato-alveolars, palatals,
velars, uvulars and pharygeals.
Coronal [+ cor.]: Coronal sounds are those produced with the active
involvement of the tongue. The blade of the tongue is raised to touch either
the teeth, alveolar ridge, or the hard palate. Alveolars, dentals, palatals,
palato-alveolars vs. labials, velars, uvulars, glottal.
Labial [+ lab.]: Labial sounds are produced with the involvement of the lips.
They are bilabials, labio-dentals, labio-velars and rounded vowels vs.
dentals, alveolars, palatals, palate-alveolars, velars, uvulars and glottal.
Voiced [+ voice.]: When the vocal cords come together and the air pressure
from the lungs forces the vocal cords open, the sound produced are voiced.
xcviii
In the production of voiceless sounds, the vocal cords do not come together
and so, the air pressure is allowed to pass freely. Voiced consonants, vowels,
nasals vs. voiceless sound.
Continuant [+ cont.]: These are sounds produced with a partial vocal tract
configuration allowing the air stream to flow through the mid-saggital
region of the oral tract. Non-continuants or stops are produced without
such a gesture. These sounds include fricative, glides, liquids vs. stops,
lateral and affricates.
Nasal [+ nas.]: Nasal sounds are produced with the velum lowered such that
the air passes through the nasal cavity. Nasal consonants and vowels vs.
oral sounds.
Strident [+ strid.]: They are sounds produced with a complex constriction
forcing the air stream to strike
two surfaces, producing high intensity
fricative noise, non-strident sounds are produced without such a
constriction. Sibilants, labio-dentals, uvulars vs. all other sounds. The feature
[+ strid] is found only in fricatives and affricates.
xcix
Delayed release [+ delrel.]: This feature distinguishes between stops and
other sounds produced with a stop and fricative release that is affricates.
The feature is essential because it makes a clear distinction between stops,
fricatives and affricates. E.g. /t/ and /ʤ/ vs. fricatives.
Lateral [+ lat.]: This features is used to characterize the sounds which are
produced with the obstruction of the air streams at a point along the center
of the oral tract, with complete closure between one or both sides of the
tongue and the roof of the mouth, lateral, sonorants, fricative and affricate
vs. all other sounds.
High [+ high]: High sounds are produced by raising the body of the tongue
towards the palate; non high sounds are produced without such a gesture.
Velars, palatals, palatalized and velarized consonants, high vowels and
glides vs. all other sound.
Back [+ back]: Back sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively
retracted; non-back sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively
advanced. They include: velars, uvulars, pharngeals, velarized and
pharygealized consonants, central vowels and glides, back vowels vs. all
others.
c
Round [+ round]: This feature distinguishes the sounds produced with some
degree of lip rounding. It distinguishes labialized sounds from their plain
counterparts. For example /k/ and /kw/. /kw/ is [+ round] while /k/ is [round].
Advance tongue root [+ ATR]: This feature is implemented by drawing the
root of the tongue body as well, [- ATR] sounds do not involve this gesture
[+ ATR] vowels such as [i, u, e, o] vs. [- ATR] vowels such as [, ɔ, a].
3.4.2 Segment Redundancy of Kofyar Sounds
Redundancy is used in the specification of features that are
predictable and which are therefore not distinctive. In its general sense, the
term ‘redundancy’ is viewed as excess information, that is, information
expressed more than once and which could easily be forgone in some
occurrence.
Hyman (1976: 48) states that, ‘as important as distinctive features are
in rule formation redundant features should be left out in order to achieve
simplicity. Segment redundancies are predictable features that are specific
and not universal and the redundancies as below are attested in Kofyar.
ci
If:
Then:
[+ cons.]
- son.
- lat.
- high
- cont.
If:
[+ cont.]
Then: + strid.
- lat.
If:
[+ son.]
Then - con.
+ voiced
- low
cii
If:
[+ high]
Then: - low
+ syll.
-delrel.
If:
[+ ant.]
Then: + lat.
+ lab.
-low
+ nas.
