Textiles As Revision
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Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Contents AQA SPEC 3.1.1 AS Section A: Materials and Components .................................................................... 6 3.3.1 A2 Section A: Materials and Components ......................................................................... 6 AQA SPEC 3.1.2 AS Section B: Design and Market Influences ................................................................ 8 3.3.2 A2 Section B: Design and Market Influences .................................................................... 8 AQA SPEC 3.1.3 AS Section C: Processes and Manufacture.................................................................. 10 3.3.3 A2 Section C: Processes and Manufacture ....................................................................... 10 Fibres ..................................................................................................................................................... 14 Microfibers ........................................................................................................................................ 16 Modern microfibers .......................................................................................................................... 16 Natural Fibres........................................................................................................................................ 16 Cotton: .............................................................................................................................................. 16 Linen:................................................................................................................................................. 17 Sisal ................................................................................................................................................... 17 Wool: ................................................................................................................................................. 18 Cashmere: ......................................................................................................................................... 19 Mohair:.............................................................................................................................................. 19 Ramie ................................................................................................................................................ 20 Silk: .................................................................................................................................................... 20 Cultivated Silk: .................................................................................................................................. 20 Wild Silk:............................................................................................................................................ 21 Manufactured Fibres............................................................................................................................. 21 Asbestos: ........................................................................................................................................... 21 Viscose: ............................................................................................................................................. 21 Lyocell: .............................................................................................................................................. 22 Modal: ............................................................................................................................................... 22 Acetate: ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Rubber:.............................................................................................................................................. 23 Acrylic: (Polyacrylic) .......................................................................................................................... 23 PVC: (Chlorofibre) (Polyvinyl)............................................................................................................ 24 Elastane: (Elastomeric) (Lycra) .......................................................................................................... 24 Fluorofibres: ...................................................................................................................................... 24 PTFE:.................................................................................................................................................. 25 1|Page Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Nylon: (polyamides) .......................................................................................................................... 25 Polyester: .......................................................................................................................................... 25 Polyolefines: (polyethylene) (polypropylene)................................................................................... 26 Aramid:.............................................................................................................................................. 27 Glass: ................................................................................................................................................. 27 Carbon:.............................................................................................................................................. 27 Metallic: ............................................................................................................................................ 28 Ceramics:........................................................................................................................................... 28 Yarns...................................................................................................................................................... 29 Twist .................................................................................................................................................. 29 Folded Yarns...................................................................................................................................... 30 Blends.................................................................................................................................................... 33 Woven Fabrics....................................................................................................................................... 34 Plain Weave ...................................................................................................................................... 34 Twill Weave ....................................................................................................................................... 35 Satin Weave ...................................................................................................................................... 35 Pile Weaves ....................................................................................................................................... 36 Brocade Weave ................................................................................................................................. 37 Jacquard weave................................................................................................................................. 37 Tartan: ............................................................................................................................................... 37 Crepe: ................................................................................................................................................ 38 Traditional and cultural methods of producing fabric ...................................................................... 39 Warp and Weft-Knitted Fabrics ............................................................................................................ 40 Plain Weft Knit: ................................................................................................................................. 41 Single Jersey Knit:.............................................................................................................................. 41 Double Jersey: ................................................................................................................................... 41 Rib Knit: ............................................................................................................................................. 42 Jacquard Knit:.................................................................................................................................... 42 Pique Knit: ......................................................................................................................................... 42 Warp Knit: ......................................................................................................................................... 42 Tricot: ................................................................................................................................................ 43 Locknit ............................................................................................................................................... 43 Velour:............................................................................................................................................... 43 Polar Fleece: ...................................................................................................................................... 43 2|Page Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Panel Knitting: ................................................................................................................................... 43 Piece Goods: ..................................................................................................................................... 43 3D – Whole-Garment Knitting: ......................................................................................................... 43 Non-Woven Fabrics............................................................................................................................... 44 Felt .................................................................................................................................................... 45 Bonded non wovens ......................................................................................................................... 45 Tufted non wovens ........................................................................................................................... 46 Open-work fabrics............................................................................................................................. 46 Modern and Smart Materials................................................................................................................ 47 Combination fabrics .......................................................................................................................... 48 Technology in textiles ....................................................................................................................... 48 Polymers ........................................................................................................................................... 48 Finishes ................................................................................................................................................. 49 Mechanical finishing processes ........................................................................................................ 50 Chemical finishing processes ............................................................................................................ 50 Biological finishes .............................................................................................................................. 50 Thermochromatic finishes ................................................................................................................ 50 Nanomaterial’s and integrated Components ....................................................................................... 50 Integrated electronics ....................................................................................................................... 52 Decorative Techniques.......................................................................................................................... 54 Dyeing and Printing ........................................................................................................................... 54 Dyeing of fabrics: .............................................................................................................................. 54 Direct Dye.......................................................................................................................................... 54 Reactive Dye...................................................................................................................................... 54 Vat Dye .............................................................................................................................................. 54 Disperse Dye ..................................................................................................................................... 54 Acid Dye ............................................................................................................................................ 54 Colour fastness of textiles: ................................................................................................................ 55 Preparation ....................................................................................................................................... 55 Dyeing Textiles .................................................................................................................................. 56 Hand dyeing ...................................................................................................................................... 57 Commercial dyeing ........................................................................................................................... 57 Continuous dyeing ............................................................................................................................ 57 Batch dyeing...................................................................................................................................... 57 3|Page Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Printing .............................................................................................................................................. 57 Joining ................................................................................................................................................... 58 Fastening and Components .................................................................................................................. 58 Computer Aided Design (CAD) .............................................................................................................. 60 Production............................................................................................................................................. 64 One-off Production ........................................................................................................................... 64 Batch Production .............................................................................................................................. 64 Mass Production ............................................................................................................................... 64 Other Production Systems ................................................................................................................ 65 Off-the-Peg Manufacture.................................................................................................................. 65 Just-in-Time Stock Control .................................................................................................................... 65 Industrial and commercial practice ...................................................................................................... 65 Manufacturing Systems: ................................................................................................................... 65 Stages of Manufacture:......................................................................................................................... 67 1. Fabric manufacture-...................................................................................................................... 67 2. Fabric preparation- ....................................................................................................................... 68 Dyeing: .............................................................................................................................................. 68 Printing: ............................................................................................................................................. 69 Finishing Processes: .......................................................................................................................... 69 Seams .................................................................................................................................................... 72 British Standards and Health and Safety .............................................................................................. 73 British Standards Institute (BSI) ........................................................................................................ 74 Health and Safety .................................................................................................................................. 74 Health and Safety for the Consumer: ................................................................................................... 75 Legislation: ........................................................................................................................................ 75 Textile product maintenance ................................................................................................................ 76 Development of Technologies and Design ........................................................................................... 79 The effects of major developments in textiles technology: ............................................................. 79 Some examples of major developments are: ................................................................................... 79 Marketing .............................................................................................................................................. 80 Product Life Cycle.............................................................................................................................. 81 Marketing and Advertising.................................................................................................................... 86 The marketing function:.................................................................................................................... 86 Role of new technology in marketing and sales of textiles products: .................................................. 89 4|Page Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Jobs in the Textiles/Fashion Industry.................................................................................................... 89 Industrial Textiles .................................................................................................................................. 98 Technical Textiles .................................................................................................................................. 98 Performance Textiles ............................................................................................................................ 98 Technological Developments ................................................................................................................ 99 Market Influences ................................................................................................................................. 99 Environmental Issues .......................................................................................................................... 100 Moral Issues ........................................................................................................................................ 101 Fashion designers................................................................................................................................ 102 Vivienne Westwood ........................................................................................................................ 102 Paul Smith ....................................................................................................................................... 103 Alexander McQueen ....................................................................................................................... 104 John Galliano ................................................................................................................................... 104 Christian Dior .................................................................................................................................. 105 Coco Chanel .................................................................................................................................... 106 Art Movements ................................................................................................................................... 107 Arts and Crafts Movement.............................................................................................................. 107 Art Nouveau .................................................................................................................................... 107 The Bauhaus .................................................................................................................................... 108 Art Deco .......................................................................................................................................... 108 Memphis ......................................................................................................................................... 