RAPE MYTHOLOGY AND VICTIM BLAMING ON THE INTERNET
Rape Mythology and Victim Blaming on the Internet: A Qualitative Research
Project on the Manifestation of Rape Culture Online
Karina Buvaylik
Rogers State University
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Abstract
Rape mythology and victim blaming in society have been widely researched in the last
several decades. However, the study of rape culture manifestation online is a relatively new
endeavor. This study focused on using virtual ethnographic principles and feminist criticism to
observe the presence of rape culture online. Online reader comments from two liberal and two
conservative news blogs were observed and analyzed for rape myth endorsing content. The
research found that that within the realm of comments observed, rape culture is still largely
pervasive in society and is not limited to either liberal or conservative ideology.
Keywords: rape culture, virtual ethnography, feminist criticism, news
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Introduction
Rape culture, from the feminist theory perspective, is the prevalence of rape supportive and
condoning beliefs in our society (Burt, 1980). Rape culture encompasses the ideas of common
rape myths-she was asking for it, she shouldn’t have worn that outfit, women only get raped by
strangers, if she didn’t want to get rape she would have stopped it- and the subsequent
marginalization of the victim. Two recent rape cases, Steubenville, OH and Maryville, MO,
have brought intense examination to how rape cases are reported, the language used in reference
to the victim, and the public’s commentary on the crimes. Studying the media commentary on
sexual assault cases from a feminist criticism perspective sheds light on how frequently those
reports contain language that trivializes the victim’s experience while simultaneously
scrutinizing her character. Studies of rape culture and media representation have been around for
decades, however researching the presence of this social phenomenon on the internet is a fairly
recent endeavor. With the advent of the internet came social media, news blogs, and the ability
of a large percentage of the population to broadcast its opinions on a previously unheard of scale.
The purpose of this research is to study how rape culture manifests online by observing user
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comments on both conservative and liberal news blog sites, and analyzing those comments using
a feminist criticism approach.
Background
Feminist Criticism
For the last several decades, feminist criticism has allowed scholars to approach
literature, social issues, history and other elements of society from the perspectives of women. It
is a deviation from the centuries-old, patriarchal bias that dominated much of the recorded world
view until the 1960’s (Tyson, 2006). Feminist criticism works to address that a majority of
rhetoric has been written from a male perspective, thus eliminating women’s voice (Foss and
Griffin, 1992). Addressing, then rectifying this disparity allows for women’s point of view to not
only be recognized in discourse but also accepted as valuable insight into the human experience.
Feminist criticism has offered invaluable commentary on the prevailing rape culture
which can be defined as a “cultural manifestation through the acceptance of rapes as an everyday
occurrence, victim blaming, and stigmatization of rape victims” (Parenti, 2005). Feminist
criticism points out the often sexist, patriarchy originated notion of “good girls” and “bad girls”
that manifests itself as a myth within rape culture (Tyson, 2006). Rape mythology is systematic
control of female identity through language that shapes public opinion. The “virginal” or
sexually conservative woman is both deserving of delicate treatment and is not at fault for any
sexual abuse that she is subjected to, while the “whore” is automatically deemed to have
questionable character and deserving of whatever she suffers. Feminist criticism addresses this
sexist notion head-on and discusses its place in the larger scope of rape culture.
Susan Brownmiller stated that feminist writing “maintains that we live in a culture
supports the objectification of, and violent and sexual abuse of women through movies,
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television, advertising, and girlie magazines (as cited in Burt, 1980). Many scholars have
approached these representations of women in the media with the goal of pinpointing the rape
myths endorsed in the media and their effect on the population. Marcel notes that these myths
naturalize and normalize violence and domination of women by men. From the patriarchal
perspective women are seen as inferior of class, gender, and race. The most troubling aspect of
these studies is the affirmation of the news media’s role in helping influence public acceptance
of misogyny and the viewing of women as societal “others” (2013). Feminist criticism brings the
discussion of the social implications of these myths to women to the public eye and helps build a
pathway to eliminate the rape culture so evident in our society.
