Session C6
Paper #2308
ENGINE EFFICIENCY: THE ECOMOTORS SOLUTION
Joey Daubert (jsd31@pitt.edu), Andy
Lawniczak (ajl73@pitt.edu)
Abstract—As the world’s demand for energy continues to
increase, people look to new technologies to make energy
consumption efficient and environmentally friendly. The
inefficient use of fossil fuels, particularly by four stroke
internal combustion engines used in today’s automobiles,
has taken precedence in the discussion of energy efficiency.
A suitable solution to this issue is a new engine design that
maximizes energy efficiency and minimizes harmful
emissions. The progressive engine company EcoMotors has
accomplished this with the design of their two-stroke
opposed-piston opposed-cylinder (OPOC) engine. This
paper will explain and critique how the cutting-edge OPOC
engine meets the energy efficiency criteria in a compact,
reliable package. It will also clarify any ethical concerns
associated with the OPOC engine and how it will avoid
these concerns with its innovative design. The technicalities
of each separate part of the OPOC engine will be discussed
at length, and they will be compared to the parts of
conventional internal combustion engines to show why the
OPOC engine displays significant improvement in energy
efficiency and emissions.
The OPOC engine is the proper solution to today’s
automobile energy needs due to its direct gas exchange
operation. This type of gas exchange provides the OPOC
with emissions benefits comparable to that of the four
stroke engine. Additionally, the compact design allows for
two pistons per combustion chamber, thereby doubling the
energy output of the engine [Technology]. With its
emissions benefits and high energy efficiency, the OPOC
will epitomize power density in internal combustion
engines.
Key Words—direct gas exchange, Ecomotors, four stroke,
OPOC engine, power density, two stroke.
TODAY’S ENERGY CRISIS
As the world’s very limited supply of fossil fuels continues
to be depleted by society, the demand for energy efficient
and environmentally friendly technologies grows ever more
apparent. With no definitive replacement for fossil fuels in
the immediate future, the most plausible course of action is
to improve upon the current technologies that are the
primary consumers of these fuel sources. One of the leading
culprits of fuel consumption is the automobile industry. In
2011 in the United States, automobile fuel use alone
accounted for 8.75 million barrels of fuel consumption.
When combined with the inefficiency of the conventional
internal combustion engine, these substantial amounts of
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fuel consumption amount to a considerable waste of energy.
The primary concerns with automobiles involve efficiency –
particularly engine efficiency – and harmful gas emissions.
In the typical automobile, only about 14%-26% of the
energy from the fuel put in the tank gets used to move the
car down the road. The majority of the remaining energy is
lost through the engine: 60% is lost as heat exhaust and a
combined 10% is lost through combustion, pumping, and
friction. With more cars appearing on the road every day, the
consumption of fuel will continue to increase at an alarming
rate unless a solution to fuel efficiency is discovered [5].
FIGURE 1
U.S. FUEL CONSUMPTION
The conventional internal combustion engines are no
longer able to meet the requirements that allow them to keep
pace with the rapidly changing efficiency and emission
standards. The optimal solution to this issue is to develop a
new engine design that maximizes energy efficiency and
minimizes harmful emissions. However, today’s most
common internal combustion engine, the four stroke engine,
provides little room in its design for adjustments. Previous
attempts to redesign the four stroke engine have fallen short
because they were unable to meet the strict criteria
demanded by automobiles today.
Current four stroke engines are limited to certain amount
of efficiency with little variation. When it comes to this type
of engine, the consumer must choose between having high
engine power or clean fuel emissions. Today’s consumer
demands an engine powerful enough to drive around a full
cab of people and hit top speeds of around 80 miles an hour
or more. In order to achieve this, the engine must have a
substantial size to it. However, this requires higher amounts
of inefficient fuel consumption and ultimately leads to more
harmful emissions.