109 5|Page Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” AQA SPEC 3.1.1 AS Section A: Materials and Components 3.3.1 A2 Section A: Materials and Components Fibre types READ AQA BOOKLET & TEXTILE INNOVATION Source and classification of the main fibre groups Understand that fibres come from a variety of different sources and that their qualities are related to the fibre group to which they belong. Candidates should have sufficient outline knowledge of the manufacturing process to enable them to understand how this affects properties, eg melt spinning of synthetic fibres produces smooth continuous filament. Detailed knowledge of processes is not required. Fibre Classification and Generic Names READ AQA BOOKLET & TEXTILE INNOVATION Classification of fibres from both traditional and non-traditional sources for identification of and an understanding of the products developed from these fibres Natural fibres –– generic terms – Cellulose (vegetable); bast, leaf and seed fibres –– Protein (animal); wool, silk (cultivated and wild varieties) –– luxury hair fibres, including cashmere, mohair, angora, llama, Vicuna –– Mineral; asbestos. Natural fibres -Plant/cellulose: cotton, linen, ramie -Animal/protein: wool, silk, hair Manufactured fibres -Regenerated fibres: eg viscose, acetate, modal -Synthetic (including microfibres): eg nylon, polyester, acrylic, elastomerics, PVC Commercial names of fibres and fabrics Be aware of popular names of natural, man-made and synthetic fibres and fabrics, including Tactel, Lyocell, Tencel, Lycra, polar fleece and Trevira Yarns READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Carding, spinning Understand that fibres need to be made into yarns to manufacture woven and knitted fabrics. The importance of twist Man-made fibres –– Regenerated fibres Natural polymers – Regenerated cellulosic; viscose, modal, lyocell, cupro, acetate and triacetate, rubber, alginate, –– Synthetic Synthetic polymers; elastomeric, fluorofibres, polyamides, polyacrylic (acrylics), polyesters, Chlorofibres(polyvinyl), polyolefines (polyethylene, polypropylene) Aramid fibres –– Inorganic, including glass, carbon, metallic, ceramics read textiles innovation –– Shape and formation of fibres – An understanding of the different cross-sectional and linear formation that fibres can occur in both natural form and those that can be engineered during synthetic and man-made fibre production Commercial Names of Fibres and Fabrics A knowledge of commercial names of fibres and fabrics used in sales and marketing and the recognition of brand familiarity and fibre and fabric promotion. Technical Terms Related to Yarns Tex, denier systems for numbering yarns Yarn types Knowledge of basic yarn types and how they influence the qualities of the fabrics made from them, eg staple and filament yarns, single and plied yarns, textured and bulked yarns, fancy yarns Blending and mixing of fibres Staple fibre blends, core spun Fabric manufacture READ AQA BOOKLET& TEKOT HANDOUT Knowledge of the structure of the main construction methods and the differences between them. Understanding of the qualities given to the fabrics by the construction methods, including typical end-uses Woven Plain (Tabby) Twill and satin weaves Pile weaves, eg cut/loop pile Special effects achieved with coloured yarns and Blended fibres, boucle and crepe fabrics Knitted Weft knits, eg single and double jerseys, rib knit, hand and machine knits 6|Page Fabric Construction Methods READ AQA BOOKLET & TEXTILE INNOVATION Knowledge of Industrial and hand methods of fabric construction methods Understanding of a wide range of woven structures, including basic and fancy weaves, twill and satin variations, brocades, jacquards, three yarn system woven fabrics, double cloth and pique fabrics Special woven effects: yarn dyed stripes, plaids, tartans, madras, checks and crepe Knowledge of global cultural woven traditions; including the Ashanti strip weaving, the Back strap looms used in South America, Ikat weaving in Indonesia Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Warp knits, including, tricot, velour Non-wovens Production of felts and bonded fabrics Understanding of a range of knitted structures – weft knit; plain, single jersey, double jersey, pique, rib knits, jacquard knits, warp knit, locknit, atlas, Raschel lace and net structures Hand and machine knitted methods, panel knitting, fully fashioned panels, whole garment knitting Non-woven methods of fabric manufacture – felted, bonded (adhesive or heat), needled. Methods of bonded manufacture, lamination, stitch bonded Methods of creating open work fabric – leno, lace, net, crotchet, macramé Braid and narrow fabrics Influence of new technology, micro fibres, breathable membrane systems. Smart materials created to provide specific properties READ TEXTILE INNOVATION& AQA BOOKLET Awareness of a range of different smart fabrics, eg heat reactive, fabrics developed for health and safety applications, performance fabrics Fabric finishes READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Knowledge of the effects of finishes and the reasons they are needed in relation to the fibre/fabric properties and end use of the product. Detailed knowledge of the chemicals involved and methods of application is not required. Brushing, calendering, flame retardancy, water resistance, non-iron/crease resistance, stain resistance, shrink resistance, heat setting to give permanent pleats Surface decoration READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Dyeing; domestic and industrial methods (vat, discharge and resist), stages at which dye is applied (fibre, yarn, fabric, finished product), dye fastness Printing (screen, roller, transfer, ink jet, stencilling) Embroidery, quilting Product components READ TEKOT HANDOUT Candidates should have knowledge of a variety of components and their appropriateness for a range of products in relation to the end-user, fabric and design considerations. Fastenings Including buttons with buttonholes/loops, zips, poppers, clips, buckles, clasps, Velcro, D-rings, hooks and eyes, fabric and ribbon ties Trims Including braids, ribbons, piping, edgings, petersham,bindings, fringing, lace, beads, sequins, diamantes, motifs Threads Including sewing threads, embroidery threads, special effect threads Working properties of fibres and fabrics READ TEXTILE INNOVATION Knowledge and understanding of the properties of fibres and fabrics and their physical characteristics in relation to their choice for various design solutions Fibre properties Strength, extensibility, elasticity, fineness, electrostatic charge, lustre, thermal insulation, flammability, moisture absorption, shrinkage Fabric qualities Strength, durability, elasticity, flammability, thermal qualities, creasing, absorption, stretch, formability, handle, drape, weight, pattern repeat, directional pile, nap, texture, lustre 7|Page Working Properties Properties of fibres, yarns and fabrics An understanding of how properties of different fibres, yarns and fabrics can affect their use in a wide range of commercial applications An awareness of new performance codes in relation to the selection of materials for a range of end uses Identify, test and compare the relative properties of fabrics Knowledge of commercial testing to meet British Standards (BSI fabric testing) Consumer advice in relation to the performance of different fabrics Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Testing of materials WATCH DVD Experience of basic testing to determine appropriate properties in relation to chosen end use Awareness of fabric testing undertaken in industry Manipulating and combining materials READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Understand the need to combine materials and have outline knowledge of the main methods used. Mixtures, blends and laminates Fibre content, properties and typical applications, reasons for use Combining materials Interfacings, underlinings, linings, interlinings; types and applications in relation to fabric weight and construction, and end use of product Evaluate the use of materials testing as set out in British Standards Manipulating and Combining Materials Yarn creation Understanding of yarn types; folded/plied, cabled, core, fancy, colour effects, structure effects (slub, bourette, boucle, chenille), lustre effects, texturing and textured yarns Categories of yarns – novelties, specialised, performance. The importance of mixtures, blends and laminates to include the development of new technologies Understand the need to blend fibres or produce mixture fabrics or laminates to create aesthetic effects, performance fabrics, improved care and maintenance The impact of new developments, including smart and reactive materials such as phase changing materials, phosphorescent materials, microencapsulated fibres and fabrics AQA SPEC 3.1.2 AS Section B: Design and Market Influences 3.3.2 A2 Section B: Design and Market Influences Development of design http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0767725.html History of design Study to include some of the major developments of design throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries Development of Technologies and Design Understanding of influences on aesthetic attitudes to style and fashion up to the present day Product evolution and product analysis A study of manufactured products to illustrate the way in which the demands of a product have evolved as a result of new materials and technologies. Appraisal of functional, aesthetic, technical and economic considerations in the design and manufacture of products Consideration of aspects of physical surroundings as shaped by designers, craftsmen and technologists Design in practice Design methodology Analysis, research, inspiration, idea generation, illustration, modelling, planning, evaluating and testing The role of the designer An understanding of the varying roles of the commercial designer Exploring different approaches to designing Understanding of manufacturing constraints on product design An awareness of the environmental issues in relation to the design of textile products Social and moral implications of product design Design sources 8|Page The effects of major developments in textiles technology Developments in the production of fibre, yarns, fabric, product manufacture, finish, colour application and decoration, production systems, computer control and increased automation New technological developments in textiles product design The work of past and present textile designers As related to textile and fashion products in particular, but also to include design movements and the inherent influences on product design, including trends, street culture, music and the media, world events. To have an understanding of the developments of fashion in clothing, accessories and furnishings. To appreciate the influence and contribution of leading fashion and textile designers. Design in Practice Product life cycle An understanding of life cycle analysis – concepts of product introduction, growth, maturity, decline and replacement, product disposal – relating to the life cycle of a product – impact of recycling and environmental issues Fashion cycles Sales and marketing cycles for product groups including – fad, classic, standard. Industry development cycles from colour, fibre trends and predictions to products at the point of sale, eg Influence of trends from fashion, cultural and media sources. Importance and purpose of trade fairs, influence of trends and changes in lifestyle on textile products, lifestyle analysis Understanding target markets, analysing existing products The marketing function Marketing and branding of new fibres and other textile products The importance of labelling, packaging and corporate Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Candidates should be able to respond to a variety of stimuli drawing from direct observation of natural and man-made forms, secondary sources in relation to specified design briefs. Aiding the design process Use of inspirational moodboards, designer sketchbooks. Analysing working and aesthetic characteristics of a range of materials and surface decoration techniques. Understand industrial process used to produce these effects. Recognising design faults in existing products Market research Client profiling, identifying target market, consumer and product research, eg opinion polls, questionnaires The marketing function Customer identification An awareness of the use of new technology in the marketing of textile products Product costing, calculation and profit Presentation of colourways Product life cycles Understanding the expected life cycle of products Copyright protection The issue of copyright, patenting and their importance to the designer and manufacturer identification The advertising and promotion of textile products using a wide range of media and the use of new technology The purpose of marketing mix of product, place, promotion, price – use of visual merchandising – different retail markets and points of sale Role of new technology in marketing and sales of textiles products Developments in virtual reality and product simulation New technology marketing and product promotion – e commerce An awareness of multi-national textile companies and the concept of global marketing Meeting customer requirements/profitability through identifying socio-economic groups and demographic trends, niche marketing The role of professionals within the textiles industry The role of buyer, merchandiser, fabric and garment technologist, visual merchandiser The role of the designer The professional interfaces between client/designer, designer/manufacturer, manufacturer/retailer, manufacturer/user An awareness of constraints placed upon designers including environmental issues Social, political, ethical influences Selection of materials and components appropriate to specific market requirements Working to client specifications, designing within Budgets Product classification Textile product groups – garment product groups including menswear, womenswear, childrenswear, workwear, sportswear, accessories, foundationwear, leisurewear, formal dress, suitability of products for identified market • Furnishing textiles for domestic and public places • Industrial textiles • performance textiles – protective textiles Retail point of sales – High street independent department stores and boutiques, multiple retailers, multiple department stores, chains, mail order, web sites, interactive media Communication methods Candidates should be able to communicate the detail and form of products, environments and systems so that they may be manufactured They should be able to identify and use appropriate means to communicate ideas, design proposals and evaluations to a range of audiences, including clients and potential users of the product, eg presentation boards, fashion illustration, interior sketches, swatches, colourways Illustration Selection and use of appropriate 2D/3D techniques, eg sketching, drawing, use of mixed media, collage Enhancement Rendering – use of line/tone/colour/form Texture – to represent materials, surface finishes and applied decoration Presentation – two-dimensional and threedimensional Products Information drawing Quantitative – graphs, pie charts, bar charts, pictograms Organisational and topological – flow charts, 9|Page Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” sequential/schematic Modelling Using three-dimensional form – mock-ups, prototypes, scale models Use of ICT Selection and use of CAD, word processing/DTP, spreadsheets, databases and modelling software Design in the human context Human needs Designing to meet physiological, psychological and sociological needs of various groups of people, eg young, elderly, physically handicapped in different environments and communities Human factors Ergonomic and anthropometric influences and constraints The relationship between people, products and the environment Health and safety READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Risk assessment in relation to the design and manufacture of products Safety standards imposed by BSI, recommended by the DTI for product design Recommendations for health and safety at work for employees and the implications for the employer Design in the Human Context Health and Safety Issues of health and safety in relation to industrial, commercial and trading practices – health and safety of users of textile products – COSHH BSI standards for product testing Impact of technological development Balance between gain and loss for the individual and the community in terms of ethical, social, environmental and economic considerations. Environmental concerns Use of natural resources, organic production, materials utilisation, conservation, waste disposal/ management, pollution, recycling, Green technology, environmental problems, planned obsolescence Applications/material areas Apparel fabrics to satisfy basic clothing requirements, eg protection, adornment, fashion, utility, sportswear (performance sport and leisurewear), footwear, accessories Household fabrics, eg table/bed linen, furnishing accessories, furnishings, floorings Industrial textiles, eg fire protective wear, components for vehicles/machines, automotive fabrics, tents, awnings, harnesses, medical textiles READ TEKOT HANDOUT Environmental concerns READ AQA BOOKLET Use of natural resources, materials utilisation, conservation, waste disposal/management, pollution in broad terms, recycling Green technology, environmental problems AQA SPEC 3.1.3 AS Section C: Processes and Manufacture 3.3.3 A2 Section C: Processes and Manufacture Industrial and commercial practice READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Manufacturing systems One-off, batch, mass/line production, vertical, in-house production, pre-manufactured components, manufacturing specifications Response to market demands Manufacturing sub-systems Just in time production (JIT) Industrial and Commercial Practice ICT application Knowledge and understanding of CAD/CAM for designing and manufacturing processes, fabric production, pattern production, embroidery, garment manufacture CAD (Computer Aided Design); design of fabrics, products, colourways, product modelling pattern construction 10 | P a g e Appreciation and understanding of the use of CAM for fabric printing, knitting and weaving, pattern drafting and grading, robotic control for garment construction Use of ICT in manufacturing data control (EDI) EDP (Electronic Data Processing) EDI (Electronic Data Interchange) CAA (Computer Aided Administration) stock control CAD (Computer Aided Design) design of fabrics, products, colourways, product modelling, pattern construction CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) understanding and application of fabric manufacture, lay planning, size grading, controlled cutting, controlled decoration, controlled construction, controlled pressing PPC (Production Planning and Control) networking Future implications – CIM (Computer Integrated Manufacture) Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture); understanding of fabric manufacture, lay planning, computer controlled cutting, sewing, pressing, decoration ICT used in the integration of manufacture (CIM) Pattern drafting Basic pattern/template drafting, including the knowledge and use of technical terms (basic block, labelling and notching, balance marks, seam allowance and ease) Principles of grading Basic adaptation to create unique individual styles Product manufacture Fabric preparation, lay planning, marking and cutting out, methods of joining, shaping, finishing of edges, selection of construction techniques appropriate to the fabric being used and the product being made. Pressing – use of correct tools Labelling and packaging To plan appropriate methods and processes for the manufacture of chosen products, including amendments and adaptations of prototypes and the use of industrial manufacturing processes Product maintenance Care and maintenance of products Information shown on care labels, including symbols used Relationship between care recommendations and fibre/fabric properties Environmental concerns An awareness of the environmental issues in relation to fibre/fabric production and the dyeing of fabrics and piece goods Health and safety Risk assessment and health and safety issues related to the manufacture of textile products Global Production Global production – offshore production – imports and exports, branded – contracted goods Manufacturers – Sub-contractors, wholesalers, CMT (Cut, make and trim) operations Product Maintenance Care and maintenance of products HLCC International labelling, symbols, descriptions Understanding of temperature requirements for different fibres Testing for colour fastness Health and Safety Risk assessment, Health and Safety issues related to production. Role of the HSE and Health and Safety legal requirements Product Manufacturing Fibre, yarn and fabric manufacture Knowledge of the processes used to manufacture fibres and yarns – use of texturing processes including false -twist, knit de knit, air jet – production of stretch yarns, bulked yarns, formation of fancy yarns including chenille Fabric manufacture Dyeing: Preparation of fabric (desizing, scouring, bleaching), batch dyeing processes (jig, winch, jet dyeing methods), continuous dyeing, semicontinuous, resist methods Dye affinity to different fibres, including direct, reactive, vat, disperse, acid Grey or greige goods, the dyeing of fibres (stock and top), yarns (skeins), fabric (piece goods), garments – Dyeing in response to consumer demand, dyeing in relation to seasonal trends Printing methods: direct, discharge, transfer, resist, hand (block, stencils), roller, rotary/flat bed screenprinting, digital printing Finishing: Intermediate processes including fixation, washing, drying and heat setting Mechanical finishing – including raising, calendering, embossing, pleating, shrinking, beetling, stone and sand washing, laser cutting Chemical finishing – including water repellency, laminating, stain resistance, flame resistance, antistatic, mothproofing, antipilling, rot proofing, antifelting, hygienic (sanitised) Coating and lamination New developments in finishes, including smart and reactive finishes, reflective finishes, photochromic dyes, Product manufacture Production systems and distribution – organisation of manufacturing companies Understanding of Unit production, quantity production; understanding of bespoke production Production Organisation Systems: synchronised, section, progressive bundle, UPS (Unit production system), to include line and team working, QRM teams Production Planning and Control: line balancing, factory load, warehouse – packing and dispatch Response to market demands (QRM) In-depth production planning to include inputs, processes, outputs, loops and feedback 11 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Systems and control READ AQA BOOKLET & TEKOT HANDOUT Quality assurance and quality control Quality control checks throughout the manufacturing process Systems diagrams – input, process, output Loop feedback systems which ensure quality Awareness of quality and finish in the manufacture of own products Understanding of the processes Systems and Control Quality control systems Control of quality throughout the manufacturing process – quality built into design – inspection checks for quality Quality assurance, conformance and nonconformance. TQM control systems. Quality control data systems for garment/product manufacture Awareness of quality and finish in the manufacture of own products 12 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” 3.3.1 A2 Section A: Materials and Components 3.1.1 AS Section A: Materials and Components Warmth Absorbency Comfort (comfort) (comfort) (comfort) Handle and drape Strength Elasticity Aftercare (functional) (functional) (functional) (aesthetics) Natural fibres Wool Warm to wear. Fine wool, very comfortable. Coarse wool, scratchy. Very soft or coarse handle. Good drape. Medium strength, not durable. Very good. Creases drop out. Wash and iron with care, may shrink. Dry clean. Very comfortable. Soft handle and elegant drape. Good strength. Very good, creases drop out. Wash and iron with care, best dry cleaned. Soft and luxurious. Excellent comfort. Excellent, luxurious. Luxurious handle, light, good drape. Not-durable. Wash with care. Luxury handle, light and good drape. Durable, hardwearing. 10% stronger than wool. Good elasticity. Crease resistant. Good. Crease resistant. Highly absorbent. Slow drying. Very comfortable unless wet. Soft handle. Good drape. Poor. Creases easily. Wash, boil, iron damp. May shrink. Very warm. 2 X warmer than wool. Average warmth Slow. Very soft Fair elasticity. Good absorbency Very comfortable especially in warm weather One of the strongest natural fibres. Even stronger when wet. Not very durable. Little elasticity. Hand wash, cool. Do not tumble dry. Can be washed or dry-cleaned. Fresh and cool to wear. Highly absorbent. Fast drying. Stiffer and harder than cotton. Soft handle. Average drape. Can have stiff or brittle handle. Doesn’t drape well due to stiffness. Firm handle. Smooth surface. Good drape. Good strength, abrasion resistance, and durability. Durable. Good strength and durability. Poor. Creases very badly. Wash, boil, easily ironed. Viscose Low warmth. More absorbent than cotton. Comfortable to wear. Low warmth. Very good absorbency. More absorbent than cotton. Very comfortable. Poor. Creases easily. Poor. Washable. Easy to iron. Lyocell (high performance viscose fibre) Rubber (natural – from latex) (synthetic – from petrochemicals) Modal (regenerated) Good, high warmth. Low absorbency. Excellent. Does not crease. Low warmth. Highly absorbent. 50% more absorbent than cotton. Uncomfortable due to lack of breathability. Warm, pliable and soft. Very comfortable. Very soft. Lower strength than cotton. Stronger than other cellulose fibred, including cotton and many types of polyester. Good natural stretch. Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton. Poor elasticity. Creases easily. Sensitive to light, oils, solvents and grease. Can’t be washed easily. Recyclable. Washable. Do not bleach. Easy to iron. Can be drycleaned and ironed. Silk Cashmere Mohair Cotton Angora Ramie Linen Cool, but good insulation so warm as well. Very warm. Excellent thermal insulation. Good thermal insulation. 35% warmer than wool. Cool to wear unless brushed. Slow, can 1 absorb its 3 weight in water and not feel wet. Repels water droplets. Very slow drying. Fast, can absorb 1 3 its weight in water. Slow absorbency. Poor. Use extreme care. Manufactured fibres 13 | P a g e Soft or firm handle. Good drape. Excellent handle. Good drape. Stretchy, poor drape. Silky, soft handle. Good drape. Disposable. Totally biodegradable, can be recycled. Biodegrades in 8 days. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Asbestos (mineral fibre – mined) Acetate Good thermal insulation. Low warmth. Polyester Low warmth, unless textured. Aramid (Kevlar) Low warmth. Excellent heat resistance. Polyamide (Nylon) Low warmth, unless textured. Elastane (elastomeric fibres) (Lycra) Fluorofibres Low % always used in blends. Low warmth. Chlorofibre (polyvinyl) (PVC) Poor. Itchy, often uncomfortable. Rough handle. Poor drape. Soft handle and elegant drape. Soft or firm handle. Excellent. Poor. Low absorbency. Fast drying. Very low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Fast drying. Average. Comfortable, but prone to static. Low strength. Poor abrasion resistance. Very strong and abrasion resistant. Higher than viscose, but creases. Very good. Crease resistant. Soft, flexible handle. Good drape. Five times stronger than steel. Excellent. Flexible. Very low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Fast drying. Absorbent. Dyes well. Comfortable, but prone to static. Micro fibres breathable. Adds stretch comfort. Soft or firm handle. Very strong and abrasion resistant. Very good. Crease resistant. Soft or firm handle. Good strength. Breathable. Flexible. Soft, fine handle. Durable. Provides good insulation. Warm. Non-absorbent. Doesn’t dye well. Low absorbency. Hydrophobic. Waterproof. Very high. Crease resistant. Fair elasticity. Breathable and flexible. Strong, firm, fine handle. Very strong and durable. Flexible. Polyolefines (polyethylene) (polypropylene) Low warmth. Non-absorbent. Soft when finely spun. Good drape. High strength. Durable. Acrylic (polyacrylic) Warm to wear. Fast drying. Comfortable to wear. Very soft wool-like handle, good drape. Good strength. Good stretch. Crease resistant. Very good. Crease resistant. Comfortable, but prone to static. Micro fibres breathable. Flexible and comfortable. Difficult. Easycare finish can be applied. Wash and iron with care. Thermoplastic. Machine washable. Iron with care. Thermoplastic. Machine washable. Use detergents with care to ensure properties are not reduced. Machine washable. Iron with care. Thermoplastic. Machine washable. Thermoplastic. Degrades slowly. Used as a coating. Machine washable. Fast drying. Iron with care. Do not tumble dry. Good soil and stain release, but not oil or grease. Machine washable. Iron with care, may shrink. Thermoplastic. Fibres Fibres are the basis for all textiles. You need to know the difference between natural and synthetic fibres, how each fibre is used, and which fibres can be combined together. Textile materials are made in three stages: 1. spinning: fibres are spun into yarns 2. weaving or knitting: yarns become fabrics 3. finishing: fabrics are finished to make them more useful A fibre is a fine and flexible textile raw material, which has a high ration of length to thickness. All fibres can be classified as natural or manufactured. Fibres can be short or very long, depending on where they came from and how they were manufactured. Staple fibres are relatively short in length. Natural staple fibres can range in length from a few millimetres, to around a metre. All synthetic fibres are manufactured as continuous filaments of indefinite length, which run the whole length of the yarn. Some synthetic continuous filaments are cut into staple lengths. Silk is the only natural continuous filament fibre. It can be as long as one kilometre, when it is taken from the silk cocoon. 14 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Working Properties Of Fibres And Fabrics Fibre Properties: - Aesthetic (to do with the look) Functional Comfort Strength- whether or not a fibre will break under tension Extensibility- how much a fibre can stretch until it breaks Elasticity- how much a fibre will stretch and regain it’s original shape Fineness- the thickness of the fibre Electrostatic charge- if a fibre contains ‘static’, it will be clingy and not drape well. Synthetic fibres are prone to static. Lustre- a slight shine Thermal insulation- whether the fibre is a good or bad conductor of heat Flammability- all fibres burn, flammability is to do with whether the fibre will catch fire quickly or not and how it reacts to heat, i.e. will it melt? Moisture absorption- the amount of liquid the fibre will absorb, important to know because of comfort of wearer and ease of washing/drying time etc. Shrinkage- whether or not a fibre will shrink when washed, tumble-dried or ironed etc. Fabric qualities Durability-whether the fabric will withstand wear and tear, is it resistant to abrasion, will rubbing cause the surface to pill (go bobbly) Creasing- will the fabric keep creases in or shed them easily Stretch- how far the fabric will stretch Formability- does the fabric hold it’s shape well? Handle- is the fabric soft? How does it feel when handled? Drape- how the fabric hangs, is the fabric supple and flexible? Weight- is the fabric heavy or light, is the weight suitable for it’s purpose? Pattern repeat- is the printed pattern a large or small repeat? This will effect how economical it will be to cut out the fabric pieces so that the pattern lines up when made into a garment Directional pile- the raised surface of a pile fabric or brushed fabric, does it look different when looked at from different directions, e.g. velvet that looked different from different angles. 15 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Nap- the raised surface of a pile fabric or brushed fabric Texture- what the fabric feels like, is it smooth, bobbly, rough etc Microfibers Microfiber technology combines a high number of very fine fibres into one yarn of decitex or less. This means that 10 kilometres of the filament weigh one gram or less. A microfiber is around 60 to 100 times finer than a human hair. Microfibers can be: Manufactured from polyester, polyamide or acrylic. Blended with other synthetic fibres of with natural fibres. Used in fabrics that have an enormous variety of appearances and end-uses. Used in smart and technical fabrics for active wear, all weather wear and for a range of industrial uses. Modern microfibers Elastane (Lycra) is always used in a blend with other fibres. It is used to make sportswear, body-hugging clothes and bandages. It has good handle and drape, is durable, crease resistant, stretchy (more comfortable) and is easy care. It has low warmth and is absorbent. Tencel is a 'natural' microfiber made from cellulose derived from wood-pulp. It is used for shirts and jeans. It has soft handle, good drape, is breathable, durable, crease-resistant, easy-care and biodegradable. It is absorbent and has low warmth. Natural Fibres Vegetable Fibres (cellulose) Seed Cotton Stem Linen (flax) Leaf Sisal Animal Fibres (protein) Wool Wool Fine hair Cashmere Mohair Silk Cultivated Wild Cotton: Cool to wear unless brushed Highly absorbent Slow drying Very comfortable unless wet Soft handle Good drape Good strength, abrasion resistance and durability Poor elasticity – creases easily Natural cellulose from the seed of the cotton plant Produced as a staple fibre Absorbs up to 65% of own weight without dripping Non-static because it always contains some moisture Naturally breathable Biodegradable and recyclable Fabrics: calico, corduroy, denim, gingham, drill, terry towelling Finishes: mercerising – for higher strength and lustre synthetic resin treatment – non-iron and crease resist 16 | P a g e Mineral Fibres Silicate Asbestos Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” stain-resist finishes using Teflon or silicone flame retardant finish using Proban Cotton is harvested by hand or by picking machines and may need to be dried if harvested wet Cotton plants require a tropical climate and wet soil for growth The fibres are separated from the seeds by a process called ginning. The separated fibres are called lint. Typically blended with polyester, polyamide, viscose, modal, Elastane. Common blend ratios – 50/50 60/40 70/30 Typical cotton fabrics include, calico, corduroy, denim, gingham, drill, terry towelling Typical end uses include household linen, curtains and towels, shirts, underwear, trousers and jeans, work wear, awnings and sewing thread. Washable, can be boiled and bleached, dries slowly, best ironed damp, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried (may shrink) Linen: Natural cellulose from the stem of the flax plant Produced as staple fibres Fresh and cool to wear Strong, durable, long lasting, smooth surface, good drape Highly absorbent, fast drying, fresh and cool to wear Non-static because it always contains some moisture Crisp, firm handle, stiffer and harder than cotton Shrink proof, washes, irons and dyes well Low elasticity, so creases very badly Dirt-repellent, anti-microbial Biodegradable and recyclable Synthetic resin treatment – for crease-resist finish Stain-resist finishes using Teflon or silicone Fabrics: interlining, Holland (for window blinds), mattress ticking, pure linen for clothing Typical blends include Linen 50% Cotton 50%, Linen 70% Nylon 25% Elastane 5%, Linen 70% Modal 30%, Linen 50% Cotton 46% Acrylic 4%. Typically blended with viscose, Tencel, polyester and silk Typical linen fabrics include interlining, Holland (for window blinds) Typical end uses include, household linen, tablecloths, curtains, and tea towels, shirts, skirts, and suits, ropes, sewing thread and geotextiles Washable, can be boiled and bleached, quick drying, irons easily when damp, can be drycleaned and tumble dried. Sisal: This is a natural sustainable fibre, produced from the leaves of the agave cactus. Sisal is high strength, durable, easy to dye, water resistant, has good abrasion resistance, good anti-static properties and is fairly easy to keep clean. It is used for agricultural twines, ropes, hairbrush bristles, baskets and natural floor coverings, which can be blended with wool to make them softer and warmer. 17 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Wool: Wool from the fleece of a sheep Produced as staple fibres Hydrophilic – can absorb Naturally breathable, rapidly absorbs moisture vapour Hydrophobic – repels raindrops Mostly non-static because if always contains some moisture Very soft or coarse handle, depending on fineness. Good drape Medium strength, not durable Smooth – can be cool Bulky – warm Inbuilt UV protection and fire-resistance At least 40% inbuilt natural stretch and elasticity – good crease resistance, creases drop out Bio-degradable and recyclable Machine washable wool – for woven’s and knitwear at 40°C, using the wool cycle and approved detergents Total Easy Care Wool – for woven’s and knitwear Silicon treatment – for weatherproofing Typical wool fabrics include ‘cool wool’, felt, herringbone, flannel, ‘sport wool’, tartan, tweed Typical end uses include blanket, carpets and upholstery, suits, jumpers, overcoats, sports garments, ties, scarves, hats and socks, industrial felts, agricultural blankets and geotextiles Washable (with care, unless easy finish), do not bleach, very slow drying, steam iron under a cloth or fabric goes shiny. Can be dry-cleaned. Do not tumble dry, dry in direct sunlight or over heat. 1 3 of its weight in water without feeling wet Woollen Process Coarse, hairy, irregular, rustic appearance because they are made from shorter, sometimes coarse staple fibres which are rubbed during manufacture. Woollen fabrics are finished to give a felted, hairy surface, suitable for jackets, blankets or overcoats. 1. Almost any spinnable fibre can be spun using the woollen system. Compressed bales of washed and sorted raw wool, recovered wool or other fibres are fed into a willowing machine for opening and cleaning the loose fibres. 2. Different fibre and colour types are mixed and oiled to improve spinning capability. 3. Fibre portions are fed into a carding machine for orientation and cleaning. 4. A fibre web is divided into ribbons and rubbed to form the slubbing yarn, which is drafted to the required fineness, twisted and wound into yarns. 18 | P a g e Worsted Process Smooth, uniform, regular, fine and lustrous because they are made from longer types of staple wool fibres, which are combed, doubled and drafted smooth and fine during manufacture. Worsted fabrics are finished to give a smoothfaced fabric, which shows the yarn colours clearly. They are used for suits, trousers and skirts. 1. The fleece wool is sorted according to quality, separated into tufts, cleaned and dried. 2. These are fed into a willowing machine for opening and cleaning the loose fibres. 3. Different fibre and colour types are mixed and oiled to improve spinning capability. 4. Fibre portions are fed into a carding machine for orientation and cleaning. 5. Fibred are doubled, drafted and mixed to improve their regularity. 6. The short fibres are combed, drafted and twisted into a yarn roving of the required fineness, twisted and wound into yarns. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Cashmere: The fine under hair of the Kel goat from India, Mongolia and Iran, shorn once a year Produced as staple fibres One goat produces 200-250 grams per year (just enough for a scarf!) Two goats produce enough yarn for a 1-ply sweater It takes 24 goats to produce enough cashmere for a coat Soft, luxurious handle and appearance Light, lustrous Good thermal insulator Crease-resistant, dirt-repellent Non-static, fire-resistant Expensive due to limited supply Typically blended with wool, silk and polyester Expensive luxury fabric for coats, and suits Luxury knitwear Luxury interior textiles for cars, planes and yachts Mohair: Hair of the angora goat, from Texas, South Africa, Turkey, shorn twice a year Produced as staple fibres Soft, silky, luxury handle and touch Good thermal insulator – 35% warmer than wool Durable, hardwearing – 10% stronger than wool, crease-resistant, dyes well Dust-repellent, fire-resistant Expensive due to limited supply Typically blended with wool, cotton and silk Expensive worsted fabrics for suiting Eveningwear Scarves and knitwear 19 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Ramie High natural lustre which is improved by washing Natural stain Sometimes stiff or brittle handle Doesn’t drape well due to stiffness One of the strongest natural fibres – even stronger when wet Not very durable Creases very easily – poor crease resistance Little elasticity Not harmed by mild acids Dyes easily Can be bleached Resistant to sunlight Resistant to rotting and all types of bacteria Keeps shape and doesn’t shrink Can be washed or dry-cleaned Absorbent Comfortable to wear especially in warm weather Insulates well High cost to the environment Silk: Cool but insulating so can be warm Highly absorbent so slow drying Very comfortable unless wet Soft handle Good drape Very elegant Good strength Very good elasticity Creases drop out Wash and iron with care – best dry cleaned Cultivated Silk: Silk fibres from the cocoon of the Mulberry silkworm Produced as filaments up to 1km in length and as spun silk Fine, smooth, lustrous, soft handle, elegant drape Elastic, fairly crease-resistant, creases drop out Can absorb up to Non-static because it always contains some moisture Strong, durable, light Cool, but a good insulator, so it also provides warmth Polyurethane coating – to make silk fabric waterproof Typical fabrics include chiffon, crepe, damask, satin, twill, voile End uses include, luxury day and evening wear, underwear, wadding for performance skiwear, racing bike tyre reinforcement, scarves, ties, hats, handbags, umbrellas, sewing and embroidery threads. Can be affected by perspiration causing it to rot. Wash carefully, do not bleach, iron on back of fabric, steam and water can leave stains, best to dry-clean, do not tumble dry or dry in direct sunlight 20 | P a g e 1 3 of its weight in water without feeling wet Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Wild Silk: Silk filament fibres from the cocoon of the wild Tussah silk moth Filaments ad spun silk Coarse, ‘rustic’, uneven, thicker fibre Harsh handle, heavier than cultivated silk Absorbent and non-static because it always contains some moisture Dyes to dark, dull colours, dull lustre More sensitive than cultivated silk to perspiration – could stain Manufactured Fibres Natural polymers Regenerated cellulose Cellulose ester latex Viscose modal Synthetic polymers Polyvinyl Acetate Chlorofibre Rubber Polyurethane Fluorofibre Polyamide polyester Inorganic Acrylic Carbon Carbon fibre Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Elastane Teflon Nylon polyester glass Glass fibre Metallic ceramic Metal fibres Ceramic fibres Asbestos: Mineral fibre – mined Non-flammable Resistant to chemicals Resistant to insects and microorganisms Good thermal insulation Used where heat resistance was required n products such as car brake linings, roof insulation, fire-resistant clothing, theatre safety curtains and ironing boards No longer in use because it is a serious health hazard Occasionally found in buildings and has to be removed with great care by experts Modern fibres such as Nomex can provide superior heat and flame resistance, combined with high-strength and easy-care Viscose: Natural cellulose from wood pulp from pine or eucalyptus trees Produced as staple and filament yarns More absorbent than cotton, non-static because it always contains some moisture Naturally breathable, absorbing 14% of water vapour Fine, with soft handle and good drape Low ability to trap air – low warmth Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton, can tear when wet Poor elasticity, so creases easily Dyes and prints to bright colours Shrinks Biodegradable and recyclable Inexpensive to produce Synthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage although absorbency is reduced Wide range of finishes can be applied – such as textures and crimps Typically blended with cotton, linen, wool, polyester and Elastane Filament viscose produces lustrous and crepe fabrics 21 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Staple viscose produces cotton, linen and wool-type fabrics End uses include curtains, shirts, dresses, lingerie, ribbons and trimmings Washable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned but not tumble dried Fabrics: filaments – lustrous and crepe fabrics staples – cotton, linen and wool-type fabrics Viscose filaments are manufactured fibres. The spinning process for viscose fibre involves coagulating, or setting the liquid fibres in a bath of chemicals. The fibres set at an irregular rate which makes tiny grooves or striations, along the length of the filaments. These striations give the fibre and irregular cross-section. Viscose has a relatively smooth surface which is able to reflect light. As this can be an unwanted property, a de-lustring chemical is often added to the spinning solution to reduce this ability to reflect light. The shape and the cross section of a fibre effects its lustre and handle. The shape of the cross section of manufactured fibres can be changed using spinnerets with different cross sections. Production 1. Raw material, cellulose, is extracted 2. The cellulose is purified, bleached, pressed into sheets and dissolved in sodium hydroxide 3. It is then pressed again, shredded and aged 4. Chemicals are then added and liquid is extruded through the holes of a spinneret in a spinning bath 5. This is Wet Spinning 6. The cellulose solidifies and is drawn into filaments and washed to remove chemicals Wet spinning is used for Viscose and Acrylics In wet spinning the polymer solution is extruded into a chemical fluid which solidifies the filaments Lyocell The generic name given to a new family of cellulosic fibres and yarns that have been produced by solvent spinning. Marketed under the Tencel brand name, it is a high performance staple Viscose fibre produced from renewable sources of wood pulp. The process is widely regarded as being environmentally friendly and the product offers a number of advantages over traditional cellulosic fibres. Tencel The brand name for a high performance Viscose fibre made from 100% regenerated cellulose from trees. Tencel is stronger than Viscose cellulosic fibre and is characterised by its stiffness and drape. Lyocell: High performance staple Viscose fibre Produced from renewable sources of wood pulp Made using an environmentally friendly process that recycles non-toxic solvent used in its manufacture Can be recycled, incinerated or biodegraded Lyocell can be digested in sewage and the fibre degrades completely in eight days to leave water and carbon dioxide only, which can be used to power the sewage plant itself Fibrillation Surface effects Strength Absorbency Disposal Characteristics The ability for the fibres to spilt to give micro-fine surface hairs. Manufacturers of technical products can develop these microfibers to suit specific end-uses. Finishing processes such as dying, milling, felting, sueding, sanding and brushing are used on woven fabrics, non-wovens and paper. Lyocell is stronger than other cellulose fibres including cotton and outperforms many types of polyester. Lyocell is easy-care, dyes well, has good ‘wicking’ properties and is breathable. Totally biodegradable and can be recycled. Modal: Natural cellulose from wood pulp Produced mainly as staple fibre Mainly used in blends Absorbs up to 50% more moisture than cotton, non-static because it always contains some moisture Naturally breathable 22 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Silky, smooth, very soft handle and good drape Low ability to trap air – low warmth Lower strength, abrasion resistance and durability than cotton Poor elasticity, so creases easily Dyes to brilliant colours Shrinks less than viscose Biodegradable and recyclable Inexpensive to produce Synthetic resin treatment – to reduce creasing and shrinkage, although absorbency is reduced Wide range of finishes can be applied such as textures and crimps Typically blended with cotton, polyester, wool silk and Elastane Lustrous fabrics, blended knitted and woven fabrics End uses include bed and table linen, terry towelling, shirts, jumpers, socks, nightwear, jackets, sports and active wear and soft denim Washable, do not bleach, easy to iron, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried Acetate: Cotton cellulose and acetic acid 95% of the acetic acid can be recycled Produced as filaments and microfibers Low absorbency, fast drying, prone to static Naturally breathable Subdued lustre, smooth, very soft handle with elegant drape Low warmth, dyes well More elastic than viscose but creases easily Thermoplastic, sensitive to dry heat Biodegradable and recyclable Inexpensive to produce End uses include, silk type fabrics for eveningwear etc., microfiber performance fabrics and embroidery yarns, ribbons and trimmings Typically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for summer fabrics, polyester and Elastane Rubber: Natural rubber is made from latex, although synthetic rubber from petrochemicals is mainly used today. Its natural stretch and pliability have made rubber useful for flooring, waterproof coverings, types and Wellington boots. In the past, rubber yarns were used to provide stretch in swimwear and underwear. Rubber can be printed onto garments and accessories and can be used as moulded hoods and pockets. It can also be applied to specific areas of a product, such as the fingers of work gloves. Natural rubber is: o Warm pliable and soft o Antistatic, antibacterial and anti-slip o Sensitive to light, oils, solvents or grease o Not breathable, so ventilation is needed o Joined by stitching or adhesives o recyclable Acrylic: (Polyacrylic) sourced from petrochemicals inexpensive to manufacture 23 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” can be manufactured as filament of spun fibres can be spun as microfibers low absorbance, fast drying, prone to static good strength, crease-resistant soft wool-like handle with good drape warm, easy care thermoplastic, sensitive to steam and heat, can result in shrinkage non-renewable resource typically blended with wool or viscose for winter fabrics, cotton, linen or silk for summer fabrics, polyester or Elastane PVC: (Chlorofibre) (Polyvinyl) Sourced from petrochemicals Manufacture uses chlorine Can be manufactured as filament or spun fibres Can be manufactured as a coating Strong, flexible, durable Breathable, easy care and waterproof Provides good insulation Thermoplastic Non-renewable resource, although PVC bottles can be recycled Spun fibres always blended with other fibres including cotton, linen, viscose, modal, wool and silk Elastane: (Elastomeric) (Lycra) Sourced from petrochemicals Made from segmented polyurethane Composed of soft, flexible segments bonded with hard, rigid segments Elastane yarn is always covered by another yarn Inbuilt capacity to stretch up to 7 times original length, then recover when tension is released Provides lively, supple fabric with enhanced drape Adds comfort, softness and crease-resistance Improves body-shaping and shape retention Can be engineered to provide precise combination of yarn thickness, texture, brightness and stretch performance to suit the end use of fabric or garment For example can provide chlorine resistance and comfort in swimwear, lasting fit in leather, washable and crease resistant linen Absorbent, dyes well, easy care Non-renewable resource Elastane fibres are always combined with other fibres, natural or synthetic. Common blends include maximum 20% for swimwear, 15% for hosiery, 2-5% jersey fabrics, 2% for woven fabrics and 1% for flat knits Fluorofibres: Sourced from petrochemicals Synthetic polymer used mainly as a coating Flexible Durable Breathable Easy care Doesn’t dye well 24 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Water repellent Oil, chemical and stain resistant Windproof Water-based CNC free Doesn’t harm the environments Non-renewable resource Degrades slowly Uses: to protect all fibres and leather, garments, upholstery, curtains, sportswear, ties, mattresses, work wear, shoes PTFE: Sourced from petrochemicals Synthetic polymer used mainly as a coating Flexible, durable Breathable, easy care, hardly dyes Water repellent, oil, chemical and stain resistant, windproof Water-based, CFC-free, doesn’t harm the environment Non-renewable resource, degrades slowly Used to protect all fibres and leather Nylon: (polyamides) Sourced from petrochemicals Inexpensive to manufacture and produced as textured filament, staple fibres and microfibers Can be engineered to provide a wide range of properties and characteristics Non-absorbent and prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away from the body Fineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm, depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishing Flat filaments trap little air so are cool; textured filaments trap air so provide warmth Very strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durability Windproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy care, lightweight, flammable, soft, good drape Good elasticity, so good crease recovery Thermoplastic, can be textured and heat set, sensitive to dry heat Can be engineered to provide breathable