Rape Culture in the Media
Rape myths can be defined ‘‘prejudicial, stereotyped or false beliefs, prejudices or stereotypes
about rape, rapists, and rape victims’’ (Burt, 1980). Common myths include: she was asking for
it, she is lying about the rape, if she didn’t dress/act that way she wouldn’t have been raped, and
rapists are sex crazed psychopaths (Burt, 1980). Marian Meyers also points out “that focusing on
the assailant as ‘sick’ and ‘provoked’ by the victim relieves the culture of responsibility for
endemic misogyny” (as cited in Marcel, 2013). The prevalence of rape mythology and victim
blaming language in modern news reporting has been widely documented and studied by
researchers (Franuik, 2008; Worthington 2008; O’hara 2012). It requires minimal effort to
observe the perpetuation of rape culture through the modern News media. Rape victim
characterization in news reporting plays a vital role in perpetuating rape myths; the predominant
characterizations being the “good girl-bad girl” dichotomy, where a “good girl” is seen as a true
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victim of a rape while a “bad girl” is seen as the instigator of the attack (Worthington, 2008;
Marcel, 2013).
This review of previous research focuses on studies and news reports on some of the
more well-known cases in Western news and what effect they have on the reader. These studies
and news articles elucidate the way the victim and the perpetrator are viewed, the pervasive
attitude that the victim’s character should be on trial and/or that there is justifiable reasoning for
the rapist’s action. In her study of rape myths in 124 news stories, Shannon O’Hara found not
only evidence of a lack of reporting on the victim’s trauma, but also victim blaming (2012). One
of the news stories she discusses is the account of a violent group rape of an 11 year old girl in
Cleveland, Texas covered by The New York Times. This report was particularly troubling in both
its lack of focus on the victim’s suffering but also in the removal of the direct blame from the
attackers. The reporter used phrases like “how could their (Cleveland citizens’) young men have
been drawn into such an act?” and “she dressed older than her age” was a damning comment
about the girl’s character from members of the community (McKinley, 2011). These statements
remove the culpability from the men who committed the act and implicated the victim in enticing
the rape through her dress and behavior. This type of discourse on a violent crime is not only
damaging to the victim, but allows those that commit the crime to not be held fully accountable
for their actions. In another rape case, O’Hara found that over 59% of the news reports described
the victim as being intoxicated. Emphasizing the victim’s use of alcohol is of detriment in the
criminal rape cases as it allows rape to be seen as a consequence of irresponsible drinking by the
victim, therefore, once again blaming her for the attack (O’Hara, 2008).
Another recent study found not only that rape myths were not only consistently present in
news articles, but they also had a negative effect on the attitudes of readers towards rape. The
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study covered news headlines in regards to the Kobe Bryant rape allegations. Findings showed
that 10% of news headlines promoted at least one rape myth, and that after reading these
headlines, male participants in the study were more likely to believe Bryant’s innocence and
accept rape myths(Franiuk, Seefelt, and Vandello, 2008). Another myth discussed in this
research that regarding stranger versus acquaintance rape and the difference in empathy received
by victim:
“The more a sexual assault fits the “vicious attack by a stranger” script, the more a
victim is believed and offered sympathy and the more anger that is generated against the
perpetrator. Conversely, the more a sexual assault deviates from the prototypical assault,
the more the victim is disparaged and questioned and the more sympathy and benefit of
the doubt the perpetrator receives (e.g., Freseet al. 2004; Goodchilds et al. 1988; Linz et
al. 1989;Sawyer et al. 1998).” (Franiuk, Seefelt, and Vandello, 2008).
This observation drives home strong point. Any diversion from the assumed “real rape” scenario
brings the victim’s credibility into question and assumes she has other ulterior motives for
reporting the rape. This is not only problematic because of the obvious influence on the news
consuming public, but also in rape trials as well. Rape mythology endorsed - intentionally or
unintentionally- sways juror bias that results in the acquittal of the rapists, the defamation of the
victim’s character to the public, and even serves as a discouragement to other rape victims from
coming forward. In the case of the Kobe Bryant case, the prosecution dropped all charges. This
culture of protecting the perpetrator is as dangerous as is shaming the victim.
In 2012, two rape cases garnered national attention. The first case occurred during
August of that year. A 16-year-old woman was raped by two prominent members of the local
high school football team in Steubenville, OH after consuming alcohol at a party. The two young
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men recorded the sexual abuse and posted the photos/videos on social media sites. Also, team
coaches and community members were accused of attempting to cover up the crime to protect
the athletes. That same year, in Maryville, MO, two teenaged girls ages 13 and 14 were raped.