The emission standards of the four stroke engine are met
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Paper #2308
in two ways. The first way is to limit the amount of fuel that
gets injected into the cylinder for combustion. Less
combusted fuel means less harmful gases leave the car as
exhaust. However, this also means the engine will have less
power and won’t be able to hit the high speeds that the
consumer demands. The other way automobile
manufacturers reduce emissions is by recycling noncombusted gasoline in the exhaust tank back into the
cylinder and burning it again. Regardless, with the four
stroke engine, limited efficiency means there will always be
a trade-off between engine power and clean exhaust
emissions.
CONVENTIONAL MODELS OF THE INTERNAL
COMBUSTION ENGINE
Internal combustion engines power many different types of
machines used today. The two most commonly used types of
internal combustion engines used are four stroke and two
stroke engines. Although these two types of engines work
through similar thermodynamic processes, they have a few
differences that allow them to have different applications.
They both work by combusting fuel, which causes gases to
expand in the cylinder of the engine. This in turn creates
enough pressure to push down a piston which is connected
to a camshaft. This causes the camshaft to turn, which
creates a rotational energy that is then converted into usable
kinetic energy that can be harnessed and transformed into
motion by the machine. Each of these engines has different
strengths and downfalls which make them useful for specific
applications.
four stroke engine uses a carefully calibrated timing belt to
open the intake valve while keeping the exhaust valve
closed. This allows an air/fuel mixture to be drawn in as the
piston slides down the cylinder, thus completing the first
stroke. The cams on the camshaft provide a counter weight
that pushes the piston back up after it takes in fuel. As the
piston moves up, it compresses the cold fuel gas and
increases pressure. Near the top of this second stroke, a
spark plug ignites the air/fuel mixture and causes it to
expand. The gases expand for two reasons: one reason is the
heat produced by combustion causes the gases to expand.
This expansion process is proven by the Ideal Gas Law
PV=nRT (where P=pressure, V=volume of gas, n=number
of moles of gas, R is a constant equal to 0.08205 liter atm /
mol*kelvin, and T=temperature). If this equation is
rearranged to in terms of the volume (V=nRT/P), it can be
shown that as T increases, so does volume. The other reason
for the expansion of gas is that burning gasoline produces
more gas molecules. This can be shown by the basic
balanced chemical equation for combustion of gasoline
C8H18 + 12.5O2 → 9H2O + 8CO2. Again, this is the basic
formula and does not take into account other fuel additives
or additional carbon dioxide caused by a lack of a sufficient
amount of O2 during the combustion process. Prior to
combustion, the air/fuel mixture contains 13.5 moles of gas,
and after combustion there are 17 moles of gas. The Ideal
Gas Law (V=nRT/P) can again be used to show that as the
number of moles (n) increases, so does the volume of the gas
[8]. These expanding gases push the piston back down,
which turns the camshaft, resulting in the third stroke. This
stroke is called the power stroke because it is what allows
the machine to do work. Finally, during the fourth stroke of
the engine, the cams rotate and force the piston back up. As
the piston goes up, the timing belt opens the exhaust valve
and allows the hot, combusted gas to leave the cylinder.
Then the process repeats [10].
FIGURE 2
SIMPLE DESIGN OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
The four stroke internal combustion engine is the larger
of the two types of engines. Four stroke engines have a pair
of valves for each cylinder. One valve controls intake, and
the other controls exhaust. The first part of the power
producing cycle for any internal combustion is intake. A
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FIGURE 3
FOUR STROKE ENGINE DESIGN
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Session C6
Paper #2308
FIGURE 5
TWO STROKE ENGINE DESIGN
FIGURE 4
TYPICAL TIMING BELT IN A FOUR STROKE
Two stroke internal combustion engines use the same
thermodynamic principles as four strokes to push the piston
and produce power. However, they are designed to do this in
only two strokes of the piston, as the name implies (a
compression stroke and combustion stroke). During the
compression stroke, the counter weighted cams on the
camshaft push the piston up, compressing the air/fuel
mixture. Then the spark plug ignites the mixture and the
combustion pressure pushes the piston back down,
producing power. During this power stroke, the engine will
simultaneously intake and exhaust gas. It does this by using
open ports on the side of the cylinder wall. The crankcase
that contains the camshaft pressurizes the air/fuel mixture as
the camshaft rotates. Initially, as the piston goes down, gas is
exhausted through the exhaust port. Then, as it goes down
further, the intake port is opened to the combustion chamber,
allowing the pressurized air/fuel mixture to enter. As the
cams drive the piston back up, the ports are closed and more
air/fuel mixture is accepted into the crankcase. Then the
process is repeated.