comfort Dyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlight Resistant to alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but degraded by concentrated acids Non-renewable source, non-bio-degradable Anti-static treatment flame-resist treatment Wide range of treatments to engineer specific properties Typically blended with wool, cotton, linen, silk and other synthetics Textured filament fabrics, staple fibre fabrics and microfiber fabrics End uses include, carpets, curtains, tights, underwear, socks, active sportswear, all weather wear, fleece, tents, clothing Polyester: Sourced from petrochemicals The most used and versatile synthetic fibre Inexpensive to manufacture 25 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” About 60% produced as staple fibres Also produced as textured filaments and microfibers Can be engineered to provide a wide variety of properties and characteristics Non-absorbent and very prone to static; textured filaments transport moisture away from the body Fineness ranges from microfibers to coarse fibres – can be fine and soft or firm, depending on fibre fineness, fabric construction and finishing Flat filaments trap little air so are cool, textured filaments trap air so provide warmth Very strong, excellent abrasion resistance, tear resistance and durability Windproof, hydrophobic, water-repellent, easy-care, lightweight, good heat resistance, soft, good drape Very good elasticity so very good crease resistance Thermoplastic, can be textures, bulked and heat set, sensitive to dry heat Can be engineered to prove breathable comfort Dyes well, yellows and loses strength with long exposure to sunlight Resistant to acids, alkalis, solvents, mildew and fungus, but attacked by concentrated acids Non-renewable source Can be recycled – 25 PET bottles makes one jumper! Anti-static treatments Flame-resist treatment for interiors end use Wide range of treatments to engineer specific properties Some PET fabrics can be laser cut and heat welded Filament fibres usually textures Staple fibres are blended with wool, cotton, viscose, modal, linen and silk Staple fibre fabrics, textured filament fabrics, microfiber fabrics End uses include furnishings, upholstery, carpets, bedding, children’s nightwear and transport textiles, garments, ties, scarves, rainwear, linings, net curtains, sports and leisure wear, all weather wear, microfiber fleece garments, work wear, 100% staple yarn sewing thread, wadding for duvets and pillows, medical textiles such as artificial ligaments Machine washable, launders well at low temperatures, do not bleach, fast drying, iron with some care, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried Trevira – a branded type of Polyester, produced by Hoechst Fibres Inc. It offers better pilling performance than regular polyester Polyolefines: (polyethylene) (polypropylene) Synthetic Made from petrochemicals Thermoplastic with a low melting point High strength Resistant to chemicals Non-absorbent Very good wicking properties Crease-resistant Soft when finely spun Good soil and stain release but not oil or grease Non-allergenic Engineered for use in a wide range of end produces and is extensively used for carpet backing, sacks, webbing, twine, fishing nets, vegetable bags and ropes Used for upholstery and for the pile of carpets as it is very durable and has excellent soft touch and crush recovery The good wicking properties of polypropylene enable it to be used in medical and hygiene products Other end-uses include awning, synthetic surfaces for sports, sportswear and geotextiles Polypropylene has about 70% of the geotextile market 26 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Aramid: Kevlar Generic name for a family of synthetic polymer fibres made from petro-chemicals Expensive high-tech aramid fibres can be engineered to produce woven, knitted, non-woven or cabled technical textiles which provide high strength and heat-resistance Brand name for a family of Aramid fibres High strength Lightweight Flame and chemical-resistant Flexible and comfortable Important in a wide variety of industrial end-uses Five times stronger than Steel Flexibility and comfort make it suitable for a range of protective wear, such as chemicalresistant work wear Used for bulletproof vests because of its bullet stopping power Other end uses: Equipment used for high-risk activities such as hot-air ballooning High-tension cables and ropes for bridges and ships Protective gloves Strong lightweight protective equipment such as ski-helmets Tennis racquets Glass: Powdered compounds of mineral origin Glass fibre reinforced polyester produced for over 40 years Glass fibre painted with silicon to keep it pliable Durable, strong, shatterproof Poor abrasion resistance Heat and cold resistant so does not soften or become brittle Good electrical properties Non-stick, non-toxic Reflective Resistant to chemicals, mildew and fungus Used with an anti-static treatment Requires a surface finish to reduce skin irritation End uses: aerospace and military industries, flame and heat barriers, roof coverings, sterile hospital wall coverings, outerwear protective garments Aftercare: machine washable, can bleach, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried Fibreglass Made of extremely fine fibres of glass. It is used as a strengthening agent, e.g. glass reinforced plastic Commonly used as an insulation material and to produce flame retardant fabrics for specialised applications Carbon: Made by burning acrylic fibre to produce carbon First produced over 20 years ago Used to replace metals Very strong Lightweight Abrasion and tear resistant Flame-resistant at very high temperatures Resistant to chemicals, low shrinkage in heat Non-renewable resource 27 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” New blend developments are ongoing End uses: transport, upholstery, sports products, protective clothing for the emergency services and armed forces Aftercare: machine washable, can bleach, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried Graphite Fibres Extremely thin and composed of mostly carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals which make the fibre very strong for its size. Several thousand carbon fibres are twisted together to form a yarn, which may be used by itself or woven into a fabric. Carbon fibre is very strong but lightweight and these properties make it very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military and motorsports, along with other competition sports. However it is relatively expensive when compared to similar materials such as fibreglass or plastic. Carbon fibres are used in the production of electro-conductive fibres used to make intelligent fabrics or wearable computers. Because the fibres are flame retardant they are used to make some specialised fabrics such as those used for aeroplane interiors. Metallic: Aluminium, copper and steel most commonly used Silver and gold used for more expensive end uses Silver is the most effective anti-microbial material Thin sheet metal cut in strips or fine wire used as yarn Metal thread spun round core yarn A metallised polyester yarn called Lurex has been used since the 1980’s and is often coated with fine plastic to prevent tarnishing Strong Lightweight Abrasion resistant Protects against electromagnetic pollution Conductive and delectable by radar – useful for wearable electronics and GPS Anti-static Protection for active sports Aluminium provides shape memory End uses: decorative textiles, active sportswear, work wear and protective industrial clothing, medical end uses Aftercare: can be washed and tumble dried Ceramics: Powdered compounds of metal oxide, metal carbide, metal nitride or their mixtures Becoming more widely incorporated into garment fabrics Ceramic content fabrics can regulate the body temperature – wearer is cooler in heat or warmer in cold temperatures Resistant to very high temperatures Provides UV protection Good insulation Resistant to chemicals Low thermal conductivity End uses: swimwear, UV protective clothing, industrial work wear, electrical, thermal and sound insulation Aftercare: machine washable, can bleach, can be dry-cleaned and tumble dried Ceramics are noted for their high temperature resistance as they can withstand temperatures of more than 1000°C. They are also extremely lightweight, have low thermal conductivity and chemical stability – they can resist attack from most corrosive chemicals. They are widely used in thermal insulation industry. Ceramic molecules can be incorporated into synthetic fibres, either by coating them with ceramic particles or by encapsulating them within the fibre. The 28 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” inclusion of ceramic molecules in a synthetic fibre can give the fabric UV protection properties e.g. Esmo and sunfit fabrics. Ceramic molecules can also make fabrics which are able to regulate body temperature, e.g. Thermolite, a lightweight fibre with a hollow core. Yarns Yarn is defined as a fine continuous length of fibres or filaments, with or without twist. To be useful, yarns need to be strong enough to be made into fabric. Generally, lengths of fibres are produced through the process of spinning into a variety of different yarn types, such as singles, ply, cabled, core spun or fancy yarns. The thickness of yarn (the yarn count) and the tightness of the yarn twist, affect a fabric’s weight, flexibility, handle, texture, appearance and end use. All staple yarns are spun from fibres into a variety of different yarns such as singles, piled, cabled, core or fancy yarns. The thickness of yarn (yarn count) and yarn twist affect a fabric’s weight, flexibility, handle and end-use. Too much twist may make a yarn hard, whereas too little twist may result in a weak yarn. Soft knitting yarns usually have less twist, but warp yarns for weaving need a higher twist so they are strong enough to withstand the tension in the loom. Staple yarns are made from fibres such as cotton, flax, wool, spun silk or cut manufactured fibres. Filament yarns are made from continuous filaments of silk and manufactured synthetic fibres such as polyester or nylon. Blended fibres like acrylic/cotton can be made permanently bulky using heat to increase the volume of thermoplastic acrylic. This gives a warm soft handle, suitable for knitwear. Thermoplastic continuous filament synthetic yarns can be textured using a heat process. This gives an elastic, warm, soft handle, suitable for tights, swimwear, underwear, outerwear and carpets. Twist Twist is put into yarns during spinning to make them stronger, so they are suitable for weaving or knitting. Yarns can be spun clockwise (‘Z twist’) or anti-clockwise (‘S twist’). Fabrics made from spun yarn usually have ‘Z twist’ in the warp and may have ‘S twist’ in the weft. Light is reflected in opposite directions from the two types of yarn, so striped effects can be produced in fabrics by having alternate stripes of ‘S’ and ‘Z’ twist in the warp. Continuous filament yarns are made by lightly twisting filament fibres together. Staple yarns are made from short staple fibres; these have to be carded or combed, so that they all lie in the same direction, before being twisted together to form a yarn. 29 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Filament fibres can be chopped into short staple fibres; this means that they will need to be twisted together to make a yarn. If a filament fibre is to be blended with a staple fibre, the long filaments need to be cut into staple before being spun into yarn. Filament yarns are smooth but staple yarns are hairy. Hairy yarns are good at trapping air between the fibres – this means that they are good insulators and will make fabrics which are warm. Smooth yarns are not so good at trapping air and so make fabrics which are not good at insulating. The hairy yarns can also trap moisture between the fibres. Folded Yarns Folded or piled yarns are made by twisting together at least two single yarns, in order to: Improve the strength and regularity Eliminate “twist liveliness” Make heavier structures Achieve special effects The direction of twisting is designated as S or Z, just as in single yarns. Normally the folding twist is in the opposite direction to that of the single yarns. Folding twist may be soft, normal, or hard, according to the number of turns per metre compared to that in the single components. Balanced twist is when the folding twist is approximately equal and opposite of the singles. In single yarns, or in folded yarns with unbalanced twist, the yarn contains residual torque resulting from the twisting together of the fibres. This can cause the yarns to snarl during processing, and garments to become distorted after laundering. Thus the highest quality knitted fabrics are made from two-folded yarns with balanced twist. Cabled yarns are made by twisting together folded yarns. 30 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Folded Yarns- Cabled Yarns- Core Yarns- Folded yarns are made in a single processing step, combining 2, 3 or more single yarns into one by twisting them together. Cabled yarns require more than one twisting stage. Two or more folded yarns may be twisted together to form a cabled yarn. Core yarns have long been used for burnt out effects in woven fabrics. The covering component is made of a different material from the core and can be selectively removed, according to a printed pattern. Stretch fabrics can be made from core yarns in which the core is an Elastane filament and the covering is made from natural fibre, or textured filament yarn. Core-spun yarns are made by covering a core filament yarn with staple fibres in a single spinning process. Sewing threads are often made from core or core-spun yarns. The synthetic filament core gives high strength whilst the cover yarn or covering fibres prevent the needle from over-heating and protect the core from softening or melting at the needle during high-speed sewing. Colour Effects Mixture of Ingrain yarns are made by mixing fibres of different colours during spinning. This results in a heather effect. For example: Marengo 31 | P a g e Structure Effects Slub yarns are single or folded yarns having long thick places, regularly or irregularly disposed. The slub effect is made either in spinning or folding. Fabrics may have the character of linen or wild silk, which is favoured in furnishings. Lustre Effects Matt/lustre effects are obtained by mixing matt and bright fibres. Lustre and Glitter effects can also be obtained by the use of metal fibres (uncommon today) or metallised plastic films Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Melange or Vigoureux yarns are spun from combed silver or top which has been printed with stripes. The appearance is somewhat like a mixture. Bourette or Knop yarns are folded yarns containing short, often coloured bunches of fibres or yarn at regular or irregular intervals. The knops may be formed during carding, during spinning, or during folding. Fabrics have a structured surface. Example: Donegal tweed. Mottle or Marl yarns are made by spinning from two-colour roving’s or from two roving’s of different colours. The appearance is like mouline but with less sharp contrast. Bouclé or Loop yarns are compound yarns made by a special folding process which results in wavy or looped projections. Fabrics have a more or less grainy handle and a textured surface. Examples bouclé, fries, frotté. Jaspé or Mouliné yarns are made by folding two or more differently coloured yarns, or yarns made from different fibres with different dyeing behaviour. They give a mottled appearance. For example: fresco. Chenille is a cut pile yarn, it is soft and voluminous. These yarns are made by cutting special fabrics into strips. They are used in furnishing fabrics and knitwear. 32 | P a g e Crêpe yarns are used to make fabrics with a wrinkled surface and a sandy handle. They are made from highly twisted yarns. Fabric examples: crêpe de chine, georgette, crepon, marocain. such as Lurex, or clear films, or manmade fibres with special cross-sections. Fabric examples: brocade, lame. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Blends Most modern fabrics contain more than one fibre. This is because there is no such thing as the perfect fibre so manufacturers include different fibres in a blend. Blending is achieved by spinning two or more fibres together to make a yarn. This enables a fabric to be made which will be better suited to the product. In order to make a successful blend, the fibres must be the same length so that they can be mixed together before they are spun into a yarn. Continuous filament yarns can be twisted together to make a multi-filament yarn, e.g. polyester and nylon. The main reasons for blending fibres are: To help reduce the cost of the fabric To give different effects in the texture and handle of the fabric To allow for novelty effects when the fabric is dyed To make a fabric with specific qualities for a particular end use To make the fabric stronger To make a fabric easier to care for To enable fabrics to be more crease resistant To allow fabrics to be heat set Popular blends include: Polyester and cotton blends are commonly used to make a wide variety of fabrics. Different percentages of cotton and polyester are included according to what the fabric is to be used for. The polyester helps cancel out the shrinking, creasing and slow drying of cotton. The cotton makes the fabric better at absorbing moisture and makes the fabric feel nicer next to the skin. Elastomeric fibres like Lycra are blended with many other fibres. The Lycra gives the fabric some stretch – the higher the percentage of Lycra, the more the fabric will stretch. Only very small amounts of Lycra are needed to give a lot of stretch – Lycra is never used on its own to make a fabric because of its high stretch. Elastomeric fibres are combined with other fibres by core-spinning, wrapping or interlacing. The Lycra also makes the fabric more crease resistant. Fabrics containing Lycra should not be washed and ironed at high temperatures as this may damage the Lycra. Viscose fibres are used in many blends. They help make the fabric more absorbent and soft to handle. As viscose is cheap to manufacture, it can help reduce the price of the fabric. Wool is often blended with nylon for products such as socks, trousers, jackets and coats. The wool makes the fabric soft and warm, and makes it a bit more luxurious. The nylon gives improved strength and resistance to abrasion, makes the fabric lighter in weight and helps prevent the wool from shrinking when it is washed. The inclusion of nylon will also reduce the overall cost of the fabric. 33 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Woven Fabrics Most fabrics are made by weaving or knitting yarns, although non-woven fabrics are made by bonding or felting fibres together. A fabric's appearance, properties and end use can be affected by the way it was constructed. Woven fabrics - Woven fabrics are made up of a weft - the yarn going across the width of the fabric and a warp - the yarn going down the length of the loom. The side of the fabric where the wefts are double-backed to form a non-fraying edge is called the selvedge. Plain Weave The most used weave structure and is made from most fibre types. Plain weave fabrics are strong, firm and hardwearing. They are used for many types of end-uses, including garments, household textiles and accessories. In plain-weave fabric the warp and weft are aligned so that they form a simple criss-cross pattern. Plain-weave is strong and hardwearing, so it's used for fashion and furnishing fabrics. 34 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Twill Weave Produces fabric with diagonal lines, which generally run bottom left to top right of the fabric face. Weaving twills in different directions produces chevron or herringbone fabrics. Twills are made from many fibre types and drape well. They are used for a variety of end-uses including jackets, suits, trousers, jeans and curtains. In twill-weave fabric the crossings of weft and warp are offset to give a diagonal pattern on the fabric surface. It's strong, drapes well and is used for jeans, jackets and curtains. Satin Weave Warp faced, with a smooth, shiny face and a dull back. Satin fabric drapes well so it is used for curtain linings, evening wear, upholstery, ribbons and trimmings, depending on the fibre used. Satin can be made from cotton, polyester/cotton, acetate, polyester or silk. In satin-weave fabric there is a complex arrangement of warp and weft threads, which allows longer float threads either across the warp or the weft. The long floats mean the light falling on the yarn doesn't scatter and break up, like on a plain-weave. The reflected light creates a smooth, lustrous (shiny) surface commonly called satin. The reverse side is invariably dull and non-shiny. Weave variations include jacquard and damask. 35 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Pile Weaves Pile weaves have tufts or loops of yarns which stand up from the body of the fabric They are classed as three yarn system woven fabrics Warp Pile Weaves Weft Pile Weaves Uncut Loop Pile Weaves Warp pile weaves have cut loops e.g. velvet (see below) Weft pile weaves have cut loops produced after weaving e.g. velveteen, corduroy and needle cord e.g. terry One method of producing velvet is to weave two cloths face to face with the third (pile) warp alternating between the two fabrics. The pile warp is specially woven in to form the pile. A knife moves back and forth at the bottom of the loom and cuts the pile warp as the fabric moves forward as it is woven. This produces two separate pieces of velvet at the same time. Velveteen has a short pile produced by cutting the third (pile) weft after weaving. The pile warp remains slack and loops above and below the fabric to form the pile. Towelling fabrics are produced using this weave. Corduroy is a ribbed cut weft pile. The pile runs parallel to the selvedge. The cords can vary in width to give jumbo cord or needle cord. Cut Piles Velvet has a cut warp-pile on the face of the fabric. This gives a smooth, rich, soft, dense and lustrous fabric. Velvet should be used in one direction only, so pattern pieces run along straight grain with the pile stroking downwards from head to toe. Cotton velvet is used for luxury products, such as evening wear. Polyester velvet is used for upholstery. Needle cord has a cut weft-pile on the face of the fabric. The fine ribbed pile runs along the length of fabric, which may be brushed. Needle cord is usually made from cotton and is used for dress-weights. 36 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Brocade Weave Brocade is a heavy, jacquard type fabric with a raised pattern or floral design. The pattern appears in low relief. Traditionally the pattern was produced with gold or silver thread. Brocade is typically woven on a draw loom. It is a supplementary weft technique, the ornamental brocading is produced by an additional, non-structural weft that supplements the standard weft that holds the warp threads together. The purpose of adding this is to give the appearance that the weave was actually embroidered on the surface of the fabric. Ornamental features in brocade are emphasized and sometimes product the effect of low relief. Sometimes when you turn the fabric over to inspect it from the reverse you can see floating threads of the brocaded parts hanging in loose groups. Brocade weaving is used to give texture and detail. Jacquard weave Large figured weave Used for reproducing patterns on a fabric The repeating motif involves a large number of threads both for the warp and for the weft. These weaves are produced on looms with Jacquard machines. The contours of the patterns are plotted and then filled in with the graphic elements of the various weaves (the raiser). The finished pattern indicates where to place the Jacquard machine. The warp repeats of certain Jacquard weaves can consist of several hundred threads. Complicated patterns often designed and controlled by computer programmes Tartan: Tartan is a pattern consisting of criss-crossed horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours. Tartans originated in woven wool, but now they are made in many other materials. Tartan is particularly associated with Scotland. Scottish kilts almost always have tartan patterns. Tartan is made with alternating bands of colored (pre-dyed) threads woven as both warp and weft at right angles to each other. The weft is woven in a simple twill, two over – two under the warp, advancing one thread each pass. This forms visible diagonal lines where different colors cross, which give the appearance of new colors blended from the original ones. The resulting blocks of colour repeat vertically and horizontally in a distinctive pattern of squares and lines known as a sett. Each thread in the warp crosses each thread in the weft at right angles. Where a thread in the warp crosses a thread of the same colour in the weft they produce a solid colour on the tartan, while a thread crossing another of a different colour produces an equal mixture of the two colours. Thus, a sett of two base colours produces three different colours including one mixture. The total number of colours, including mixtures, increases quadratically with the number of base colours so a sett of six base colours produces fifteen mixtures and a total of twenty-one different colours. This means that the more stripes and colours used, the more blurred and subdued the tartan's pattern becomes The shades of colour in tartan can be altered to produce variations of the same tartan. The resulting variations are termed: modern, ancient, and muted. These terms refer to colour only. Modern represents a tartan that is coloured using chemical dye, as opposed to natural dye. In the mid-19th century natural dyes began to be replaced by chemical dyes which were easier to use and were more economic for the booming tartan industry. Chemical dyes tended to produce a very strong, dark colour compared to the natural dyes. In modern colours, setts made up of blue, black and green tend 37 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” be obscured. Ancient refers to a lighter shade of tartan. These shades are meant to represent the colours that would result from fabric aging over time. Muted refers to tartan which is shade between modern and ancient. This type of tartan is very modern, dating only from the early 1970s. This shade is said to be the closest match to the shades attained by natural dyes used before the mid-19th century. The Warp The Weft Warp and Weft Fabric Image Crepe: A fabric characterised by a crinkled or puckered surface. Crimp: The waviness of a fibre or filament. A term used to describe a variety of lightweight fabric in various fibers and blends characterized by their puckered surface obtained by highly twisting either the yarn, or chemical treatments or weave construction. A variety of lightweight fabrics characterized by a crinkly surface, obtained either via use of hard twist yarns, chemical treatments, weave, construction, or some form of embossing or surface treatment. Crepes are available today in an unlimited variety of fibers and blends, and in many different constructions. Crepe is a silk fabric of a gauzy texture, having a peculiar crisp or crimpy appearance. A fabric characterized by a broad range of crinkled or grained surface effect. (Flat Crepe) - Also called French Crepe or Lingerie Crepe but not exactly the same. It is the flattest of all the crepes with only a very slight pebbled or crepe effect hard twist alternating 25 x 22 in filling; warp has ordinary twist. It is very soft and pliable, which makes it good for draping. It is very light weight - 2 times as many ends as picks. Most of it launders well and is often used in accessories, blouses, dress goods, negligees, pajamas and other pieces of lingerie and linings. (Moss Crepe or Sand Crepe) - Has a fine moss effect created by plain weave or small Dobby. Made with a spun-rayon warp and a filament rayon filling. The two-ply warp yarn is very coarse and bulkier than the filling. Mostly made in rayon and synthetics but some in silk. (Georgette Crepe) - Lightweight, sheer fabric that is stiffer and with body giving an excellent wear. Has a dull, crinkled surface achieved by alternating S and Z yarns in a high twist in both warp and filling directions. Georgette has a harder, duller, more crinkled feel and appearance than crepe de chine. 