If:
[+ cor.]
Then: -low
-lab.
ciii
-ant.
-rd.
If:
[+ back]
Then: + syll.
-lat.
-nas.
If:
[+ strid.]
Then: + cons.
-son.
+cor.
-nas.
civ
If:
[+round]
Then: + bk.
-cor.
+lab.
cv
If:
[+ nas.]
Then:
-bk.
+ant.
+cons.
+ voice.
-lat.
-strid.
3.5
Tones in Kofyar Language
Welmers (1959: 2) noted that ‘a tone language is a language in which
both pitch composition of the same morphemes can be lexically contrasted
in a given phonological environment’. A tone language is a language that
has “… lexically significant, contrastive
but relative pitch on each syllable” [Pike, 1957: 3). Tone could further be
defined as a system of pitch change centered around the nucleus. A tone
cvi
language, therefore, is a language whereby, tone is distinctive and leads to
a change in meaning.
Contrastive tones are however marked over the vowels, which are
properties of the syllable or marked on syllabic nasals like most African
languages and some Asian languages, Kofyar is a tone language. Kofyar is
primarily a register tone language register tone languages are languages
with tones at various pitch heights distinguishing the features. Other
register tone language include Yoruba, Igbo and most of the southern
Nigerian languages while, on the other hand contour tone languages are
languages where pitch varies, that is, not stable.
According to Welmers (1959: 2), register tone is sub divided into two:
the discrete tone and terrace level tone.
Discrete Tone
The gap between the tones stays consistent. Thus, it gives three tones:
high [/], mid [-] and low [\]. In any utterance, there is consistent gap
between the tones.
Terrance Level Tone
cvii
In language that exhibit the terrace level tone, we find pitch distance
between the tones decreasing gradually as we move from one tone to the
other.
Kofyar language falls under the discrete level tone.
The tones in Kofyar are:
High tone [/]
Mid tone [-]
Low tone [\]
cviii
Words with the discrete tone in Kofyar language is exemplified below:
a.
High tone
jáng [ʤáŋ ]
‘calabash’ H
kabál [kabál]
‘crab’
H
márr [mar]
‘farm’
H
ka’ah [ka’áh]
‘head’
H
chét [tt]
‘cooking’
H
dádín [dádĩ ]
‘bat’
HH
swúá [swúá]
‘drink’
HH
tóók [tɔɔk]
‘neck’
HH
é’éss [‘’s] ‘grind’
HH
Also, high tone can co-occur with other tones as exemplified below:
rógò [rógò]
górò [górò]
‘cassava’
‘kolanut’
HL
HL
cix
áwúbàn[áwúbà] ‘bad’
HHL
kabál [kabál]
‘crab’
MH
gyará [gjará]
‘hawk’
MH
cx
b.
Low Tone
chìh [ʧìh]
‘thigh’
se’èp [s’p]
‘axes’
L
L
nà’amẹ [nà’am]
‘choose’
L
gòefu [gә fu]
‘mouth’
L
shìshik [ìik]
‘body’
L
tòklà [tɔklà]
‘okra’
LL
fùrìm [fùrìm]
‘knee’
LL
àgàs [àgàs]
‘teeth’
LL
àyàbà [àjàbà]
‘plantain’
LLL
wùkwààt[wùkwààt]
‘hunter’
LLL
yàgùrùm [jàgùrùm]‘twenty’ L L L
Also, low tone can co-occur with other tones as exemplified below:
lìís
[lìís] ‘tongue’
LH
cxi
lèmú [lmú]‘orange’
ùfó
LH
[ùfó] ‘new’ L H
gong [gɔŋ ]
‘nose’ LH
ùrẹ ’ẹ ́t [ùr’t] ‘good’ L M H
àmutú [àmutú]
‘thirsts’
sàr ká kún [sàr ká kũ ] ‘thirteen’
MH
LHH
sàr ká pemóe[sàr ká pmә ] ‘sixteen’
sàr ká pa’àt [sàr ká pà’àt] ‘fifteen’
LHH
LHLL
sàr ká pògòkún [sàr ká pɔgɔkũ ] ‘eighteen’ L H L L H
c.