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Four stroke internal combustion engines are the standard
engine for automobiles, mostly due to their ability to
carefully control the intake and exhaust of fuel. This allows
them to meet government emission standards relatively
easily. Also, the precise timing ability of the four stroke
engine makes it reliable. Two strokes, on the other hand,
have a difficult time meeting emission standards. The type
of fuel and air mixture that is compatible with two strokes
also needs lubricants to be mixed with them so the crankcase
can be lubricated enough to ensure that the engine functions
properly. These extra chemicals, as well as a sloppy control
of intake and exhaust gases, generally cause two strokes to
be dirty engines that aren’t meant to be run for a long
amount of time. This is why they are usually used in smaller
applications such as weed whackers, lawnmowers, and dirt
bikes. However, if two strokes were redesigned to perform
in a cleaner manner, they would be preferred over four
strokes due to their compact size. As two strokes lack the
extra bulk of the timing belts and the valves, the overall
weight of the engine is significantly less than the four stroke
and thus contributes to a reduction in energy lost to friction.
Since they produce power every other stroke instead of
every four strokes, the two stroke engine is more efficient
(in terms of power) compared to the four stroke engine [3].
THE ECOMOTORS SOLUTION
The four stroke engine and the two stroke engine each
contain multiple strengths in their designs. Naturally, the
ideal engine would combine the best features of both of
these engines: the clean emissions and reliability of the four
stroke, with the compact size and efficiency of the two
stroke. However, this feat is not easily accomplished and
many previous attempts have not produced a design
sufficient enough to survive in today’s strict consumer
market. However, after years of research and design, Prof.
Peter Hofbauer (Founder, Chairman, and Chief Technical
Officer of EcoMotors International) seems to have found the
optimal solution to automobile power. The solution, called
the OPOC engine, uses an ingenious engine design to
combine the efficiency of a two stroke engine with the clean
emissions of a four stroke.
The OPOC (opposed-piston opposed-cylinder) is
considered a two stroke engine because it produces power
every other stroke. It uses advanced exhaust gas recycling
methods to minimize gas emissions with the efficiency of a
four stroke. It works by having two horizontally positioned
pistons face each other on each side of the camshaft. When
one side is ignited and begins expanding, the other side is
exhausting gas and taking in new fuel. An electronic turbo (a
turbo is a compressor driven by the engine’s exhaust) allows
the car’s internal computer to control proper compression
February 10, 2012
Session C6
Paper #2308
and exhaust depending on engine rotations per minute
(rpms). This turbo also controls the flow of exhaust gas.
Unlike standard two strokes, the OPOC does not need oil or
other chemical additives to be mixed with its fuel because
the crankcase and outer piston housing have ports for engine
oil. This eliminates the dirty environment of the typical two
stroke engine and therefore extends its lifespan and broadens
its range of application. The OPOC also has an
electronically controlled clutch that allows multiple engines
to be connected or disengaged to reduce fuel consumption.
These parts of the OPOC engine are essential to its design
and they contribute substantially to its overall efficiency [9].