The controversy revolves around the older victim. The young woman snuck out of her home and
went to the house of an older football player from her high school. At some point during the
evening, she was incapacitated due to alcohol consumption and was raped. After the incident, the
attacker took her back to her home and left her outside in below freezing temperatures. Similar to
the Steubenville case, the attack was recording and then disseminated on social media and
through the student population and the attacker was a member of the football team.
In both the Steubenville and Maryville cases, the victims were characterized as
irresponsible, lacking character, and inviting of the attacks. Both victims were threatened and
ostracized by the community, ignored or vilified by the media, and were forced to relocate.
When reporting on the trial verdict on the Steubenville case, CNN reporter Poppy Harlow
commented that it was “incredibly difficult” to watch the two young men with “promising
futures” as they were handed down their sentence (Edwards, 2013). This commentary not only
detracted from the horrifying experience of the victim, but might also inadvertently lead to the
idea that she is somehow responsible for the ruination of the young men’s futures; men who
voluntarily participated in the victimization of a young woman not in a state of mind to consent
to sex. In a similar fashion, guest defense lawyer Joseph DiBenedetto on FOX News commented
on the Maryville case, saying “she is leaving her home at 1 a.m. in the morning and nobody
forced her to drink. What did she expect to happen at 1 a.m. after sneaking out?”
(Ohlheiser,2013). Once again, the victim is subject being blamed for her rape, indicating that if
women do not go out and drink, they won’t get raped. As I state previously, this is one example
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of many where the news media subscribes to victim blaming and assist in the perpetuation of
rape culture.
Gender and Misogyny Online
For the purpose of this study, it is important to address the presence of sexism, misogyny,
and gender discrimination’s role in the manifestation of rape culture online. It allows
observability of rape culture and abuse focused on rape victims and women as a whole on the
internet. Barak pointed out in his research that “in regard to women, quitea few online
environments—practiced in chat rooms or in forums—are characterized by an antiwomen spirit”
(2005). This statement summarizes the harassment of some women who participate in online
discussions or whom discussions are about. In both the Steubenville and Maryville cases, the
young women’s sexual abuses were documented with cameras and phones, and then posted on
the social media sites (news citation). In these scenarios, online media was used to humiliate the
young women and trivialize their abuse. They were then “slut shamed” and vilified in online
forums, as will be shown in the primary research section of this study. These incidents of
misogyny and attempts at patriarchal subjugation of women in the online media are not isolated.
In 2012, feminist blogger Anita Sarkeesian suggested studying how female characters were
depicted in video games. The violent online backlash was monumental. Legions of male gamers
and participants in the online media launched a full-scale virtual attack on Sarkeesian. Her
personal information was disseminated online, she received death threats, and an online game
was created depicting Sarkeeisan being beaten and consecutively bruised (Consalvo, 2012). This
behavior was a clear example of “flaming”, aggressive online behavior where one user
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personally attacks another. In this context flaming is used by men to try and assert control over
women’s behavior and exclude their voice for public forums (Barak, 2005).
As previously discussed, feminist criticism asserts patriarchy’s attempt to address women
as “other” within societal hierarchy in a man’s culture. The advent of the internet has
theoretically allowed anyone with access to have her voice heard. However, when issues of rape
culture arise, predominantly male effort is put forth to silence the female voices of dissent. In her
recent article “Why Women Aren’t Allowed on the Internet” writer Amanda Hess discusses the
abuse she and other women with online presence have to endure (2014). She is frequently
inundated with threats of rape and murder, and has she been a victim of stalking both offline and
online.
Another well documented attempt to silence not just the voices of victims, but the voices
of rape victims occurred when an online Men’s Rights advocates group (MRA) flooded a
victim’s online resource website with false claims and crashed the site. The site was created at
Occidental College to allow rape victims to anonymously report attacks for statistical purposes
and to access resources available to them. Despite its use as an outlet for victims to let their voice
be heard, the Reddit and 4Chan based MRA’s decided to silence these victims’ voices. The
group was inspired to take these actions after a false post on Reddit stated “Feminists at
Occidental College created an online form to anonymously report rape/sexual assault. You just
fill out a form and the person is called into the office on a rape charge. The "victim" never has to
prove anything or reveal their identity" (Jezebal, 2013). Not only was statement completely
inaccurate, it also worked to undermine the right of a victim to address the injustice done to her.