Mid Tone
guyi [guji] ‘donkey’
MM
bu’ap [bu’ap] ‘wind’
MM
batu [batu] ‘cat’
MM
zẹ ’ẹ l
[z’l] ‘saliva’
MM
cxii
nahugur [nahugur] ‘duck’
MMM
Also, mid tone can co-occur with other tones as exemplified below:
ka’áh [ka’áh] ‘head’
MH
pemóe [pemә ] ‘six’
fu’út [fu’út] ‘vomit’
sẹ ’èp
MH
MH
[s’p] ‘axe’
ML
soòp ka’á [soòp ka’á] ‘hair [head]’ M L H
In the above examples, the three level tones has been exemplified,
and it can be observed that we cannot have a sequence of three high tones
in a word in Kofyar language.
3.5.1 Functions of Tone in Kofyar
Kofyar makes use of lexical tones, that is, tone perform lexical function
in Kofyar language, that is, they bring about a change in meaning in an
otherwise identical and structural segments or words, that is, tones are
meaning bearing in Kofyar.
Lexical function of tone in Kofyar
cxiii
Words with the same forms are distinguished by tone in Kofyar. Some
examples are:
gyará [gjará]
‘hawk’
gyàrá [gjàrá]
‘dance’
sééh [sh]
‘axe’
sèéh [sɛh]
‘song’
cxiv
swúá [swúá] ‘drink’
swùá [swùá]
3.6
‘plant (tubers)’
The Syllable Structure of Kofyar
A syllable is the smallest possible unit of speech. Every utterance
must contain at least one syllable. (Ladefoged, 1975: 23).
The syllable is defined by Hyman (1975: 189) as the peak of
prominence in a word, which is associated with the occurrence of one word
or a syllabic consonant that represents the most primitive in all languages.
The inherent sonority of each sound can also be called a syllable. The
sonority of a sound is relative to that of other sounds with the same length,
pitch and stress.
Ladefoged (1975: 248) says that there are two types of theories
attempting to define syllable. First, there are those in which the definitions
are in terms of properties of sounds such as sonority, (acoustic energy) or
prominence (some combination of sonority, length, stress and pitch).
Second, there are theories based on definitions that are in terms of activities
of the speaker, principally, the notion that a syllable is a unit in the
organization of the sounds of an utterance. In
cxv
one sense, a syllable is the smallest possible unit of speech. Every utterance
must contain at least one syllable. It is convenient to talk of speech as
composed of segments such as vowels and consonants, but these segments
can be observed only as aspect of the syllable.
A syllable can be divided for descriptive analysis into ONSET and
RHYME. The rhyming part of a syllable consists of the vowel(s) and any
consonant(s) that come after it. Any consonant(s), which is the most vocalic
(most heard), and the CODA, within consists of any final consonant(s). This
is diagrammatically shown below (Ladefoged, 1975: 248).
Syllabic
Onset
Rhyme
Nucleus
Coda
The structure of a syllable (Ladefoged 1975: 248).
The onset is usually at the beginning of a syllable and consists of
consonant(s), the nucleus (peak) consists of vowel(s) and it is the most
prominent part while, the coda is found at the end of a syllable which is
usually a consonant(s).
cxvi
Also, a syllable can either be closed (that is ending with a consonant)
or open (that is ending with a vowel). Both syllable types are found in
Kofyar language.