THE BENEFITS OF A DUAL PISTON CYLINDER
Although the OPOC works off of the same thermodynamic
principles as other internal combustion engines, its unique
architecture allows it to reduce the amount of energy lost to
friction and achieve unprecedented levels of efficiency. The
OPOC reduces friction in two ways. The main way is
through a process in which the center pushrods are almost
always forced in, causing them to experience a force in the
form of compression, while the outside pull rods are always
experiencing tension. These opposing forces cancel out
leaving a resultant force of almost zero on the crankshaft.
Since there is little force on the crankshaft, there is little
friction opposing its rotating motion. The balance of the
OPOC can be demonstrated by the equation r1*m1 = r2*m2,
where r1= 45 mm and r2= 35 mm are the inner and outer
throws, respectively, and m1 and m2 are the corresponding,
adjusted reciprocating masses that make both sides equal to
each other.
between the OPOC and the standard four stroke internal
combustion engines. Lincoln Hill, public liaison of
EcoMotors International, says the problem with friction in
standard internal combustion engines is “Primarily a result
of the balanced crank shaft. In a typical engine
configuration, there is always something exerting pressure
on the crank in a counterproductive direction, something the
engine block is designed to contain” [9]. Since there is less
force on the OPOC crankshaft the engine block can be made
smaller and lighter, providing the OPOC with greater power
density. Unlike standard four stroke engines, which on
average produce about 1 horsepower for every 3 pounds of
engine weight, the OPOC engine averages an output of
about 1.1 horsepower per pound. The power density of the
OPOC engine is one of the most crucial keys to its success
and efficiency [3]. However, there are more friction
problems EcoMotors had to overcome. Specifically, rubbing
occurred on the side of the outer pistons where they meet the
pull rods. Although there is a small amount of friction here,
it was important that EcoMotors addressed this problem
because it could have easily led to wear and tear issues after
a lot of usage. This wear is at two locations: the piston skirt
and the piston pin. The piston skirt is the bottom part of the
piston head that extends the lowest, opposite the combustion
bowl. When the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke, it
rocks some in the cylinder; this rocking is what causes wear.
The OPOC uses cross head type linear bearings to prevent
these side forces from acting on the piston skirt. Another
problem with two stroke pistons is friction at the piston pin.
Because forces are always acting in the same direction on
the piston head, oil has a tough time getting between the
bearing surface and the pin. The linear bearings cause a
significant deficiency of relative motion between the rocking
surfaces and therefore eliminate most friction in this area.
When designing this part of the engine, the EcoMotors
engineers took particular care in making sure the radius of
curvature at this point was selected to ensure that pressure at
this contact point was less than the Hertzian pressure.
Hertzian pressure is the maximum pressure allowed between
two objects that are touching before they start to deform to
each other and wear [10]. It is an important concept of
contact mechanics that the engineers must adhere to in order
to develop the optimal engine design. By keeping contact
pressure of these bearings below Hertzian pressure, the
OPOC engine prevents wear in the piston pin.
KEY FEATURES OF THE FUEL INTAKE PROCESS
FIGURE 6
MODEL OF OPPOSING PISTONS
This process of rendering friction to be almost
nonexistent within the engine exemplifies a key difference
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One of the main features of the OPOC intake is the direct
gas exchange operation. This means that the OPOC has fuel
injectors that spray the proper amount of fuel directly into
the combustion cylinder for optimum operation. This is
common in today's four stroke engines and helps them
achieve low fuel emissions. However, this is an advanced
feature for two stroke engines, because two strokes must
February 10, 2012
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typically rely on an air/fuel mixture coming up from the
crankcase, which is a sloppier and less fuel efficient way to
run an engine. This direct fuel injection is also why the
OPOC can run on virtually any liquid fuel and does not
require a fuel/oil mix like standard two strokes.
Another key feature of the OPOC’s intake and exhaust
system is its electronically controlled turbo. The turbos for
regular four stroke engines work by using the pressure from
exhaust gas to turn a turbine that forces more air into the
combustion cylinder. The high intake air pressure increases
the compression between the cylinder and the piston, which
translates into more power produced by the engine at certain
rpms. However, turbos have some difficulty producing high
power when going from low or idling rpms to high rpms.