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The online media is a valuable tool for distributing content that allows participants to
change the current culture of rape in our society. It is also yet another place where patriarchy
works to suppress the voices of women and rape victims.
Observation of Rape Culture through Liberal and Conservative News Blog User
Commentary
In this study, I used a feminist and virtual ethnographic approach to study the social
phenomenon of rape culture online as a non-participant observer. Using a feminist approach
allows me to observe expressions of gender bias, patriarchal privilege, and rape mythology in the
comments of online users while addressing the uniqueness of studying online users on the
internet. Ethnography is a study of culture and social phenomena that a researcher observes in a
natural setting with minimal influence. It is “a flexible, responsive methodology, sensitive to
emergent phenomena and emergent research questions” (Boellstorff, Nardi, Pierce, and Taylor,
2012). It is with this adaptability of methodology that brings ethnographic study into the virtual
world. Ethnographer Christine Hine defines virtual ethnography as the immersion of the
researcher in the life of the online culture or community (Markham and Baym, 2009). Virtual
ethnography is especially relevant with the growing presence of the internet in our daily lives.
The intent of this particular study was to use four online conservative and liberal news
blog versions of well documented rape cases to observe and compare the commentary by
participants on opposing ideological sides. The Huffington Post and Think Progress were used as
the liberal websites. The Blaze and Redstate were used for the Conservative side. Two of the
articles focused on the Maryville rape of Daisy Coleman and two focused on the Steubenville,
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case. All but three of the articles came out in fall of 2013, with one coming out earlier that year.
The top thirty comments from each article were analyzed for rape myth and victim blaming
content.
Liberal Commentary
The first two articles studied were “Everything You Need To Know About The
Steubenville Rape Trial” on Think Progress and “Mom Says Teen Was Raped, Then Nightmare
Began” covering the Maryville case on The Huffington Post (Strasser, 2013; Cantor, 2013). Both
of the articles discussed details of the case and addressed the legal proceedings. However,
despite both of these online forums being considered “liberal”, the reader comments on the two
sites were very different from one another in the focus of their dialogue. The majority of
comments on Think Progress directly discussed rape culture, blamed the perpetrators, and
addressed gender inequality. One user said “Rape culture believes ‘she didn’t affirmatively say
no’ is consent” while another user commented with “The sad part is that in our society, we
actually teach girls how not to be raped. I have a very novel idea. Let’s start teaching boys not to
rape.” Both of these statements make a clear point about the importance of reevaluating how to
deal with rape. Consent is not debatable. If there is not an explicit statement of a desire to have
sex, it means no. The second addresses the gender-biased idea that women bear the responsibility
of not getting themselves raped, instead of cultivating a culture where men see rape as an
opportunity to do as they deem fit with a woman’s body.
Despite these very pertinent statements to this case and rape culture itself, several people
deviated from place the accountability of the men and from the true nature of rape. Many users
commented with thoughts varying from “They are underage and should not be drinking and/or
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having non consenting sex with anyone” to discussing the athlete-protecting culture that is
pervasive in our culture as seen in the Steubenville and Maryville cases. While the intention of
the first comment was show disgust at the victimization of the woman, what it actually displays
is a common rape myth and removal of responsibility from the attackers. Just because the victim
is under the legal drinking age and has been drinking, that doesn’t mean that the perpetrator is
not responsible for his actions. Alcohol or not, the rapist committed a violent crime against
another human being. This leads to my second point. Referring to rape as “sex” is both
inaccurate and trivializes the nature of the act. A common rape myth is that rape is an act of sex.
However, rape is“not primarily a sexual crime, it is a crime of violence” (C.G. Warner as cited in
Palmer, 1988). Also, while numerous cases including Steubenville and Maryville make a strong
case of a culture that turns a blind eye the questionable actions of star athletes, it is important to
first and foremost remember the injustice done to the victim.