3.6.1 Closed Syllable in Kofyar Language
A closed syllable is a syllable type that ends with a consonant. A
consonant can end a word in Kofyar language, this can be exemplified
below:
ùrẹ ’ẹ t [ùr’t]
‘good’
ka’áh [ka’áh]
‘head’
bu’ap [bu’ap]
‘wind’
zẹ ’ẹ l
‘saliva’
lìís
[z’l]
[lìís]
‘tongue’
fùrìm [fùrìm]
‘knee’
tóók
‘neck’
[tɔɔk]
cxvii
chét [tt]
‘cooking’
márr [már]
‘farm’
3.6.2 Open Syllable in Kofyar Language
An open syllable is a syllable type that ends with a vowel, that is,
words that ends with a vowel. This can be exemplified below:
Àyàbà [àjàbà]
‘plantain’
Àmutú [àmutú]
‘thirsts’
guyi
[guji]
‘donkey’
pemóe
[pemә ] ‘six’
rógò
[rógò] ‘cassava’
gyará
[gjará]
nà’amẹ
gòefu
‘hawk’
[na’am] ‘choose’
[gә fu] ‘mouth’
Peedye [peedje] ‘dawn’
àda
[àda]
‘matchet’
cxviii
The Syllables in Kofyar Language
The basic syllable system attested in Kofyar language is exemplified
below:
3.6.3 Mono-Syllabic Words
The mono-syllabic words are structured as V and CV in Kofyar
language.
ẹ p
[p]
‘open (door)’
oek
[ә k] ‘goat’
okk
[ɔk]
‘dig’
oen [ə̃]
‘medicine’
kọ n [kɔ̃]
‘pour’
èss
‘feaces’
[s]
kóm [kɔm] ‘ear’
kòp [kɔp] ‘spear(war)’
cxix
àda
[àda] ‘matchet’
ùfó
[ùfó] ‘new’
jép
[ʤp] ‘children’
fi’u
[fi’u] ‘cotton’
dúp [dúp] ‘penis’
3.6.4 Di-Syllabic Words
In Kofyar, there are three types of di-syllabic words, these are
exemplified below:
a)
C
+
VC
chìh [ʧìh] ‘thigh’
chét [tt] ‘cooking’
shem [m] ‘yam’
shìk [ìk] ‘body’
àda
[àda] ‘matchet’
cxx
b)
CV + CV
guyi
[guji]
rógò
[rógò]
‘cassava’
górò
[górò]
‘kolanut’
lèmú
[lmú]
‘orange’
gòefu
[gә fu]
c)
+
CV
lìís
‘donkey’
VC
[lìís]
zẹ ’ẹ l
‘mouth’
‘tongue’
[z’l]
‘saliva’
ka’áh
[ka’áh]
‘head’
tóók
[tɔɔk]
‘neck’
séẹ h
[sh]
‘axe’
3.6.5 Tri-Syllabic Words
cxxi
The tri-syllabic words are structured as C + VC + VC in Kofyar language
and V + CV + CV
[a] C + VC + VC
làboel
[làbə l]
‘bird’
fùrìm
[fùrìm]
‘knee’
kabál
[kabál]
‘crab’
nòelóek
[nә lә k]
‘thorn’
zùgúm
[zùgúm]
‘cold’
mandoer
[mãdә r]
‘forget’
gamọ ek
[gamә k]
‘he goat’
(b)
V + CV + CV
àyàbà
áwúbàn
[àjàbà]
[áwúbã]
‘plantain’
‘bad’
3.6.6 Quadric Syllabic Words
Quadric syllabic structures are listed below in Kofyar language.
cxxii
Doegoel sárá
[dә gә l sárá] ‘English’
nàkùpchús
[nàkùpʧús] ‘snail’
mat goedik
[mat gә dik] ‘wife’
baldógól
[baldógól] ‘hard’
3.7
Summary
So far, in this chapter, we have looked at the sound system, tonal
system and the syllable structure of Kofyar language.
cxxiii
CHAPTER FOUR
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESS IN KOFYAR LANGUAGE
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Phonological processes refer to the processes observed in the
phonemic sequence of a word. When two or more morphemes are
combined, changes affecting contiguous segments take place across
morpheme boundaries. Quite often, when morphemes are joined together,
there are constraints and there are violations. These violations are repaired,
so to speak, by some mechanisms that the language introduces. The
mechanisms are known as phonological processes.
Phonological processes are sound modifications, motivated by the
need to maintain euphony in a language or to rectify violation of well
formed constraints in the production of utterance segments of various
morphemes may influence each other in different ways and this may result
into new segments being formed.