The problem occurs because the exhaust gas pressure must
first build up in order for the turbo to be properly wound up.
The lack of power due to the turbo winding is called turbo
lag in the auto industry. The electric motor in the OPOC’s
turbo allows it to spin up the turbo even when exhaust
pressure is low, thereby eliminating turbo lag. This turbo
was designed to dissipate heat around the electric motor and
be able to withstand the high temperatures of the engine.
This turbo also can be used as a generator that uses excess
exhaust gas to make electricity for the car rather than letting
that energy go to waste like standard turbos. Basically, the
electronic turbo allows the OPOC to control the optimum
intake and exhaust pressures for certain rpms of the engine
[5, 7].
FIGURE 7
ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLLED TURBO DIAGRAM
ADVANCED EXHAUST SCAVENGING SYSTEM
The OPOC engine contains a few unique features that allow
it to achieve unprecedented efficiency. The designers of the
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OPOC at EcoMotors International have claimed that the
engine can achieve 90% cylinder scavenging. Cylinder
scavenging is a process that recycles fuel from the exhaust
that did not fully combust and puts it back into the
combustion chamber to be burned again. This leads to less
harmful chemicals being produced by the engine and
drastically reduces that amount of harmful emissions. The
OPOC boasts three key features that allow it to achieve such
a significant reduction of fuel emissions. These features are
the electronically controlled turbo, asymmetric port timing,
and circumferential ports [1, 3].
The electronically controlled turbo supports cylinder
scavenging by producing a resistance to exhaust gas
pressure. This resistance causes some combusted fuel to
reenter the cylinder while the exhaust port is still open.
Asymmetric ports refer to the ideal locations of the intake
and exhaust ports in the cylinder. Since the inner pistons
have a shorter distance to travel than the outer pistons, the
exhaust port is on their side. This allows the exhaust port to
open before the intake as well as close after it. Additionally,
the intake port is on the outer piston side. This allows the
OPOC to let some of the exhaust gas in before it enters the
turbo to blow back into the cylinder to be burned again.
Circumferential ports refer to the intake and exhaust
ports on the engine. The ports are circumferential because
they wrap around the whole combustion cylinder. This
allows for even gas flow around the cylinder. Even gas flow
is important to the fluid dynamics of the engine because it
allows it to efficiently move intake and exhaust gases
without causing turbulence that leads to inefficient air flow.
The design and placement of these ports does much more for
the engine than what can be initially observed. As said
before, it is important that the exhaust ports allow some
backflow for combusted fuel scavenging. This port has more
advantages: the design of the exhaust and intake ports allow
the backflow of exhaust gas to hit the fresh fuel coming in
from the intake ports at a tangential angle. Using fluid
dynamics, EcoMotors engineers were able to make the
exhaust gas hit the intake gas at a tangential angle, causing
the gas to tumble in a manner similar to an ocean wave
crashing. This tumble effect promotes swirl in the cylinder.
By having proper swirl of fuel gases in the cylinder, there is
a more homogenous mixture of fresh fuel and recycled fuel.
Therefore, when the mixture is ignited during combustion, it
explodes better and therefore produces more power and
increases fuel efficiency.
These features all combine to contribute to a reduction of
harmful emissions that meet the Environmental Protection
Agency 2010 standards for heavy duty commercial trucks
with a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR). SCR is a
chemical converter on the exhaust end of the engine that
uses a chemical reaction to convert harmful NOx gas into
nonhazardous N2 and H2O. EcoMotors International, as well
as multiple independent engineering firms, confirmed that
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the OPOC engine meets these requirements; however, the
engine is still being updated and small changes to its design
are continuously being made in an effort to meet the EPA
standards of converting NOx into nonhazardous compounds
without the use of SCR [4].