Surprisingly, the majority comments on The Huffington Post focused on issues other than
the rape itself in comparison to those on Think Progress. One commentator said “What I do not
understand is why these kids think that it is intelligent to do something like this, film it and then
spread it on social media like its something funny other than a criminal act that they should be
ashamed of?” While this person had a valid point of it being a crime, the rhetoric is
questionable. The issues lies with commenter’s focus on the teens filming/photographing the
event instead of criticizing them for committing the crime and/or standing by and observing a
rape happen and not stopping it. It wasn’t a lack of intelligence. It was a blatant disregard for a
woman and her body. Another comment, “The females need not settle for this especially
condoning this behavior may set them up to be next.” As with a comment from Think Progress,
this statement once again inadvertently places the responsibility for the rape on the woman,
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which then lends itself to the rape myth “if she didn’t want to get raped she would have stopped
it” (Burt, 1980). This places the burden of responsibility for the crime on the victim and negates
the guilt of the rapist.
A large number of other comments on The Huffington Post blamed the Republican Party,
small town mentality, and the connections of the rapist to prominent community members for the
rapes. Instead of addressing the victim’s suffering and the prevalence of rape culture, these
comments took focus away from the victim to other agendas. However, there was one comment
that explicitly stated “girls who ignore the laws of the jungle will become prey.” This statement
normalizes rape as a part of culture and goes as far as to suggest women should expect to be
raped if they venture out. Overall, this news blog post attracted commentary that often ignored
the issue of rape culture and focused on issues other than the experience of the victim.
Conservative Commentary
The next two articles were “Blame vs. Responsibility” on RedState that covered the
Steubenville case and “One Family’s Nightmare Following Teen Daughter’s Alleged Rape” on
The Blaze which covered the Maryville case (Hayward, 2013; Hallowell, 2013). Similarly to the
other two liberal articles, these were a commentary on the rape trials and legal proceedings.
The RedState article also focused on the backlash Serena Williams received for the “I’m
not blaming the girl, but if you’re sixteen years old and drunk like that, your parents should teach
you don’t take drinks from other people” comment she made to Rolling Stone. While her
comment is not the focus of this research paper, I would like to quickly address the callousness
of her statement in reducing rape to a lesson on modern drinking precautions. William’s placed
blame on the young woman’s alcohol consumption instead of on actions of the rapist. Her
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statement mirrored the comments left by several of the readers. One comment left said “It’s all
about the lack of personal responsibility/accountability. So many young people have never had to
bear the consequences from their poor decisions as they were growing up that blame seems to be
the only option they understand.” Another user posted “Know what I think…get rid of the porn
on TV, starting the soaps and perhaps our teen girls wouldn’t be so curious.” These statements
do not explicitly blame the victim for what happens, but they do insinuate that all parties
involved were equally irresponsible. It was not the best decision for the young woman to drink
underage, but the rapists did not just “make a poor decision.” They took advantage of her
incapacitation and physically violated her body. The burden of responsibility for the crime lies
with the rapists as they did not have her consent for sexual advances. The young woman was not
“curious”, she was in physical state that prevented her from being able to speak up. Other
commentators stated opinions that normalized rape. “Generally going to such a party (in high
school or college) as a girl on her own is also a really bad idea…….it’s disgusting these boys
molested her but it certainly isn’t surprising” and “cops aren’t going to refuse to investigate if I
leave my wallet on the front seat of m my car and there’s theft. But my friends are certainly
going to tell me I’m a moron” were two of several comments that displayed a flippant attitude to
rape. They are an example of rape culture in action by suggesting that rape is not only a common
occurrence, but that sexual assault should be expected in certain situations. The rest of the
commentary on RedState blamed the Democratic Party, laws, and society for the deviant nature
of youth.