38 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Traditional and cultural methods of producing fabric Ashanti Strip Weaving: Also known as a Kente cloth. Made by the Ashanti people of Ghana and is the most labour intensive weaving in the world. It became a true art form and represented the concept of royalty and status. Traditionally the Ashanti people only worked around geometric patterns. The spider Anansi taught the art of weaving to two brothers who had discovered his web while on a hunting trip. Anansi also taught them how to spin and dye the threads. Since then the Ashanti have used the strip looms Anansi taught them to build. Men traditionally do the strip weaving in West Africa. Ikat Weaving: Ikat is the method of weaving that uses a resist dyeing process similar to tie-dye on either the warp or weft fibers. The dye is applied prior to the threads being woven to create the final fabric pattern or design. One of the oldest forms of textile decoration. Ikat weaving styles vary widely. Many design motifs may have ethnic, ritual or symbolic meaning or have been developed for export trade. Traditionally, Ikat are symbols of status, wealth, power and prestige. Because of the time and skill involved in weaving Ikat, some cultures believe the cloth is imbued with magical powers Back Strap Looms: Blackstrap weaving is an ancient art practiced for centuries in many parts of the world. Peru, Guatemala, China, Japan, Bolivia, and Mexico are a few of the places they use the blackstrap loom. Today it is still used on a daily basis in many parts of Guatemala by Mayan women to weave fabrics for clothing and other household cloths. The looms are simple - typically 6 sticks- usually handmade by the weaver. A blackstrap loom is easily portable because it can simply be rolled up and laid aside when not in use. The back rod is tied to a tree or post while weaving and the other end has a strap that encircles the waist and the weaver can move back or forward to produce the needed tension. The weaver usually sits on the ground but as the person ages that is more difficult and they may use a small stool. In the western highlands of Guatemala the women have typically used cotton yarn for their weavings and used natural plants from their area to dye the yarn various colors. They still tint yarn by hand but also buy cotton yarn that's already been chemically dyed. The natural tints are softer colors than chemical dyes. These natural tints come from plants and bark such as: sacatinta - a blue color coconut shell - brown carrots - orange achote - soft orange/peach hibiscus flower - rosy pink chilca - soft yellow bark of the avocado tree - beige quilete - celery green guayabe - brown / gold sacatinta & coconut shell – gray 39 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Warp and Weft-Knitted Fabrics Weft- knitted fabric is made from a single yarn, which is fed across the width of the fabric. Weft knits are stretchy, with a right and wrong side and may ladder. Weft knitting, done by hand is used to make one off designer products, such as jumpers of cushions. Industrial computer controlled knitting machines, using CAD/CAM systems produce around 90% of jersey, rib and jacquard fabrics used for T-shirts, underwear, socks and knitwear. Warp-knitted fabrics are made on straight or circular knitting machines. Each loop of the fabric is fed by its own separate yarn. The loops interlock vertically, along the length of the fabric. Warp knits are stretchy but do not ladder and can’t be unravelled. Warp knits such as velour and Terry are used for leisure and sportswear, furnishings and sheets. Weft-knitted fabric is made by looping together long lengths of yarn. It can be made by hand or machine. The yarn runs in rows across the fabric. If a stitch is dropped it will ladder down the length of the fabric. The fabric is stretchy and comfortable and is used for socks, T-shirts and jumpers. In warp-knitted fabric the loops interlock vertically along the length of the fabric. Warp knits are slightly stretchy and do not ladder. Warp-knitted fabric is made by machine. It is used for swimwear, underwear and geotextiles. 40 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Plain Weft Knit: The simplest type Can be produced by hand, on a domestic knitting machine or industrially. It is made up when one yarn travels the width of the fabric in the same way that a weft thread goes across from selvedge in a woven fabric. Each successive row of loops is drawn through the previous row of loops in the fabric. Single Jersey Knit: Weft Knit It has a lot of stretch and is easily distorted, especially when washed It drapes softly and easily takes the shape of the figure Fabrics do not crease easily Fabrics trap air and are good insulators in still air. But moving air is able to get through the gaps in the fabric, making it cool to wear in wind. Ladders easily if snagged There is a distinct back and front (face) of the fabric The front is smooth and the back shows loops and the fabric has a tendency to ‘curl’ at the edges. It was first made by hand in Jersey for fisherman’s clothing – in handknitted single jersey, the front is called ‘plain’ and the back is called ‘purl.’ Single jersey is made industrially using a single set of needles, to produce fabric that is generally plain without any rib. It has relatively low stretch in the width and can be made from cotton, cotton blends, acrylic, polyester, modal, viscose or wool. 2-5% Elastane blends provide added comfort, crease-resistance, enhanced drape and better shape retention. Single jersey is generally used for T-shirts, jumpers and underwear. Double Jersey: Weft Knit Doubled jersey fabric is made on two sets of needle beds, in which the needles are opposite each other and work alternately. It takes two courses to produce one row of loops on the face and back, which look identical. Double jersey fabrics are compact, stable, durable and retain their shape, although they are not very elastic. They can be 41 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” cut like woven fabrics and can be used for T-shirts, underwear, polo shirts, sportswear, skirts and leggings. Rib Knit: Weft Knit Rib fabrics are made on two sets of needles, which are staggered. Alternate loops are knitted in opposite directions, to form vertical lines in the fabric. The most popular form of knitted rib is 2X2, in which both sides of the fabric look the same. The fabric is very elastic widthways, making is suitable for jumpers, waistcoats, underwear and socks. Jacquard Knit: Weft Knit Jacquard fabric has a patterned design in three of more colours. It is made by selecting needles to knot coloured yarns in a specified pattern, using CAD/CAM systems. In each succeeding course, the pattern is built up and if the colour is not required on the face, it floats at the back. There is a limit to the length of float and the fabric is not very elastic. Jacquard knits go in and out of fashion for winter knitwear. Pique Knit: Weft Knit This is the fabric that is most associated with the original Lacoste Alligator Polo shirt. Also sometimes called mesh, pique is characterized by a textured fabric face with lots of tiny holes and a fabric back that is smooth. The construction is designed to pull moisture from the skin and wick it into the air, keeping the fabric, and the wearer, relatively dry and cool. Before the days of high tech and high performance Polyester yarns, Pique was the original performance fabric. In the 1920’s, pique fabrics were an innovation that was used in the first use-specific athletic wear, particularly in the original tennis and polo shirts, as athletes began to move away from participating in sports in long sleeve button down shirts that covered up all skin. The extraordinary comfort of this fabric soon popularized it for less serious athletes. Today, pique knit polo shirts are especially popular for everyday wear and corporate apparel. Warp Knit: 42 | P a g e Warp-knitted fabrics are made on straight or circular CAD/CAM knitting machines. Each loop of the fabric is fed by its own separate yarn, which is fed into the knitting zone parallel to the fabric selvedge. These loops interlock vertically, along the length of the fabric. Warp knits have some elasticity, do not ladder and can’t be unravelled. Although they can be cut like woven fabrics, warp knots have a limited application for clothing, being mainly used for swimwear, leisure and underwear, linings, laces, ribbons and trimmings. They are also used for net curtains, furnishing and bed linen. Warp knits are mainly used in industrial end-uses including geotextiles. More complicated structure using many separate yarns which are interlaced sideways. The loops are formed along the length of the fabric. In the same way that the warp thread runs parallel to the selvedge of a woven fabric. In more complicated warp knits, the needles travel sideways for two or more wales before making a new loop. It is less stretchy than weft knit and therefore produces a firmer fabric. Fabrics do not ladder and cannot be unravelled ‘row by row’ Faster than weft knitting and is the cheapest method of fabric production using yarns. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Tricot: Warp Knit Tricot is industrially proceed warp-knitted fabric, mostly using synthetic yarns, with each yarn working in a zigzag fashion. It is used for gloves, lingerie and lightweight furnishing. Locknit: Warp Knit A combination of Tricot and 2X1 plain knit stiches, made from filament yarns. The resulting lustrous fabric is used for lining and underwear. The face of the fabric has vertical wales of small loops, whilst the back shows a zigzag stitch formation. Velour: Warp Knit Knitted pile fabric made from continuous filament fibres, has a raised fleecy surface effect, formed from cut loops that stand up from the fabric. Polar Fleece: Warp Knit Modern manufactured polar fleece, made from acrylic, nylon, or polyester, is a type of double boucle knit, densely raised on one face or both, producing a fleece effect. Polar fleece is a lightweight, high bulk, breathable and warm fabric used as insulation in leisure and sportswear. This modern fleece should not be confused with natural fleece, the entire wool coat of the sheep, which is shorn off in one piece. Panel Knitting: Garment length knitting is where the fabric is knitted in individual panels of a width to suit the end product. The start of the knitting is secured with a ribbed edge. This type of knitting produces some fabric waste. Piece Goods: Cut-and-sew blanket knitting is where long lengths of knitted fabric are produced in the form of a tube on a circular knitting machine. The fabric can be processed in tubular form or cut open (usually after dyeing). It is then cut to shape and sewn to make the product. Although this type of knitting produces higher levels of fabric waste, this is kept to a minimum through the use of CAD lay-planning systems. 3D – Whole-Garment Knitting: 43 | P a g e 3D knitting is where whole products are knitted in one piece, incorporating all the garment shaping. There is minimal sewing necessary and no fabric waste. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Non-Woven Fabrics Non-woven fabrics are textile structures made directly from fibres rather than from yarn. Non-woven fabric is made by bonding or felting. Felt is a non-woven fabric made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together by moisture, mechanical action and heat. Wool felt is expensive, but blends with acetate, nylon or acrylic to reduce its price. Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity, but it does not fray and is warm and resilient. It retains its shape and can be made flame-retardant. It is used for blocking into hats, for slippers and toys. Bonded-fibre fabric is made from a web of fibres, bonded with adhesives, solvents or by the thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres. Bonded-fibre fabrics are used mainly as fusible interlining, which are air-permeable, dimensionally stable, crease resistant, stable to washing and dry-cleaning and easy to use. Bonded-fibre fabrics are made from webs of synthetic fibres bonded together with heat or adhesives. They are cheap to produce but not as strong as woven or knitted fabrics. Bonded-fibre fabrics are mainly used for interlining. They are easy to sew, crease resistant, do not fray and are stable when washing and dry cleaning. Wool felt is a non-woven fabric made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together using moisture, heat and pressure. Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity but it is warm and does not fray. Wool felt is expensive. It is used for hats and slippers and in handcrafts. 44 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Felt Pressed wool felt is made from animal hair or wool fibres matted together by moisture, mechanical action, and heat. Felt fabric is made from fibres containing at least 50% animal hair, usually wool, so wool felt is expensive. The fibre web is squashed together in a felting machine, then milled using mechanical pressure, heat and moisture. The fibres become entangles through repeated treatment until the required density of felt is achieved. Woven or knitted felt is made from fabrics containing animal hair or wool, which are matted by moisture, mechanical action and heat in a milling machine. The original fabric construction is covered by a smooth surface, making the fabric warm and windproof. The woven fabric called Loden (used for overcoats) is produced in this way. Needle felt is made from fibres matted together by mechanical action using barbed needles to entangle the fibres. Almost any type of fibre can be used, but in practice, synthetic fibres are generally used. In the mechanical process, a bulky web (batt) of fibres is repeatedly punched by a bank of barbed needles. Every needle drags fibres to the base of the web to form loops in the fibres. This entangles the fibres to form the fabric, which is usually given additional strength by a fibre-bonding technique. In hydro-entangled needle felt, staple fibres are entangled in a web with high-pressure water jets (also called spun laced fabric.) Needle felts are elastic and lightweight and are mainly used for floor coverings, waddings, interlinings, upholstery materials, mattress covers and filters. Felt has no strength, drape or elasticity, but does not fray and is warm and resilient. Acetate, nylon and acrylic can be blended with wool in felt, to improve the drape, reduce shrinkage and make it more economical to produce. Felt retains its shape and absorbs sound and can be made flame-retardant. It is used for blocking into hats, for slippers, toys, insulation materials and soundproofing in speakers. Felt made from animal hair, such as from rabbits is called fur felt – this is used for hats. Bonded non wovens Bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded with adhesives, solvents or by the thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres. Bonded webs for garments are layered in a carding machine, to build up a batt of the required thickness with the layers built either across or down or a combination of both. This kind of non-woven fabric is mainly used for fusible interlinings, which are air-permeable, dimensionally stable, crease-resistant, stable to washing and dry-cleaning and easy to use. Adhesive bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded together by the application of adhesive. The adhesive may be applied to the web by spraying, dipping or foam spreading, followed by 45 | P a g e Thermally bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded together through the thermoplastic property of some or all of the fibres – under pressure and heat the fibre surfaces soften and fuse Solvent bonded webs are made from a web of fibres, bonded together using a solvent – the fibre surfaces soften and fuse together permanently at their touching points. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” pressing the web. together permanently. Tufted non wovens Tufting is the most used manufacturing process for making carpets and rugs. They are made by machines that insert pile yarns into a backing fabric. The pile, which can be looped or cut, fixed into the backing with an adhesive coating. Open-work fabrics These fabrics include lace, braid and crotchet, all of which are minor textile techniques in comparison with knitting and weaving. Lace is a fine, open fabric of mesh or net, which can be patterned. Bobbin lace is traditionally produced by hand, using pins on a pillow, around which the lace bobbins work the lace. Embroidery lace is made by hand or machine, by working an embroidered pattern onto a ground fabric. The ground is removed by cutting is away or by using a burnt-out technique. Raschel lace is made on a warp-knitting machine. Lace is used for curtains, bedspreads, and as decorative edging on garments. 46 | P a g e Braid is made by the diagonal interlacing of at least two sets of warp yarns. It is used for trimmings and ribbons. Crotchet is a hand-made chain of loops, produced from a single thread using a hook. The chains of loops can be linked to make crotchet fabric. When crotchet is in fashion, it is generally machine-made and used to make accessories such as bags and hats. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Modern and Smart Materials Modern and smart fabrics are designed to maximise characteristics such as lightness, breathability, waterproofing etc., or to react to heat or light. They are usually manufactured using microfibers. • AQA definition A smart material is defined as one which is able to react to external stimulus / changes in the environment without human intervention. Smart Materials include ones that:- monitor body functions and administer medicines/give warnings; maintain a personal micro-climate, eg Stomatex, Outlast; can provide buoyancy and support, eg bodysuits for medical/physiotherapy support ; have chromatic properties and change colour in response to specific situations; have shape memory, eg Corpo Nove shirt which adjusts to differing temperatures; are self-cleaning, eg nano-technology fabrics triggered by sunlight; use biomimetics that imitate nature, eg Fastskin, Stomatex; can generate solar power when exposed to sunlight; can sense and track movement, eg SensFloor Smart carpets. Microfiber Technology Woven polyester Polar fleece Brushed polyester, warp knit Gore-Tex Laminated membrane Micro-encapsulated Different microcapsules embedded in the fibres Heat sensitive Thermochromatic Light sensitive Photchromatic dyes 47 | P a g e Properties Lightweight Soft Good drape Breathable Shower-proof Lightweight Soft Breathable Warm Breathable Lightweight Waterproof Gives off an aromatic scent Can reduce body odour Can provide vitamins, medicines or reduce skin irritation Micro-encapsulated dye can change colour in response to heat (lasts about 5-10 washes) Smart pigments change colour in response to sunlight End-use Raincoats Active sportswear Fleece, jumpers and blankets All-weather jackets and shoes Underwear Anti-bacterial socks Medical textiles Children’s clothes Sports clothing Fire-fighters clothing Wound dressings t-shirts military clothing Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Combination fabrics - Fabrics can be layered and combined to improve their handle, appearance or performance. For example: An interfacing fabric such as Vilene can be stitched or laminated to other fabrics. This reinforces, stiffens and gives strength to collars and cuffs to prevent the fabric from stretching or sagging. A quilted fabric has two or more layers sewn together to give an attractive appearance and added warmth. Gore-Tex can be laminated to another fabric using adhesive or heat. Gore-Tex is used for allweather clothing and shoes because it is breathable and waterproof. Kevlar is a high-strength, lightweight and flexible fibre. It is used in bicycle tyres, racing sails and police bullet-proof vests because of its high strength-to-weight ratio. Thinsulate is a highly insulating but thin fabric. The microfibers in Thinsulate are fine and capture more air in less space, making it a better insulator. It traps air between the wearer and the outside. It can be machine washed and dry cleaned, and is breathable as well as moisture resistant. Scuba divers wear a Thinsulate suit under a dry suit when diving in cold water. Technology in textiles - Textiles manufacturers use new technological developments to improve fabrics by giving them new properties. These might be developed for a special reason, but then adapted to be used in everyday products. For example: Memory foam moulds to the user's shape and can return to its original state. It was originally developed for NASA astronauts and is now used in memory-foam mattresses and seats. Smart-shape-memory alloy returns to its original shape when heated. Smart memory fibres are woven with nylon to make smart-memory shirts that don't need ironing. Fastskin is used in swimsuits to simulate the texture of sharkskin. It increases a swimmer's speed by reducing drag through water. Polymers Textile materials are made from natural or synthetic fibre-forming polymers. A polymer is the generic name for a combination of large molecules, made from a chain of smaller repeating chemical units called monomers. Natural polymers exist as short fibres, which need to be combed, lined up and twisted to make longer, usable lengths. Vegetable fibres, such as cotton and linen, are composed of the glucose polymer cellulose The animal fibre wool, from the fleece of a sheep, is composed of the protein polymer keratin Hair fibres, such as cashmere and mohair, are also based on the protein polymer keratin Regenerated natural fibres, such as viscose and modal are manufactured from the cellulose in wood pulp. This is dissolved in chemicals and extruded through the tiny holes in a spinneret into an acid bath, to produce fine continuous filaments or pure regenerated cellulose. Most synthetic polymers are manufactured from petrochemicals, using the process of polymerisation to produce long chains of fibre-forming linear polymers. These are converted by solution or melted and extruded through spinnerets to form continuous filaments of synthetic fibres. There are two main methods of polymerisation, called addition polymerisation and condensation polymerisation. Acrylic, PVC and PTFE are made by addition polymerisation – in which similar monomers are added to each other to form long chains, called homopolymers. 