The need to form new words from basic words results into phonological
processes. However, it is not in all cases that new words are formed that can
result to a phonological process.
cxxiv
Sometimes, phonological processes come about to maintain the
musical quality of an utterance to make its production easy to release the
articulators contact in the production of a one sound.
This
chapter
looks at the processes allowed by the phonology of Kofyar language.
4.1 Phonological processes in kofyar
The nature speaker of a language internalize certain rules and this
innate knowledge is applied during expression, i.e. when they speak. These
rules are very regular with only few exceptions and they come about as a
result of phonological process applicable in Kofyar language. The processes
to be discussed in this chapter include, assimilation, labialization,
palatalization, nasalization, insertion, deletion and vowel harmony.
4.1.1 Assimilation
Oyebade [1998 61] refers to assimilation as a process
contiguous segments influence each other by becoming
whereby
more alike.
Assimilation takes place when two contiguous segments influence each
other by becoming more alike or identical in all or some of the features of
their production.
4.1.1.1 Vowel – vowel assimilation
cxxv
Assimilation in kofyar language can occur between vowels.
Wupíá + àgàs
White
teeth
Che’etse + ayaba
Cooking
Táà
Beat
+
banana
white teeth
tʃe’etsaajaba
cooked banana
oek
tàooek
goat
beat goat
Wupíá + e’es
white
wupíáàgàs
bone
wupíáaes
white bone
awúba + oerim
awúbooerim
cxxvi
bad
beans
bad beans
toe
+ ass
toeass
kill
+ dog
kill dog
From the example shown above, the vowel – vowel assimilation
process is found in Kofyar language when a verb and a
noun or an
adjective and a noun collocate.
There is assimilation across morpheme boundary, the final vowel of
the adjective or verb is lost and assimilates the initial vowel of the noun or
the initial of the noun is lost and assimilates the final vowel of the adjective
or verb.
The vowel assimilation rule is given below;
V1
V2/V1 # V2
cxxvii
+syl.
+syl.
-cons.
+syl.
-cons.
1
#
-cons.
+syl. 2
-cons.
4.1.1.2 Consonant Vowel Assimilation.
When a consonant is contiguous with a vowel, sometimes it takes on
some features of the vowel. Two typical example of this assimilation process
are “palatalization” and “labialization”. These are discussed below.
4.1.1.2.1 Labialization in Kofyar
Labialization is the super – imposition of the lip rounding on a segment
in such a way that the feature of the vowel attaches to the consonant. It can
also be defined as the addition of some degree of secondary lip rounding to
the primary articulation when it is followed by a labial sound Katamba
[1988:87].
Kwák
[kʷák]
‘leg’
Súákwá
[súúkʷá]
‘maize’
cxxviii
Kwòò
[kʷòò]
‘darkness’
Kwút
[kʷút]
‘leopard’
Kwàt
[kʷàt]
‘pay [for something]
The rule to account for labialization in Kofyar language is given
below;
-son.
+lab.
+syll.
-cont.
+rnd.
A stop becomes labialized when it occurs before a rounded vowel.
4.1.1.2.2 Palatalization In Kofyar.
A consonant in a word manifest a secondary articulation of palatality
if the segment following it is a front vowel. This is an assimilatory process as
front vowels are produced around the palatal region of the oral cavity.
Oyebade [1998:65].
cxxix
Peedye
[pe;dʴe]
‘dawn’
Dyíp
[dʴíp]
‘feather’
Ndyík
[ndʴík]
Dyí goe zòeng
[dʴígə
Dyidoerr
[dʴídə r]
‘build[house]
‘urinate’
‘remember’
The rule to account for palatalization in kofyar language is given thus;
+cons.
+high
+syll.
-syll.
+high.
-rnd.
A consonant becomes palatalized when it occurs before a front vowel.