The commentary on The Blaze was significantly different than that on RedState. While
the latter’s had some content insinuating the victim’s blame, a large portion of the comments on
The Blaze explicitly put blame on the victim. Comments included “The boys didn’t steal her
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from her house, she snuck out. They didn’t drag her to their house, she went on her own. They
didn’t force-feed her alcohol, she took it. Gimme a break” or “The girl voluntarily got plastered
and went along with a guy. ….Girls are not little angels without fault. It is the same mentality
that allows women to renig on their decision to take part in sexual conduct that allows men to be
locked up for having consensual sex.” Like previous statements, the first one mentioned in this
example puts the responsibility on the victim. It implies that when the victim went to their house
and drank alcohol, her actions indicated sexual consent and absolved the men of any
wrongdoing. Likewise, the second comment blames the women for the legal repercussions when
men are charged with rape. What the commenter failed to address was not only the age of the
victim but also the casual way the attacker dumped her outside in below freezing weather with
minimal clothing. This is relevant because it shows the attacker’s disregard for the victim’s life.
If he didn’t have concern over whether she would be alive the next morning after spending the
night in the snow, it is safe to assume he has little regard for her consent to sex.
Additional comments blamed the parents for the actions of the young people, with one
particular user saying “looking at the mom’s photo, and the neckline of the shirt she’s wearing it
makes one question how much morality/virtue is demonstrated and/or taught in mom’s
household.” This statement helps perpetuate the idea that somehow clothing is an indicator of
virtue and character, and that certain types of clothing invite sexual assault. The notion that
“virtuous” women don’t get raped is a blatantly patriarchal and dismissive of the part the rapist
played in the crime. It is also concerning that not once is the character of the rapist or his family
put into question. His affluent family background and position as an athlete in the community
allowed him relative immunity from having his character questioned by town residents. The rest
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of the commentary included more discussions on society’s failure with our youth’s morality and
politically focused rhetoric.
Final Thoughts
Overall, I was surprised by my findings the online commentary from participants.
Previous bias led me to believe that within the conservative sphere I would find a strong
predilection for rape myth and victim blaming, while within liberal community there would be a
strong presence of victim advocacy and derision for rape culture as a whole. My assumptions
were only partially true. Think Progress commentators predominantly avoided victim blaming
and verbally asserting agreeance with rape myths. The same observation was not true for
comments left on The Huffington Post. Though it is generally considered a liberal site, the user
dialogue mirrored that of RedState more closely in the general lack of focus on the victim’s
experience and attribution of guilt to a source other than the rapists’ lack of character. However,
in the overall comparison to the other three news blogs, the statements in The Blaze seemed to
include the strongest representation of explicit victim blaming and rape myth endorsing
language. At times it was disheartening and uncomfortable reading the vitriolic comments aimed
at the victims. But as Boellstroff, Nardi, Pearce and Taylor pointed out, it is important for
ethnographers to be pushed out of comfort zones and be exposed to challenging beliefs (2012).
Ultimately, this study did show how widespread rape culture is on our society. Observing
these commentaries with a feminist criticism focus allowed me to see just how far society has to
go to overcome these patriarchal normalizations of rape and indifferences to women’s control
over their bodies. Being able to utilize the virtual community gave me access to participant
opinion I might not otherwise be able to observe in the non-virtual world. However, there are
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several shortcomings in this online study. It would be beneficial to revisit this topic with a larger
pool of online users and more news articles. A controlled, as unbiased as possible news report
would also be valuable as a control group within the study. Lastly, this research would have
benefited from a participant observer analysis instead of non-participant observer study.
Contributing to the discussion online would allow more interaction with and from the
commentators, which could lead to a more in-depth insight into the participants’ views. Gaining
as much understanding of rape culture as possible is the first step in working to remove it from
our society. Making rape the deviation and not the norm is essential to making our society safe
for women and changing the current standard of viewing women as less than their male
counterparts.
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19
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18. West, L. (2018, December 12). MRAs Flood Occidental College's Rape Reporting Form
With False Claims. Retrieved from http://jezebel.com/mras-flood-occidental-collegesrape-reporting-form-wit-1485944598
19. Worthington, Nancy. "Encoding And Decoding Rape News: How Progressive Reporting
Inverts Textual Orientations." Women's Studies In Communication 31.3 (2008): 344-367.
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Websites
1. http://www.theblaze.com/stories/2013/10/14/one-familys-nightmare-following-teendaughters-alleged-rape/
2. http://www.redstate.com/2013/09/06/blame-vs-responsibility/
3. http://thinkprogress.org/health/2013/03/13/1710281/steubenville-rape-case/
4. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/14/mom-says-teen-was-rapedt_n_4097080.html
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