48 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Polyamide and polyester are made by condensation polymerisation – in which two different monomers are added together to form long chains, called copolymers. Elastane is made by block polymerisation – in which two different monomers are pre-formed into blocks and then added together, to form block copolymers. elastomers Elastomers can be stretched and return to their original shape, such as the branded Elastane fibre Lycra. Thermosetting polymers Thermosetting polymers have cross-links between the long chain molecules. They set with heat and cannot be softened when re-heated. They are not used for textiles. Thermoplastic polymers Thermoplastic polymers have long chain molecules that are not cross-linked. They soften when heated and become hard again when cool. Acetate, acrylic, polyamide and polyester are all thermoplastics and should be ironed with care. Finishes All fabrics used in products will have been ‘finished’ in some way to make them suitable for their end use. Good finishing can greatly improve the aesthetic and functional properties of fabrics, enhancing their handle, drape and aftercare properties. Finishing process Physical finishing processes use heat, pressure or steam and machine processes. Example of how finishing benefits fabrics Cotton or nylon is brushed (or ‘raised’) to give a soft, warm handle. Wool fabrics are shrunk to make them compact and to reduce further shrinking. Chemical finishing processes involve the use of Viscose fabrics may be given an easychemicals, which can cause environmental care treatment. damage. Silk ties can be Teflon coated to make them stain resistant. Biological finishing processes involve the use of Most denim products in Europe are natural enzymes, such as those used in biostoned. This is less expensive than biostoning denim, which causes little traditional stonewashing and reduces environmental damage. damage to the fabric. Dyeing and printing involve the use of chemicals Most fabrics are dyed to improve the to enhance the aesthetic characteristics of aesthetic characteristics and to make textiles. them fashionable. Printing makes fabrics attractive to the target market. Decorative and stitch techniques. Appliqué and embroidery add to the style of the product. Textile products are also finished as part of a quality assurance process. Product finishing ensures that the product is fault-free, clean and matches specifications. Finishing improves the properties and quality of the product, and can be: Aesthetic, like pressing to improve the ease of manufacture. Final pressing improves presentation of the product. Decorative, like applying logos, braid or fringing to add to the style of image of the product. Functional, like self-finishing seams by over locking to improve the product quality. Finishing - Finishing is done to improve the appearance, properties and quality of a product. It covers many different processes, some mechanical and some chemical. 49 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Mechanical finishing processes - Mechanical finishing uses heat, pressure and rollers to improve the appearance of the fabric. Brushing - Brushing cotton or nylon fabrics makes them fluffy and warm, with a soft handle. The fabrics pass through rollers with wire brushes that lift the fibres to form a nap. Calendaring - Calendaring is the industrial equivalent of ironing. It smoothes the fabric and improves its lustre. Engraved calendar rollers are used to emboss relief patterns on the fabric surface. Heat-setting - Heat-setting is used for thermoplastic fabrics (polyester and nylon). The fabrics are set in permanent shapes or pleats. Chemical finishing processes - Chemical finishing involves the application of chemical solutions or resins to improve the appearance, handle or performance of a fabric. Bleaching - Cotton and synthetic fabrics are bleached before dying. This makes it easier to dye pastel shades. Mercerising - Cotton or linen fabrics are mercerised using the alkali caustic soda. Mercerised fabrics are stronger, dye well and have improved lustre. Shrink resist - Wool can be given a shrink-resist finish using silicone or Teflon. This results in soft, smooth, lustrous yarns and fabrics that are machine washable. Crease resist - Cotton and viscose fabrics are given a crease-resistant finish using resin. This makes them easy care. They dry fast and smooth and need little ironing. Flame resistant - Children's nightwear and cotton/viscose furnishings must by law be given a flameresistant finish. This often makes the fabric stiffer and weaker. Smart finishes - These are new, high-tech methods for finishing products. Anti-bacterial finishes - Anti-bacterial finishes are applied to the fabric surface to slow down the growth of bacteria. They control odours in sports shoes and reduce infection in medical products. Coating - Coating involves applying a layer of polymer to the surface of the fabric. Teflon coating makes fabrics stain resistant, water repellent and breathable Biological finishes - Biological finishes use natural enzymes to change a fabric's appearance. Bio-stoning gives a stonewashed finish to denim fabrics. Thermochromatic finishes - Thermochromatic substances change colour due to a change in temperature. Nanomaterial’s and integrated Components Nanomaterial’s - Nanomaterial’s are those broadly defined as having tiny components with at least one measurement below 100 nm. Sometimes nanomaterials are used as thin films or surface coatings, as on computer chips or as nanowires, nanotubes, or as blobs of tiny nanocrystalline particles. In the clothing sector special functional textiles are under development, for example self-cleaning textile surfaces or protective insulating clothing. Antimicrobial silver nanoparticles are already used in socks, shoe insoles and a few clothing textiles. By using nanostructured polymer coatings on textile surfaces, textiles and other products may be enhanced to include new properties like these listed below. 50 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Two key factors cause the properties of nanomaterial’s to be special: their quantum effects and their structure. Their tiny structure means they have a greater relative surface area than other materials and this can alter or improve properties such as strength and electrical characteristics or reactivity. Their quantum effect can affect the electrical, magnetic or optical performance. Properties vary but can include improvements such as: magnetic/optical performance electrical conductivity strength/elasticity thermal conductivity absorbency This has resulted in the development of: harder and tougher tools water-repellent and anti-bacterial coatings wear- and scratch-resistant hard coatings UV absorbent and reflective transparent-looking nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide in some sunscreens a military battle suit that that will withstand blast waves (currently being developed by the Institute of Soldier Nanotechnologies at MIT) Nanomaterial finishes Characteristics Uses Summer clothing Hammocks Tents Mountain wear Climbing wear Sportswear Swimwear Tents ZANO UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer. ZANO is a fungistat. NanoGrain CeO2 UV-absorbers for fabrics: protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer. Summer clothing Umbrellas Partial UV-absorbers for fabrics, protects fabrics from degradation, protects against sunburn of wearer. Summer clothing Tents NanoGrain TiO2 (rutile) or Optisol 51 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” NanoGrain TiO2 (anatase) Can combat malodours on textiles by stopping decomposition of food, sweat, etc. Socks and underwear Shoe insoles Sportswear Children's clothing Integrated electronics - LEDs and other electronic components such as sensors are being integrated into textile and other products, and can offer a dual-purpose product like a wearable light-emitting garment or a roll-up illuminated mat. Testing of materials British Standards Institute (BSI)- develops the tests that set the standards that products have to meet to ensure their safety and quality. Products have to meet these standards and will be awarded a number eg. BS 3320 (seam strength test). The BSI helps develop British, European and International standards which are used to ensure safety and quality of a wide range of products. Standard tests are often set at the request of individual manufacturers and retailers and form an essential part of a quality assurance system. Testing of materials and components, processes and prototypes prior to manufacture requires the use of standard tests under controlled conditions. Tests done in industry- tests are carried out on fibres, yarns and fabric before they are manufactured. Testing is carried out under strictly controlled laboratory conditions. Tests include; tensile strength, seam strength, burst strength, tear strength, crease resistance, flammability, drape etc etc. Consumer testing of garments is also carried out to asses the performance and acceptability of the product. Consumer advice- information given to the buyer of the product about the performance of particular fabrics, e.g. a symbol or logo on the label to explain that the product meets certain BSI standards. The kite mark shows that the product has been independently tested under strict conditions and complies with BSI standards. The CE mark shows that the product meets European safety standards. Testing before manufacture Testing before manufacture ensures the production of quality textile products avoids costly mistakes and protects the consumer against faulty or unsafe goods. Tests make use of Manufacturing specifications Fibre testing processes, to identify fabric content and to avoid counterfeiting of expensive fabrics 52 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Fabric testing procedures to identify processes and properties such as abrasion resistance, aftercare, colourfastness, crease resistance, drape, durability, elasticity, flammability, pilling, shrinkage, stain resistance, strength, thermal insulation, water and wind resistance Manufacturing prototypes to test for performance ease of manufacture, aftercare and fitness for purpose. Quality control is the standard method of putting quality assurance into practice. It can involve statistical sampling, to inspect a sample of garments across a colour and size range Consumer testing to test for performance in wear and acceptability of the product. Testing textiles under controlled conditions Tests on textiles need to be carried out under controlled conditions, to make sure that they are fit for the purpose – in other words, that they meet the quality and safety requirements for the specification. Product specifications are only of use if there are appropriate methods available for testing of properties. Performance properties can be measured by a number of test methods. For example, for fluorochemicals, standard tests exist for oil and water repellence and stain release. Performance durability can be measured by testing after repeated laundering, dry cleaning or abrasion cycles. Testing under controlled conditions means Using tests that can be repeated time and time again Taking into account physical and chemical properties, yarns and fabric construction, fabric finishes and the end use of textiles Controlling variables Being objective about results Taking account of the scale and dimension – for example, small fabric swatches may not behave in the same way as fabrics are used in a product Comparative testing It is very difficult to carry out objective testing outside a textiles laboratory, although two methods are appropriate – testing against specification and testing against known properties. Common tests carried out include – tensile strength, yarn snapping, seam strength, tear strength, crease resistance, drape. Fire testing Made from safe non-toxic materials Must comply to a range of standards depending on their use 53 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Decorative Techniques Fabrics usually need to be washed, bleached and dyed before they are made into textile products. Garments are assembled using various joining techniques including sewing, fusing and heat-sealing. Finishing improves the appearance, handle and performance of fabrics, while pressing is used to shape and stabilise fabrics. Dyeing and Printing Before dyeing and printing the fabric is prepared by washing, bleaching and mercerising, in which the yarn is treated to improve strength, lustre and receptivity to dye. Fabrics can be dyed by hand or by machine. Dyeing of fabrics: - there are many different dyes available for colouring fabrics; most of them have been developed for a particular application. Textile dyeing involves the permanent application of a colorant to a fibre to give a uniform colour. In order to be successful, the colorant must be able to be absorbed by, or react with, the textile fibre. It must also be soluble so that it can go into the spaces between the fibre molecules. Dyes are classified according to their ability to dye different fibres: Direct Dye – cellulosic fibres, including cotton Soluble in water and used for dyeing viscose, cotton and modal fibres. They are moderately fast to light but have poor wash fastness. Salt can be added to the dye bath to help the fibre absorb the dye Reactive Dye – cellulosic and protein fibres, nylon Water soluble dyes which form a strong chemical bond with cellulosic and protein fibres. They give bright colours which are fast to washing Vat Dye – cellulosic fibres Not soluble in ware and give excellent wash and light fastness. Indigo, used to dye denim blue, is one of the best known vat dyes. In order to get the dye into the fibre. It has to be converted into a soluble form by removing oxygen. Once the dye is in the fibre, it is converted back to its insoluble form by oxidation, which makes the molecules too big to get out of the fibres. A lot of indigo dye sits on top of the fibre rather than being absorbed into it, and this is what causes it to rub off onto other fabrics and to lose some colour when washed Disperse Dye – Acetate, polyamide, acrylic, polyester Used to dye fibres which have hydrophobic (water-hating) properties. These dyes are almost insoluble in water and are applied to the fibre in the form of a fine aqueous dispersion. They are held inside by chemical bonds Acid Dye – Protein fibres, polyamide Soluble in water and are applied to the fabric in an acidic dye bath. They have good fastness to light but the wash fastness varies 54 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Solvent dyes have been developed which are applied to fabric using organic solvents instead of water. This sis because water usage and disposing of it afterwards in a form which will not cause pollution has become very expensive. Solvent dyes are also very expensive to use because there is a cost involved in recovering the organic solvent so that it can be used again. The equipment used is also very expensive, making these dyes not especially economical to use. There are a number of issues to consider when selecting dyes to use on a fabric for a particular end use: Colour requirements – shade Fastness requirements – how well will the dye stay on/in the fabric Cost Generally dyes with better properties are more expensive but sometimes, in order to meet consumer demand, dyes with poor properties are used because they are the only ones available that will give a certain shade. The process of dying consists of three steps: 1. Immersing the textile in the dye bath 2. The dye attaching to the textile fibre 3. Fixing the dye to the fibre The strength with which the dye is held in the fibre depends on the physical forces resulting from the shape of the dye molecule and structure of the fibre, and also to the chemical forces that nay be present. The strength with which the dye is retained within the fibre is related to the property of washing fastness. Colour fastness of textiles: When selecting dyes for a particular end use, colour fatness must be considered. Fabrics may need to have fastness to the following – Bleaching, dry cleaning, washing (important for clothing products worn regularly), light (important for furnishing products), perspiration (important for fashion products), gas fumes, rubbing (important for seating and some clothing products), miscellaneous Preparation – when the fabric comes from the loom or knitting machine it is not ready to be dyed or used straight away. At this stage it is referred to as Grey (greige) or loomstate cloth and it often has a natural creamy colour. Fibres, especially the natural fibres, have natural impurities in them, e.g. fats, waxes and salts. There will also be other impurities picked up during the processing, e.g. oil and dirt from machines, and starch added to strengthen the yarn before weaving. These have to be removed before the fabric can be dyed or finished, otherwise the colour or finish will not attach itself evenly to the fabric. 55 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Preparation processes Desizing Size is a starch, gum or gelatine type of substance which is applied to warp yarns before they are woven into fabrics. This helps to strengthen them so that they will be more able to stand up to the constant movements of the loom. Most of these substances are soluble in water so they can easily be removed by washing. Scouring Scouring removes fatty and waxy impurities which would prevent the fabric from being ‘wetted’. Cotton fabrics are scoured by boiling them in caustic soda solution. This method would not be appropriate for wool fabrics as they would be damaged by the heat and the alkali; instead they are moved through warm detergent solutions to remove the fatty deposits in the fibres. More modern methods involve ‘washing’ the fabrics in solvent to remove the oils and grease. Bleaching Fabrics are sometimes bleached to obtain a fabric which is evenly white before colour is added. Cotton fabrics are bleached using carefully controlled amounts of hypochlorite bleach or hydrogen peroxide. Both of these are oxidizing bleaches (they remove unwanted colour by adding oxygen to the stain to make it colourless.) Wool Is often left in its naturally creamy colour. It is never treated with chlorine bleaches as these will damage the scales on the wool fibres. It can be bleached using hydrogen peroxide (as used to bleach human hair), or by using sulphur dioxide gas, a reducing agent which works by removing oxygen from the stain to leave it colourless. Fluorescent whitening agents Commonly used to whiten all fibre types, especially where a very white fabric is required. These are colourless dyes which cause the fabric to reflect and ultraviolet light which makes it appear to be whiter and brighter. These fluorescent dyes will be broken down by the bleaches commonly used in home laundering, and this is the reason why consumers are sometimes advised not to bleach white cotton fabrics. Dyeing Textiles – dyeing can occur at various stages during processing during which they are transformed from the fibre to the finished article: Dope Dyeing – dope or spun dyeing is a process whereby the de is added to the spinning solution of man-made fibres prior to spinning the fibre. This method results in the textiles having good light and wash fastness. Stock Dyeing – when textile fibres are dyed in a loose form the term stock dyeing is used. This method is relatively cheap and has the advantage that if the dyeing is uneven it will be removed by the blending process that follows when converting the fibre into yarn. Yarn Dyeing – yarns are dyed before being made into fabric. Piece Dyeing – this is when woven or knitted fabrics are dyed in the piece. 56 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Garment Dyeing – made-up garments are dyed as required. This allows manufacture of fashion products to apply colour at the last minute as and when there is consumer demand for the latest shades. Hand dyeing In hand dyeing, fabrics are immersed in hot or cold dyes in a dye bath. The dye bath is agitated so the dye reaches all areas. When the desired colour is achieved the fabric is removed and rinsed to remove excess dye. Then it is fixed with a mordant or a fixing agent such as salt. The strength of a dye colour is determined by the: amount of time in the dye bath absorbency of fibres original fabric colour concentration of the dye colour in the dye bath effective use of a mordant or fixative Commercial dyeing - In industrial production fabric is dyed by continuous or batch dyeing. Continuous dyeing -The fabric is passed through a dye bath, and then squeezed between rollers to spread the dye evenly and remove excess. Continuous dyeing is used for colours that do not need to change too quickly with fashion. Batch dyeing -Fabrics are produced without dye. Instead, they are dyed to order in large batches according to the colours required. Batch dyeing is used for fabrics that have to change in colour frequently because of fashion. Printing -Fabrics is printed by block or screen printing. Block printing - Block printing is done using metal or wooden blocks, one for each colour. The background shapes are cut away to leave a raised design on the block. Dye is applied and stamped onto the fabric. This is a slow process used by specialised craft industries. Screen printing - In screen printing a pattern is printed onto fabric through a stencil held in place by a screen. Each screen prints one part of the design in one colour. After printing the dyestuff must be fixed using steam or dry heat. Manual flat-bed screen printing - Manual flat-bed screen printing is a slow process, done by hand. It is used by designer-makers for complicated fabric designs or for small runs. Mesh is stapled to a frame to make a screen. Masking tape is stuck to the underside of the screen. A stencil is made from paper. The stencil is placed under the screen but on top of the paper. Ink is poured at one end of screen. 57 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” A squeegee is used to press down and draw ink across screen. The screen is carefully lifted. The print is checked before the process is repeated. Industrial flat-bed screen printing - Industrial flat-bed printing automates this process, with the fabric moved through the machine on a conveyor belt and the print repeating rapidly. Rotary screen printing - Rotary screen printing uses CAD and roller squeegees. One roller is used for each colour. This is a very fast process used in the continuous printing of furnishing and clothing fabrics. Joining Textile materials are joined by stitching, fusing or heat-sealing. Stitching - Stitching two fabrics together produces an unfinished seam. Finishing the seam prevents fraying and produces a hard-wearing, neat finish. Fusing - Fusing is used to permanently join two fabrics together using an adhesive resin. Fusing by hand is used to join Vilene to fabric to make it stable and strong. It is also used to reinforce and strengthen fabrics for garments, bags and accessories and allows hems to be turned up without stitching. In a factory there are two types of machine used for fusing. A flat-bed press is used to join short fabric lengths for batch production, and a conveyor press is used for fusing long fabric lengths for mass production. Heat-sealing - Heat-sealing is used for synthetic fibres made from thermoplastics, such as polyester or nylon. It is used to set a material into a shape, e.g. pleats. It is also use to seal the seams on tents and all-weather gear to make them waterproof. Fastening and Components Textile products are made not only from fabrics but also from a variety of components and fastening. The main purpose of this is to enhance the products style and performance. Type of fastening Typical end-use Polyester button Shirts, blouses and underwear Nylon buttons Coats and jackets, sports and leisurewear Metal buttons Blazers, jeans and knitted waistcoats Leather buttons Sports jackets and knitted cardigans Wooden buttons Knitted and sports garments 58 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Moth of pearl buttons Women’s outerwear and underwear Plastic zip fastener Lightweight and fine fabrics used in garments and household products Metal zip fastener Sports goods Single and double-sided zips Leisure and sports products Nylon Velcro A range of fashion garments, sports and leisure goods Metal hooks and eyes Trousers and skirts Metal or plastic press studs A range of garments and household goods Metal, leather or plastic buckles Belts and clasps 59 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” 3.3.3 A2 Section C: Processes and Manufacture 3.1.3 AS Section C: Processes and Manufacture Computer Aided Design (CAD) Computer-aided design - The term computer-aided (CAD) design includes all the computer applications and hardware devices that can be used to aid digital design. CAD speeds up the design process by making it quick and easy to test and modify ideas before production starts. This reduces mistakes and cuts costs. Uses of CAD in textiles design include: Wire-frame modelling, surface modelling or solid modelling can be used to texture map or simulate virtual products in 3D, from which clients can choose one to be sampled in fabric. This saves the time and cost of sampling a large selection of real products. Graphics applications enable ease the production and storage of accurate working drawings and lay plans. Colour ways can be accurately modelled at the design stage. Material quantities and costs can be easily calculated. Computer networks improve communication between designers, clients and manufacturers thus speeding up the design-feedback loop. Use of CAD: (read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 2 p.175) Fabric design/ Colourways Product modelling Pattern production and grading Product design/ Used to store colour and style