4.1.2 Nasalization in Kofyar.
cxxx
Nasalization is a process whereby an oral vowel segment acquires
nasality from a neighboring segment. The velum is lowered to allow the air
to escape through the nose. The lower the soft palate, the higher the
degree of nasalization.
Nasalization takes place when a vowel is adjacent to a nasal
consonant. This is a vowel – consonant assimilation, that is a vowel
assimilates consonant features [Schane, 1973:60]. The diacritic used in
identifying nasality is known as tilde [̫]. From the example below, we can
see that vowels assimilate the nasal feature.
This can be exemplified below:
gòǹg
[gɔ̃́g]
‘nose’
chegen
[ʧegẽ]
‘chegen’
toéng
pangfen
[tə́ ̃ɳ]
[pãɳfẽ]
nigden am [nígə̃ am]
‘tree’
‘grinding stone’
‘sea’
cxxxi
wan
[wã]
‘mud’
lúgún
[lúgṹ]
‘dry season’
dadin
[dadĩ]
‘bat’
kùn
[kũ̀]
‘long[of stick]
tàgán
[tàgã́]
‘heavy’
The rule of nasalization in Kofyar language is written thus:
+syll.
+nas.
-cons.
+cons.
+nas.
A vowel becomes nasalized when it occurs before a nasal consonant.
4.1.3 VOWEL HARMONY
Crystal [1991:76], in his account of vowel harmony, says that vowel
harmony is used to refer to ways in which the articulation of
cxxxii
one
phonological unit is influenced by another unit in the same word or phrase.
It is a very familiar process in many African and some European languages.
Oyebade [1998:82], says that languages that attest this process
impose the euphonic constraint of allowing vowels from a particular group
to co- occur together in a well-defined domain to the exclusion of members
of other groups. Unlike most of the processes so far encountered, this one
does not insist on contiguity. In fact, it is one of the few phonological
processes in language that can apply skipping elements.
Davenport [1998:73], says that, we have complete and incomplete
types of vowel harmony. The complete vowel harmony is regarded as full or
complete when there is no overlap, that is, when vowels in one set are not
found in another set. There is no co-occurrence between the vowels in the
various sets. It is when groups of vowels occur together in a particular
domain to the exclusion of members of another group, while partial or
incomplete vowel harmony is when vowels group themselves in harmonic
sets and vowel in a particular set can co-occurred with each other.
Kofyar operates partial vowel harmony in which we have two sets,
with the neutral vowel which can co-occur with either of the two sets.
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Set A
Front
Central
Back
High i
u
Mid
e
o
ə
Low
a
Set B
Front
High
i
Central
Back
u
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Mid
ɔ
ε
ə
Low
a
The following is how the vowels harmonize to occur together in words in
kofyar language.
Set A
Set B
Yugeer [jugeer] ‘breast [female]’
pìè̩p [pìèp] ‘beard’
Furim [furim] ‘knee’
ko̩m [kɔm] ‘groundnut’
Mu’or [mu’or] ‘oil’
che̩t [ʧet]
Shìtah [ʃìtah]
‘pepper’
Kampe [kampe] ‘stick’
Gòe pàng[gə̀pa҃̀ɳ] ‘house’
Lòe fù
[lə̀fù]
‘word’
‘cooking’
o̩rung[ɔrũɳ] ‘dust’
dè̩ikò̩ó̩[délkɔ̀ɔ́] ‘cock’
làre̩p [làrε p] ‘daughter’
ùré̩é̩t [ùrὲέt] ‘good’
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Pémoe
[pémə ] ‘six’
Wùfó [wùfó]
‘new’
kóene̩s [kə̀nε s] ‘delicate’
shie
Wagoeji [wágə dɜì] ‘come’
[ʃíε ]
‘learn’
sóegum [sə́gúm] ‘carve’
Vowel harmony is always based on one phonetic feature or another
and accounts for the alternation perceived in some affixes or clictics. The
most common phonetic property of vowel harmony in African languages, is
the ATR feature. [Oyebade, 1998:83].