MODULAR DESIGN OF THE OPOC ENGINE
A unique feature of the OPOC engine is its modular design.
Since the OPOC is extremely well balanced, it can easily be
connected to another OPOC engine next to it for added
power. EcoMotors has designed an electronically controlled
clutch that can engage and disengage multiple engines. The
ability to simply add more OPOC engines to a vehicle’s
drivetrain greatly increases fuel efficiency. EcoMotors
claims that a single OPOC engine is able to achieve 15%
better fuel economy than a standard four stroke internal
combustion engine. When two OPOCs are coupled using the
electronically controlled clutch, this is called a Dual Module.
In this case, the fuel efficiency of the pair increases to 45%
better than that of a standard four stroke. Furthermore,
EcoMotors claims that the addition of a third engine, called a
Dual Module Tribrid can achieve 55% better fuel economy
[4].
This is much more efficient than current forms of flex
fuel engines (flex fuel engines are engines that are designed
to run on gasoline or a blend of up to 85% ethanol) such as
those found in the typical car today. Normally, cars that shut
off part of their engine when they aren’t under high load just
stop combustion in a few chambers of the engine. However,
since these pistons are still connected to the camshaft, they
still move up and down as the other pistons still fire. This
leads to natural parasitic losses (parasitic loss comes from
any device that takes energy away from the engine in order
to enhance the engine’s ability to create more energy) in
energy from friction in the pistons that aren’t producing
power. The EcoMotors OPOC engine, however, completely
disengages the other module when under low engine load,
which results in no parasitic energy loss. With the OPOC,
EcoMotors solved the other potential problem of starting the
second module through the use of the electronically
controlled clutch. Normally, an electric starter motor is
needed to start the engine. Although the first module needs
one, the second module does not because when the clutch
engages it, the power of the running modules turns and starts
the engine by starting the compression process. In the auto
industry, this is referred to as bump starting [5].
The electronically controlled clutch is the essential piece
that maintains the OPOC’s well-balanced characteristics. It
achieves this by making sure the forces of each module
cancel each other out. EcoMotors says it does this by using a
“two-position lockup element” that generates a phase angle
of ninety degrees between each module. This effectively
cancels out opposing forces and produces an even firing
order similar to a powerful V8 engine without sacrificing
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performance [9].
INTEGRATION INTO THE MANUFACTURING
INFRASTRUCTURE
One of the major ethical concerns of any new technology is
ease and cost of production. These factors are important
because if a product requires rare materials or parts that are
hard to make or obtain, it will be more expensive to produce.
With the current condition of the United States consumer
market, an expensive automobile will never replace the
standard cars used every day. However, the versatility of the
OPOC falls perfectly into the strict demands of the
consumer market. Since the OPOC engine works off of the
same principles as standard internal combustion engines,
many of its parts are very similar to those of its
predecessors. This means that the current automobile
production infrastructure today can easily be converted to
begin the production of OPOC engines. Additionally,
because the OPOC doesn’t need a valve train like that of the
standard four stroke, it doesn’t require the contributing
timing parts, thereby eliminating the extra costs that the
typical four stroke engine brings with it. The EM100 model
of the OPOC only has 62 parts, while a four stroke engine
with comparable has 385 parts [7, 9]. This means that the
OPOC engine is not only more efficient than standard four
stroke engines, but it is also cheaper to produce. All of these
factors amount to a 20% lower cost of production.
Additionally, the long term investment in the OPOC will be
more than 30% lower than the investment needed for
conventional internal combustion engines. The OPOC is
projected to have a much longer lifespan than most standard
engines and with less glitches and failures, which means the
costs of repairs will also be decreased. The OPOC could not
only be an ethical solution to automobile power, but also a
solution to creating new jobs and pulling out of the global
recession [7, 9].