information Create and modify ideas quickly and easily 2D modelling of fabrics and colourways Used for texture mapping of fabric designs onto virtual products Show 3D virtual products to clients on screen To present a virtual catwalk show to clients To make accurate drawings for manufacturing specification Adapted patterns are digitised onto computer Automatic grading of patterns – increasing or decreasing flat pattern pieces to create larger or smaller sized garments, e.g. 8,10,12 etc. Use of CAM: (read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 3 p.197) 60 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Knitting Computer controlled knitting machines – flat knitting, circular knitting or whole garment knitting (p.225) Weaving Computer controlled looms – e.g Jacquard weaving to produce complex patterns in woven cloth Lay-planning Computers used to work out the most efficient position of the pattern pieces. They can give maximum utilisation of fabric to save on wastage and costs. The marker (the actual plan) can then be sent by computer to automated cutting machines. Cutting Layers of fabric are layed out flat by an automatic spreading machine. Computer controlled cutting machines use information from the lay plan to cut through layers of fabric using a laser. Sewing Automated sewing machines can perform tasks like making buttonholes, bar-tacking (a re-inforcement like on a belt loop) or constructing a double seam without the need for pinning or tacking. Machinists still have to feed the garment into the machine. Pressing Industrial pressing equipment can include; Embroidery Pressing unit with high pressure steam iron Flat-bed press for trousers A steam dolly for finishing a whole garment (the garment is placed on a form which is inflated with steam for one or two minutes) A tunnel finisher – garments are conveyed through a chamber in which they are steamed and dried. Computer controlled embroidery machines to rapidly produce badges or embroidered fabric. Many threads are used at once. Use of ICT: (read Textiles at the Cutting Edge chapter 1 page 166) CIM EDI 61 | P a g e Computer Integrated Manufacture – CIM systems integrate the use of all the different functions of computers including CAD/CAM to enable fast, efficient and cost-effective manufacturing. CIM includes: Management of product design and development Production planning and control Quality assurance and control Materials and stock control Cost control Electronic Data Interchange: allows computers to communicate Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” directly and enables the transfer of data between business partners, via telecommunications links and networks. E.g barcode is read at the till point and information of stock control goes to manufacturer. EDP CAA PPC Global Production: Off-shore production Imports/exports Branded goods Contracted goods Wholesalers 62 | P a g e Electronic Data Processing – the use of information, eg using databases Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” CMT operations Systems and Control Quality control systems: Quality control throughout manufacturing Quality Assurance TQM control systems 63 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Production One-off Production This is wear a one-off textile product is made by and individual designer-maker, a craftsperson or a company to meet an individual client’s requirement. It is also called individual production, job production and make through production. It is a traditional method in which a whole garment or textile is assembled by one operator. Each product is only made once or only in small quantities. This process needs highly skilled, experienced operators and versatile machinery. Tailors are one example, producing individually made suits to exact measurements for the customer. Craft workers produce small quantities of items, carrying out each process from start to finish on each one. The product is made by an individual or small team from start to finish Traditional methods of manufacture are used The operators are highly skilled and use versatile equipment Haute couture is an extreme example of this production method Batch Production Items are produced in specific quantities. They may be made in one production run or in batches to be repeated at certain times. A batch can range in number from two or three products to a hundred thousand or more. In a batch production manufacturing system, each piece of equipment may be used to make several different products, for example skirts today, trousers tomorrow. This means that the machinery used must be far more versatile than that used in mass production. The workers who operate the machines are likely to be more skilled because the job they do changes day by day according to the batch run. In a large factory, many batches of different products, of varying quantities, scheduled for different customers and delivery dates, will be processed at the same time. This involves complex planning for the use of machines and the personnel to operate them, so that orders can be met on time. A reasonable number of products are produced, possibly to meet seasonal demand, e.g. swimwear Production costs are considerably less than for individual production Mass Production Large quantities of products are involved in mass production. Machines are in continuous use for long periods of time, so they are very specialized and expensive. The machinery and the operator skills are highly specific for the job in hand. Equipment, labour and supply of materials and components are well organised to ensure a smooth flow of work through the factory and to minimise the cost of making each product. Increasingly, computers are used to monitor and control processes. Variations in the manufactured products are kept to a minimum, to minimize any changes necessary to the tooling of the machines, which take time and money. Used to manufacture large numbers of identical products over a long period of time Products are usually not complicated and can be made cheaply, e.g. tights or vests Types of mass production include: Synchronised/ straight-line production – work is passed along a production line where each operator is responsible for one task, which they perform repeatedly Repetitive flow production – manufacture is divided into sub-assembly lines that each focus on one area of the process Continual flow production – used for massive volume items; the process runs 24 hours a day and is never shut down 64 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Other Production Systems Cell production or section systems: Divide the workforce into small teams that all produce the same product Rely on each team to take responsibility for the quality of the products produced by them Progressive bundle production: Uses small teams that are each responsible for a particular part of the production process Is like cell production, but for individual parts of the garment Off-the-Peg Manufacture Except for Haute Couture and individual/job production, the different production systems are designed to produce ‘off-the-peg’ garments (ready-made garments in standard sizes). Uses templates in standard sizes helps to keep costs down. One-off garments that are made to specific measurements for an individual are called ‘bespoke’ and are usually far more expensive. Just-in-Time Stock Control Just-in-time stock management means that materials, components and sub-assemblies are delivered a short time before they are needed. This means that less space is required for storage and no money is wasted on surplus stock. With this type of stock control there must be no mistakes; otherwise production can be held up. Industrial and commercial practice Manufacturing Systems: One-off production Also called bespoke, made-to-measure, custom made or job production. Batch production Mass/line production Means designing and making one-off textile products to a client’s specification. one-off products are often more expensive because materials and labour costs are higher often made by a craftsperson and quality is checked as work progresses tools and equipment may be less auto-mated end product often individual and of high quality examples are: hats, bags, cushions, or haute couture products, or made to measure garments (by a tailor) Where fixed quantity of identical products are made either for stock or order. Can be used to respond quickly to market demands for seasonal products,e.g in a particular colour High volume production is used for manufacturing large quantities of textile products for stock or order. 65 | P a g e Cost effective method of making identical products Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” In-house production Uses standard materials, components and basic pattern, equipment and processes Used to make products that don’t change quickly with fashion, e.g. uniforms, work-wear, badges, yarns, underwear Where the same company makes the raw materials (fabrics etc) and the garments and does the distribution. They do not have to rely on suppliers as it is all done by the same company. Progressive bundle system Where teams are used to produce parts of a garment, which is then passed on to the next team, literally in a ‘bundle’ of fabric. QRM Quick Response Manufacturing: Vertical production Pre-manufactured components Manufacturing specifications Used to produce garments quickly in response to customer demand Manufacturers use information from EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) tills in the shops which gives details of what is being sold QRM reduces levels of finished goods waiting in stock Cuts the costs of tying money up in stock Most textile products need components. Manufacturers buy in pre-manufactured components such as zips, buttons etc. They will have a stock of basics and make a special order for specialised components. Each product has a manufacturing specification, this document ensures that the product is made as the designer intends. It provides clear, detailed instructions about the product’s styling, materials and construction. It is an essential part of the production plan and enables the profitable manufacture of identical products. A manufacturing specification should include the following: Sub-Assembly Just-in-Time production (JIT) A description of the product A drawing to show the front, back and side views Clear design and construction details All dimensions, sizes, seam allowances and tolerances Information about materials and components, including a fabric sample. Where parts of the garment or product are made separately to the main part and joined together at the end. E.g shirt sleeves or collar. This is an efficient use of time, equipment and labour and therefore reduces costs. Where materials and components are ordered so they arrive at a factory just in time for production. This requires careful planning. JIT is often used in QRM where goods are produced quickly. It’s advantages are: 66 | P a g e Reduces need to keep stockpiles of materials, Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” components etc Reduces space needed for stock Reduces levels of finished goods put into stock Stages of Manufacture: 1. Fabric manufactureFibre production See diagrams in Chapter 3 p. 88 – 91. Look at the processes involved in; Cotton spinning, Wool production, Viscose production and synthetic fibre production. Yarn production Texturing processes – a heat process to give the fibres durable crimps, coils or loops along the length. Texturing adds bulk and makes the yarn warmer, more elastic, absorbent and softer. Examples of synthetic fibres and yarns which have been textured or bulked in different ways. 67 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” 2. Fabric preparationDyeing: Preparation of fabric for dyeing Desizing: this means getting out the sizing agent which is sometimes starch, used to stiffen the fabric Scouring: means washing out the natural fats, waxes, dirt and oils that are in the fabric. Bleaching: this means destroying the natural colour of the fabric using hydrogen peroxide making it pure white. Batch Dyeing Jig dyeing: passing of fabric through a dye bath from one roller to the other roller, this keeps the fabric flat and gives an even colour Winch dyeing: the fabric is bunched together to form a long ‘rope’ this is then circulated around rollers and winches through the dye bath. Jet dyeing: Fabric moves along a heated tube where jets of dye solution are forced through it at high pressure. Continuous dyeing Fabrics are fed continuously into a dye solution. The speeds can vary between 50 to 250 meters per minute. Continuous dyeing is a popular dyeing method and accounts for around 60% of total yardage of the products that are dyed. Resist methods Means where methods are used to "resist" or prevent the dye from reaching all the cloth, thereby creating a pattern and ground. The most common forms use wax, some type of paste, or a mechanical resist that manipulates the cloth such as tying or stitching. Examples are Tie-Dye and Batik (using wax) Direct dyeing The type of dye used for cellulosic and some protein fibres Reactive dyeing Used for natural fibers making them among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dyes are by far the best choice for dyeing cotton and other cellulose fibres. Vat dyeing Where the fabric or garment is immersed in a bath or vat of dye Disperse dyeing Type of dye used for polyester Acid dyeing Used on protein fibres such as wool or silk 68 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Stages of dyeing Dye can be applied at any stage of the manufacturing process depending on requirements. Eg. Fibres, Yarns Fabric or Garment. Printing: Direct printing Simplest printing method, creating a positive image in one or more colours onto a white or pale background. Discharge printing The creation of a ‘negative’ image, a white or coloured pattern on a dark background. By using bleach or other chemicals to destroy the dye already present. Transfer printing The transference of an image to fabric via paper (like the heat transfer press in school) sublimation inks are used. Roller printing Where the print is applied to fabric using and inked roller, not used much nowadays in manufacturing. More of a traditional method. Rotary/flat bed screen printing Rotary screen printing: dye is applied to the fabric from within a rotary tube which is engraved with the printing pattern. Flat bed screen printing: the printing paste is pushed through a screen onto the fabric. The pattern is created by blocking out areas of the screen with filler. Digital printing Uses ink jet printers to print CAD designs directly onto fabric using special printing inks. Finishing Processes: See page 100 of TatCE Fixation Where the colour or print is fixated into the fabric (made permanent) can be through chemicals or steam. To make the fabric colourfast (so that the colour doesn’t wash out) Washing Fabrics can be washed before they are manufactured into products. They are also tested in laboratory conditions to ensure that they can withstand certain temperatures and conditions. Drying Fabrics need to be dried at a consistent heat and air flow Heat-setting Synthetic fibres can be heat treated to set them permanently into shape, for example pleats. Natural fibres have to have a resin 69 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” treatment first before they can be heat set. Mechanical Finishes: Raising Like brushing, fabric is passed through rollers covered with fine flexible wire brushes which lift up the fibres to form a soft surface called a ‘nap’. Calendering Like flattening, fabric is passed through heated heavy rollers under pressure (like industrial ironing) to smooth the surface, and add a sheen. Embossing Similar to calendering except the rollers have a raised pattern on them which gets transferred onto the fabric Shrinking Some fabrics need to be pre-shrunk before being made into garments. Eg. Cotton. Beetling Fabric is passed through a machine with revolving wooden hammers that gives fabric a lustrous sheen Stone/sand washing A process used to give a newly manufactured cloth or garment a worn-out appearance. Stone-washing also helps to increase the softness and flexibility of otherwise stiff and rigid fabrics such as canvas and denim. The process uses large stones to roughen up the fabric being processed. The garments are placed in a large horizontal industrial clothes washer that is also filled with large stones. As the wash cylinder rotates, the cloth fibers are repeatedly pounded and beaten as the tumbling stones ride up the paddles inside the drum and fall back down onto the fabric. Laser-cutting Laser cutting provides a clean cut on synthetic materials and seals the edge. Intricate shapes can be cut out or engraving fabric is possible by setting the laser higher. Chemical Finishes: Water repellency Teflon or Scotchguard resin finish applied to repel water Laminating Combining 2 or more layers of different materials which are bonded together by glue or heat. (Using iron-on interfacing is an example of laminating) Stain resistance Teflon or Scotchguard resin treatment to repel stains Flame resistance Proban – reduces flammability of fabric, increases stiffness, adds to cost. Mothproofing Mitin – chemicals applied to make the fibres inedible to moth 70 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” grubs Anti-pilling Fabric is treated with chemicals so that it does not form bobbles 3. Pattern Drafting: Basic pattern/template Basic block Notches, balance marks Seam allowance Ease Principles of grading 4. Garment production: lay-planning Marking and cutting out Methods of joining Finishing edges 71 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Pressing Labelling and packaging Seams A plain seam is the most commonly used method of joining woven fabrics. An overlock seam stitches, cuts and finishes the seam in one process. This is used for a range of products including underwear and knitwear. A flat seam (seam cover) is made using twin needles to create a stitch on top and an overlock stitch below. This binds the cut edges of straps. Belt loops or the hems of fabrics that fray, e.g. for T-shirts or belt loops on jeans. A cup seam is used for the seams of knitted fabrics. A lap seam is commonly used on the seams of jeans and shirts, providing a very strong seam with two rows of stitching. Heat-sealed joins are applied to fabrics made from thermoplastic fibres, like polyester and polyamide (nylon). Heat-sealing is often used in combination with taped seams to help waterproof products such as all-weather wear or tents. 72 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” British Standards and Health and Safety BS 5722, flammability performance of fabrics and fabric assemblies used in sleepwear and in dressing gowns – mandatory for nightwear for children and the elderly. Flammability performance relates to the whole garment, including all threads, trimmings, decorations and labels. BS EN 23758, the care labelling code. Care labels are voluntary and use symbols that are consistent with those used on washing machines, irons and detergent packs. Regulations require that most textile products be labelled with the type and quantity by percentage of different fibres used. The label must: Use the generic name of the fibre, such as acrylic, rather than a trade name like Dralon Give the percentage fibre composition, such as 60% cotton, 40% polyester, with the highest quantity first. Applying British Standards: Anthropometrics Implementing Garment sizes are very important to everyone in the supply chain, from designers, manufacturers and retailers right to the end-users. Clothing sizes are standardised so that is they cannot be tried on at the time of purchase, consumers have a way of assessing which size the require. All the data relating to the size and shape of the human body is called anthropometrics. Anthropometric data needs to be representative of the greatest numbers of people, particularly in relation to garment size. One example of the implementation of BS can be seen in the manufacture of children’s nightwear. This nightwear is described as being made for children over the age of three months and under thirteen years of age. Children’s nightwear includes night-dresses, dressing gowns and bathrobes, all of which must meet the requirements of BS 5722: “flammability performance of fabrics and fabric assemblies used in sleepwear and in dressing gowns”. BS 5722 relates to the whole garment, threads, trimmings, decorations and labels. The test procedures for checking flammability have to comply with British Standards (BS) guidelines and must be carried out under controlled conditions. It is mandatory for all children’s nightwear, baby garments, children’s pyjamas and terry towelling bath robes made for sale, to carry a permanent label to show they meet the flammability standard. 73 | P a g e Applying to Hazards and Risk Control Under the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, risk assessment is a legal requirement for all manufacturers in the UK. Its use is an essential part of any Quality Management System. In any designing and making process, therefore, it is the responsibility of the manufacturer to ensure that hazards are controlled, both in manufacture and use of a product by a consumer. A hazard is a source of potential harm or damage or a situation with potential for harm or damage. A risk combines the likelihood that a hazard might occur and the consequences of the hazard. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” British Standards Institute (BSI) The British standards institute (BSI) helps develop British, European and International Standards, which are used to ensure the safety and quality of a wide range of products. Standard tests are often set at the request of individual manufacturers and retailers and form an essential part of a quality assurance system. Testing of materials and components, processes and prototypes prior to manufacture requires the use of standard tests under controlled conditions. Health and Safety Health and safety issues for products are related to the production of the consumer. Regulation The Trade Descriptions Act 1988 The Textile Products (Indication of Fibre Content) Regulation 1986 The Weight and Measures Act 1985 & 1987 The Consumer Protection Act 1987 The General Product Safety Regulations Act 1994 Example of application Can’t say a product is waterproof if it’s not. A fabric can be waterproof. Fibre content must be accurate, but there is a tolerance of 3%. Stated sizing must be accurate. The onus of proof of a fault is on the consumer. Product must have correct labelling description. In normal use children’s wear must not give any risk or potential risk. Health and safety at work is the responsibility of employers and employees. Manufacturers are required to follow strict rules and regulations, based on the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974. Employees are required to follow safety procedures to reduce risks in using materials, machinery and manufacturing processes. It makes employers criminally liable for failure to meet regulations. It set up the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which is responsible for checking that the Act is being followed. HSE and local authority inspectors visit workplaces to make sure that health and safety regulations are being followed. It gives employees the right to be represented on health and safety matters. It places and obligation on employees to use safety equipment. The Act requires business to make a risk assessment of their activities. The company must appoint a Health and Safety Officer who will check the workplace for possible risks and puts into place the necessary procedures and/or equipment to reduce risks for the employers. Many chemicals are used in the textile industry, and these may be dangerous to health is not stored and used correctly. The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations (1994) form part of the risk assessment. All workplaces should appoint a person to be in charge of first aid, and workplaces should have clearly marked and well stocked first aid kit. 74 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Health and Safety for the Consumer: Products must also be safe for the consumer to use and must comply with a range of safety standards and specifications. In many cases, safety of products is a matter of law and manufacturers have a responsibility for the goods they produce. BSI provides advice on the safety standards for a wide range of products including products made from flame-resistant materials. Fabrics must be considered for their ability to burn and/or melt easily. This can be particularly[y dangerous in certain situations e.g. nightclothes for children and elderly people, furnishings in public buildings. Fabric Soft toys may be dangerous for young children, especially the wadding material used inside them. In some occupations where fire is a hazard, protective clothing will be needed. Any places where the public collect together must have flame-resistant furnishings. Babies often put things in their mouth. The fabric therefore has to be safe with no loose fibres or harmful chemicals or fabrics. These can be a hazard for certain people and in certain situations. Small parts may easily be dislodged and swallowed by a small child, small fingers can become trapped in zips and buckles, children have been killed because of drawstrings and toggles, belts and braces have been caught in bus and lift doors. Fastenings Trousers for small boys should not have a zip fastening. Fastenings and other trims used on clothing for small children should not resemble food. The elderly and some disabled people may have difficulty with some fastenings. Temperature Sharp Edges Certain products need padding to provide insulation against extreme heat e.g. oven gloves. Firm corners and sharp edges in a product must be well padded – the user may not realise that under and attractive fabric there is a sharp corner. Wire can be particularly dangerous as it may work its way through the fabric over a period of time. Textile products are checked to ensure that there are no metal objects, e.g. Broken needle parts, in the item before it leaves the factory. Legislation: Nightwear (Safety) Regulations 1985 These regulations prohibit the supply of children’s nightwear that do not meet flammability performance requirements. The regulations also specify labelling requirements. 