4.1.4 INSERTION
Trask [1996:132] refers to insertion as the act of adding or inserting a
segment into a word in a position where no segment was previously
present. Insertion is a very common process in the phonology of many loan
words in many African languages, including kofyar. In kofyar language, we
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have the insertion of vowels to break the sequence of consonants borrowed
from another language. This can be illustrated below:
English word
Yoruba word
kofyar borrowing from Yoruba
Brε d
búrédì
búrèdì
‘bread’
Bε it
bẹlíìtì
bẹlíìtì
‘belt’
Sleit
síléètì
Hausa word
síléètì ‘slate’
kofyar borrowing from hausa.
Bit
biti
‘day’
Takad
takada
‘book’
The vowel to be inserted when have the case of borrowing in Kofyar
language depends on the competence of the native speaker.
It is haphazard thing.
The rule to account for insertion in Kofyar is given below:
Ø
+high
+ cons.
+cons.
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-back
A high vowel is inserted to break up consonant clusters.
4.1.5 Deletion
According to Oyebade [1998:68], deletion refers to the loss of a
segment under some language specific imposed condition. Oyebade
[1997:168],deletion is another common phonological process in languages
most especially in African languages.
It could be a vowel or consonant deletion. Deletion that involves
vowels is referred to as ‘elision’. Vowels are usually deleted when two or
more vowels across morpheme boundary. When such is introduced by
morphological processes, the language may choose to drop the first or
second of the contiguous vowels.
The deletion noticed in kofyar language is the consonant deletion.
When consonant deletion occur as a result of morphological or syntactic
collocation, the offending cluster is rectified. This can be illustrated thus;
Tulu
+
biat
biatulu
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Table
Sogoem
cloth
+
Cow
Lu
+
House
table cloth
na
sogoema
horn
cowhorn
mat
luat
wife
housewife
The second of the two contiguous vowels gets deleted across
morpheme boundary.
The deletion rule can thus be stated below:
+cons.
-syll.
+cons.
Ø
-syll.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0
Introduction
This chapter sets out to give a summary of this work, and to make
some recommendations and conclude the study.
5.1 Summary
This work has attempted to give a phonological description of kofyar
language, focusing on the systematic combination of sounds to form words
in kofyar language. Genetically, kofyar language belongs to the Afro Asiatic
sub family of African language family. The geographical location shows that
kofyar is located in the Qua’an pan local government area of plateau state
Nigeria. The estimated population of the kofyar speakers is about 109,943.
The economic and socio- cultural profile where discussed.
The Ibadan 400- word list of common lexical items, frame techniques
and oral interview were employed in eliciting the data used for this long
essay. Generative phonology approach formed the theoretical framework
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for analysis. This work briefly reviewed some works related to this project.
The literatures were strictly based on phonology.
While conducting the research, it was discovered that kofyar
language has twenty-nine consonants, eight oral vowels and eight nasal
vowels, which are all shown in charts. The syllable structure and tonal
inventory were discussed.
We discovered that Kofyar has phonological processes such as:
assimilation, labialization, palatalization, nasalization, vowel harmony,
insertion and deletion which were discussed, along with rule formalization
in Kofyar language. The last part of the long essay summarizes the research
work and draws a conclusion based on our findings in the language.
5.2 Recommendations
No known research work has been carried out on Kofyar language
before now, it is one of the minority languages in Nigeria that has not been
studied and reduced to writing, so this long essay, which may be regarded
as a pioneer work in Kofyar, can serve as a reference for further studies in
the language. It is therefore, hoped that linguistic research on Kofyar will
endeavour to cover other aspects of Kofyar including pragmatics, morpho –
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syntax and most especially the lexicography of Kofyar language to avoid
any form of language extinction [death].
5.3 Conclusions
The study on Kofyar, a minority language spoken in plateau state,
Nigeria, is significant since linguistics is not only concerned about
developed language alone, but it is also concerned with under developed
languages which have received little or no linguistics attention. This project
studies aspect of the phonology of kofyar and phonology is important to
the study and development of any human language. It is therefore going to
be a foundation for further studies on the language.
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