CLOSING THE DEAL
Although clearly an innovative design with the ability to
produce unprecedented efficiency and emissions results, the
EcoMotors OPOC engine is not currently in mass
production because no single company has agreed to buy the
design and begin producing them to be sold on the market.
As in the case with hybrid vehicles, which were researched
for many years before they were put into production,
significant research and development must still be conducted
before this engine becomes standard in vehicles. However,
it has been developed for some military uses with a DARPA
(Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) contract.
There are also several private company customers: Navistar,
Generac, and Anhui Zhongding Holding Group Co. have all
agreed to development and commercialization contracts [9].
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EFFICIENCY FOR THE FUTURE
The implementation of the OPOC engine into automobiles is
driven by the need to develop suitable new technologies that
will make energy consumption efficient and environmentally
friendly. The conventional internal combustion engines are
no longer able to keep pace with rapidly changing consumer
demands and emission standards. A new engine design as
innovative and efficient as the EcoMotors OPOC engine is
precisely what is needed in order to maximize the available
fuel sources that we have remaining, and minimize the
harmful effects that they have on the environment. Since the
OPOC possess the best strengths of both the two stroke and
four stroke engines, it is the ideal engine that has the
capability of accomplishing this. Not only is the OPOC a
clean, lightweight, and power dense engine that can be used
in a variety of applications, it also has the proper dimensions
that allow it to be integrated directly into the current
manufacturing facilities and assembly lines. This ease of
production eliminates the need for any ethical concerns
regarding excessive manufacturing costs as well as any
concerns of being able to produce the engine on a large
scale. The OPOC engine will eventually render all
conventional internal combustion engines obsolete. With its
high energy efficiency and clean emissions, the OPOC
engine is the proper solution to today’s automobile energy
needs.
(OPOC).”
Popular
Mechanics.
[Online].
Available:
http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/news/fuel-economy/6-prototypeengines-to-get-your-brain-firing#fbIndex1
[12] Xu, H.-J. (September 2009). “Simulation on in-cylinder flow on
mixture formation and combustion in OPOC engine.” Neiranji Xuebao,
27(5), 395-400.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the Engineering Library for
providing us with the useful information on how to find the
sources necessary for writing this paper. We would also like
to thank Lincoln Hill and the engineers at Ecomotors for
assisting us in our research.
REFERENCES
[1] Aston, A. (21 March 2008). “Diesel Design by EcoMotors.” Bloomberg
Businessweek.
[Online].
Available:
http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/content/mar2008/db200803
21_874119.htm
[2] (July 2010). “Ecomotors receives funding for OPOC engine.” The
Engineer, July Volume, 2.
[3] Ellzey, C. (1 July 2008). “Opposed Piston Opposed Cylinder Engine.”
EngineeringTV.
[Online].
Available:
http://www.engineeringtv.com/video/Opposed-Piston-Opposed-Cylinder
[4] (20 April 2011). “Greenhouse Gas Emissions.” U.S. Environmental
Protection
Agency.
[Online].
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http://epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/index.html
[5] (28 February 2012). “New Electronic Turbo.” RSE Innovators. [Online].
Available: http://www.rse.co.uk/images/turbo2.jpg
[6] Ping, H. (February 2011). “Analysis of Self-Balance Characteristics of
OPOC Engine.” Advanced Materials Research, 211-212, 93-96.
[7] Runkle, D. (16 June 2010). “Tribrid Power System.” Automotive News
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[Online].
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http://www.autonews.com/Assets/html/10_angc/pdf/pres_runkle.pdf
[8] Skipor, A. (May 2006). “Liquid to Gas Combustion.” Newton – Ask a
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[Online].
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[9] (2012). “Technology.” EcoMotors International. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ecomotors.com/technology
[10] Walker, J. R. (1981). Exploring Power Technology. South Holland:
The Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
[11] Wojdyla, B. (2012). “Ecomotors Opposed Piston Opposed Cylinder
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