75 | P a g e The Furniture and Furnishings (Fire Safety Amendment) Regulations 1993 These regulations cover the fabric furnishings in public places. In the UK, fire brigade officers usually decide on the flammability requirements for buildings and their contents where the public has access. This kind of public building includes schools and hospitals and places of entertainment such as cinemas, nightclubs and concert halls. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Textile product maintenance - A care label on a textile product gives the consumer useful information about product maintenance. Good labels provide details on: Fibre content, which is the percentage of each fibre used to make a fabric, e.g. 50 percent cotton, 50 percent polyester. This is a legal requirement. Flammability. This is a legal requirement for children's nightwear. Standard care symbols (see diagrams). Standard size, which is a standard measurement of the human body. For example, women's clothes might come in sizes 10, 12, 14, 16. All manufacturers use similar symbols to tell the consumer how to look after the product; the care of textile products depends on the fibre content and fabric finishes used. Washing instructions Symbol Instructions Symbol Instructions Wash at 95 degrees, whites only Wash at 40 degrees, dark colours only Wash at 60 degrees, colours Wash at 40 degrees, viscose Wash at 60 degrees, modal Wash at 30 degrees Wash at 50 degrees Wash by hand only Wash at 40 degrees Do not wash Washing instructions are shown as a washing bowl. Similar symbols are found on washing machines to show different cycles. The number in the washing bowl shows the maximum temperature, and the line underneath the bowl tells you to use a special wash for synthetic fabrics. A hand in the bowl means you can only hand wash the product. 76 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Bleaching instructions Symbol Instructions Symbol Instructions Bleach Do not bleach Bleaching instructions are shown as a triangle. A cross over the triangle means do not wash with bleach. Ironing instructions Symbol Instructions Symbol Instructions Iron: high temperature Iron: low temperature Iron: normal temperature Iron: cold, do not use steam Ironing instructions are shown by a picture of an iron. The dots on the iron show the maximum temperature at which it is safe to iron the product: three dots is very hot; one dot is cool. A cross over the iron means do not iron. Instructions for dry cleaning Symbol Instructions Dry clean: all methods Symbol Instructions Dry clean with perc (dry-cleaning fluid, tetrachloroethylene) only Dry cleaning instructions: a circle symbol means that it's safe to dry clean the product. The letter inside tells the dry cleaners what method should be used. A cross over the circle means do not dry clean. 77 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Tumble drying instructions Symbol Instructions Symbol Instructions Tumble dry: high temperature Do not tumble dry: viscose Tumble dry: low temperature Do not tumble dry Tumble dry: low temperature, modal Tumble drying instructions are shown by a square with a circle inside. The dots show the temperature at which it is safe to dry the product. A cross over the symbol means do not tumble dry. 78 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” 3.1.2 AS Section B: Design and Market Influences 3.3.2 A2 Section B: Design and Market Influences Development of Technologies and Design The effects of major developments in textiles technology: We have come to expect more from our clothing and other textile products. New textiles are being developed all the time – mostly to try to improve the performance of existing products, therefore to keep the consumer buying new products – maximising sales and profits. Read more about the effects of new developments in Section B, Chapter 1 p.118. And p.213 Modern and smart materials Some examples of major developments are: Fibre production E.g Organic cotton, Spider silk, Lyocell, microfibres, nanofibres, Non-traditional fibres sources such as leaf hemp/pineapple/seed etc. More on new fibres in Textile Innovation Book. Yarn production Blended yarns such as Lyocell and Lycra. Heat treatments on yarn to give texture such as crimping or bulking. Fabric production Biomimetics – fabrics that imitate nature, read page 96 of Textile Innovation book, examples are; Fastskin by Speedo (fabric for swimwear that acts like shark skin) Stomatex (fabric that imitates the way the surface of a leaf breathes and regulates temperature) Super Microft (fabric that imitates the self-cleaning surface of the Lotus leaf) Anti-gravity fabric (imitates the feet of the Gecko lizard that can climb up walls or hang off ceilings like Spiderman!) Garment production Mass production and automated systems mean that clothes can now be made very quickly and cheaply. Manufacturers can respond quickly to demand (QRM= Quick Response Manufacture) Many made overseas. Finishes E.g. Bio-stoning or resin treatments (such as Teflon stain resistant) Colour application Printing techniques such as; dye sublimation and digital printing mean higher definition of colours, higher quality print. Higher colour-fastness of dyes. Decoration 79 | P a g e CAD embroidery techniques – quick, efficient, consistent quality. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Main effects for consumers are: Higher performance of products Higher levels of comfort Better quality products Cheaper products – but we buy more than we need More choice of products – easily available Increased safety especially for high-risk sports etc Easy-care clothing Main effects for manufacturer are: More efficient systems – lower wastage, lower expenditure Increased sales and profit Less workers needed – again lower expenditure Safer practices in factories Negative effects are: More products = more use of resources = adverse effect on environment Encourage people to regard products as ‘throwaway’ or ‘easy-come, easy-go’ Less employment – bad for economy Ethical issues - Increased expectation of cheap clothing puts pressure on manufacturers to pay low wages to workers who make the clothing. Design in Practice Marketing 80 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Product life cycle analysis Designers and manufacturers look at the life cycle of products to identify how well a particular product is doing and decide when to replace it. Most products go through 5 stages – 1. Introduction - a new product, perhaps introduced by style leaders/catwalk designers, new ideas. At this stage the product is only worn by style leaders/trend setters paying high prices for exclusivity 2. Growth – the product becomes more popular, the style becomes better known, may be simplified and will cost less, worn by style followers. 3. Maturity – the product is at it’s peak of popularity, styles are readily available and worn by average consumer at paying low prices 4. Decline – the product has passed it’s peak of popularity, is can be picked up in the sales by bargain hunters! 5. Replacement – the product is obsolescent and no longer likely to sell at all. New styles/products are coming in. We have to consider whether it is necessary to constantly Disposal/environmental produce new products which use resources and have an impact on the environment. Should designers try to convert issues our ‘throw-away’ society into something more sustainable? Read more in Textiles at REFUSE, REUSE, REDUCE. Cutting Edge p.293 onwards. Product Life Cycle Fad- Fashion/Standard- Classic/Basic- A fad product is introduced into a store, quickly rises to best seller then almost immediately declines and is unlikely to reappear. A fashion product is a product which is introduced into stores slowly, moves up to a top seller and then quickly declines, but unlike fad may reappear in later years. A classic product is introduced into a store, slowly increases and declines at an average rate but never drops off the scale completely. Its top selling point is lower than fad but keeps on selling. 81 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” A fashion cycle is a variation of the product life cycle which reflects the sales history of the prevailing style of consumer articles such as clothes, accessories or interior products. A fashion cycle is seen as comprising three stages defined as distinctiveness, primary emulation and secondary emulation. Take up of a new fashion is done by innovators seeking distinctiveness who will then be emulated by early adopters who wish to copy them. In urn if the fashion appears to be attractive to the mass market manufactures will bring out large quantities of similar products at much lower prices which will attract the early majority; with the result that the innovators may well look elsewhere to regain distinctiveness and start a new fashion cycle. Trickle-down effect – the oldest theory of distribution is the trickle-down theory. In this model, a style is first offered and adopted by people at the top of society with status and gradually becomes accepted by those lower classes. Once the fashion is adopted by those below, the first adopters reject that look and find another. Fashion generally works on a trickle-down system as designers are the inspiration that leads to mass production of any particular product. An example is Burberry. Once famed for their upper class status, Burberry’s iconic check fabric was worn by Kate Moss and other fashion icons. However, their iconic print led to their downfall, as the masses knocked off cheap bags, clothes and accessories. Burberry struggled to retain its polished image and resulted in a new advertising campaign, seen today rarely displaying the traditional and iconic check. Bubble up effect – the development of street fashions worn by ordinary people into exclusive fashions for celebrities. The ‘bubble up’ effect in fashion is a term used to denote styles that originate as street fashion before developing into exclusive ‘designer’ versions. In the 21st century there is less trickle down from designers and more bubble up from the street as there is a bigger diversity of styles accepted due to the increase in trend and style groups (indie, fashionistas, vintage, prep.) Technological innovation and the internet – increasingly used to predict trends. Influence of media creates trends and trend groups based on likes and interests. (Rock music – rock-style clothing) Sneezers help to spread fashion trends – they include bloggers, columnists and online advertisements that pop up and make you think ‘I want that’ 82 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Trend forecasting companies employ ‘trend chasers’ often these are fashion designers and use a wide range of information. Trade magazines such as Drapers Records are especially important for fabric predictions. Trends: The influence of trends on textile and product design is very important, especially for fashion products. Trend forecasting is and essential activity for designer of fibres, yarns, fabrics, accessories, garments and interiors. They use market research techniques to research colour, style and fashion trends, so they can predict what people will want and will then buy. Developing a Fashion Forecast: 1. Identify the basic facts about past trends and forecasts 2. Determine the causes of change in the past 3. Determine the difference between past forecasts and actual behaviours 4. Determine the factors likely to affect trends in the future 5. Apply forecasting tools and techniques while paying attention to issues of accuracy and reliability 6. Follow the forecast continually to determine reasons for significant deviations from expectations 7. Revise the forecast when necessary Long Term Forecasting: • 5 years or more • Timeline sufficient for decisions related to repositioning or extending product lines • initiating new businesses • reviving brand images • planning new retain concepts 83 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Short Term Forecasting: • 1 year + • Timeline allows for the segments of the textile / apparel pipeline to coordinate seasonal goods around looks that can be communicated to the customer through the press and stores Fashion Scan: • Following the latest fashion news to spot emerging fashion & lifestyle trends • Focus on colour, textiles or style forecasting Consumer Scan: • Attempts to identify clusters of people who share characteristics • Usually combined with demographics, lifestyle, attitudes and behaviour • Used to determine target market • Can be used to better understand consumer behaviour Fashion Analysis: • Combines FASHION SCAN and CONSUMER SCAN to determine what is likely to happen next • Brings together expertise of a fashion insider & the insights of consumer behaviour Social and Economic Trends: • Cultural changes in society involve shifts in lifestyle and reflect changes in generational cohorts or cycles in the economy • Affects mass scale purchasing decisions • Casual lifestyle, trend resistant consumer • Megatrends- large scale shifts that cross industry lines 84 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Fashion Cycles The time that it takes for a product to complete it’s life-cycle varies by what type of product it is. In the fashion industry there are three categories as follows: Fad – fad products catch on well and peak quickly, e.g. hot pants in the 1970’s or Jeggings. Classic – practical, easy to use products that are always needed, e.g. tights, duvet covers. Standard – most fashion products follow a standard cycle lasting about 2 years, e.g. pencil skirts, tunic tops Industry development cycles from colour, fibre trends and predictions to products. Read more in Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.6 onwards New products are developed using a design process, similar to how you design and make your own products for Textiles. The design cycle for a one-off designer dress for a catwalk show would be as follows; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Start with a predicted colour trends, fabric, fibre trends ideas would be researched a moodboard would be created working sketches, pattern and toile development fitting of toile on model and production finished garment shown in Autumn/Winter or Spring/Summer catwalk show A mass-produced item would follow a different design cycle: 1. identify a need 2. market research and analysis 3. development of concept 4. prototype pattern and sample made and tested 5. pattern templates made and graded for different sizes 6. marker making (lay-planning) 7. production 8. distribution and marketing Influence of trends from fashion, cultural and media sources. Fashion is influenced by many things – designers may get inspiration from 85 | P a g e street-style; developed by teenagers initially but picked up by designers – e.g punk, grunge other periods in history; also known as revivalist fashion, e.g 50’s skirts, 80’s shoulder pads modern media, tv, films. E.g men’s kilts from film Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Importance and purpose of trade fairs Braveheart New technologies, fabrics and processes which give designers opportunities to create innovative products, e.g Gore-Tex World events. E.g environmental concerns, recession Trade shows are held all over the world to showcase the latest fibres and fabrics. Suppliers have stands at which designers, merchandisers and buyers can browse and find inspiration. For example, Premiere Vision which is held twice a year in Paris. This fashion and textile trade show is the ultimate in the industries trend forecasting and innovative design events. Lifestyle analysis Analysing consumer lifestyles means examining the way people live rather than where they live or their age, income or occupation. Lifestyle analysis is based upon a person's activities, interests and opinions. People of the same age, income, and occupation, who live in the same area, purchase a wide variety of goods and services. Knowing more about your potential customers' lifestyles will help you understand them and thus, serve them better. Target Market groups A product will be more successful and therefore more profitable if it is aimed at the needs and wants of a particular market segment. Consumers can be divided up by age group, gender, level of disposable income and end-use. Read more in Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.151 & p.286 Marketing and Advertising Read: Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.277 Chapter 3 The marketing function: The aim of marketing is to influence potential customers to buy your product. Advertising and promotion will give a message about how your product is better, more unique than others – it’s USP (Unique Selling Preposition) 86 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Marketing and branding of new fibres and other textile products Often done through campaign that addresses the consumer directly, e.g. use of swing tickets showing the fibre brand logo and giving information on the performance of the fibre, e.g. Lycra, Modal, Tencel. This adds perceived quality to the garment and attracts the buyer. Develop instantly recognisable ‘style’ this promotes reliability, quality Importance of and hopefully develops a ‘band loyalty’ with consumers. Most textile products do not require much packaging other than swing tag. labelling, packaging and corporate identification Advertising and promotion of textile products (range of media) Range of media includes; Media TV Radio Internet Magazines In-store Newspapers 87 | P a g e Disadvantages Advantages Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” The marketing mix: product, place, promotion, price. Product: Is your product or service totally unique? Unless so, it's likely that someone else is servicing your potential clients already. Is it new / different / unusual / designed to fill an identified need? Does your product answer a problem customers may have or fulfil a need Price:Are you less expensive, or more expensive than the competitors? Some people will not buy the cheapest, assuming that cheap means inferior. Promotion:To some people, image is everything and they would rather pay five times the price for something with a designer label or a quality reputation than pay less for an unknown brand. Place: Place represents the location where a product can be purchased. It is often referred to as the distribution channel. Including actual stores and internet stores. Visual merchandisin g Different retail markets and points of sale 88 | P a g e Visual merchandising is promoting the sale of goods by how they are presented in store. Visual merchandising starts with the store building itself. Many elements can be used by visual merchandisers in creating displays, including colour, lighting, space, product information. Fashion retail shops will place particular ranges very carefully – e.g. colour ranges together, particular produts placed to entice the customer into the store and spend. High street independent department stores and boutiques, multiple retailers multiple department stores, chains mail order, websites, interactive media. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Role of new technology in marketing and sales of textiles products: Virtual reality product simulation Mutli-national textile companies and global marketing Identifying socioeconomic groups, demographic trends, niche marketing. See Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.184 – bottom of page onwards. Companies that are globally recognised for example; Lycra, Teflon, Tactel, Nike, Adidas. See Textiles at the Cutting Edge p. 129 Done through Market Research (See p. 281) Jobs in the Textiles/Fashion Industry Fashion Designer Fashion designers work on the design of items of clothing and fashion ranges. Some may focus completely on one specialist area, such as sportswear, children swear, footwear or accessories. They produce designs for the haute couture, designer ready-to-wear and high street fashion markets. Developments in technology mean that a design can be on sale as a finished product in the high street within six weeks. Depending on their level of responsibility and the company they work for, designers may work to their own brief or be given a brief to work towards, with specifications relating to colour, fabric and budget. The main areas of work for fashion designers are: High street fashion: this is where the majority of designers work and where garments are mass manufactured (often in Europe or East Asia). Buying patterns, seasonal trends and celebrity catwalk influences play a key role in this design process. It is a commercial area and heavily media led; ready-to-wear (also known as prêt-à-porter): where established designers create ready-to-wear collections, produced in relatively small numbers; haute couture: requires large amounts of time spent on the production of one-off garments for the catwalk - which are often not practical to wear - usually to endorse other brands and create a ‘look’ creating/visualising an idea and producing a design by hand or using computer-aided design (CAD); keeping up to date with emerging fashion trends as well as general trends relating to fabrics, colours and shapes; planning and developing ranges; working with others in the design team, such as buyers and forecasters, to develop products to meet a brief; liaising closely with sales, buying and production teams on an ongoing basis to ensure the item suits the customer, market and price points; understanding design from a technical perspective, i.e. producing patterns, toiles and technical specifications for designs; sourcing, selecting and buying fabrics, trims, fastenings and embellishments; adapting existing designs for mass production; developing a pattern that is cut and sewn into sample garments and supervising the making up of these, including fitting, detailing and adaptations; overseeing production; negotiating with customers and suppliers; Managing marketing, finances and other business activities, if working on a self-employed basis. Experienced designers with larger companies may focus more on the design aspect, with pattern cutters and machinists preparing sample garments. In smaller companies these, and other tasks, may be part of the 89 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” designer's role. Buyer A retail buyer is responsible for planning and selecting a range of products to sell in retail outlets. The buyer must consider the following factors when making purchasing decisions: customer demand (e.g. price, quality and availability); market trends; store policy; Financial budgets. Buyers source new merchandise and review existing ones to ensure products remain competitive. By fully understanding customer needs, they are able to maximise profits and provide a commercially viable range of merchandise at competitive prices. Keeping up to date with market trends and reacting to changes in demand are key elements of the role. Retail buyers have a considerable amount of responsibility and autonomy in what is often a pressured environment. Merchandiser analysing consumer buying patterns and predicting future trends; regularly reviewing performance indicators, e.g. sales and discount levels; managing plans for stock levels; reacting to changes in demand; reacting to changes in logistics; meeting suppliers and negotiating terms of contract; maintaining relationships with existing suppliers and sourcing new suppliers for future products; liaising with other departments within the organisation to ensure projects are completed; attending trade fairs, in the UK and overseas, to select and assemble a new collection of products; participating in promotional activities; writing reports and forecasting sales levels; presenting new ranges to senior retail managers; liaising with shop personnel to ensure product/collection supply meets demand; seeking merchandise feedback from customers; Training and mentoring junior staff. Merchandisers are responsible for ensuring that products appear in the right store at the appropriate time and in the correct quantities. This involves working closely with the buying teams to accurately forecast trends, plan stock levels and monitor performance. While the buyer selects the lines, the merchandiser decides how much money should be spent, how many lines should be bought and in what quantities. In smaller companies, the same person may be responsible for both buying and merchandising. Merchandisers play a key role within organisations, as profitability can be affected by how successfully they undertake their work. Merchandisers set prices to maximise profits and manage the performance of ranges, planning promotions and markdowns as necessary. They also oversee delivery and distribution of stock and deal with suppliers. 90 | P a g e planning product ranges and preparing sales and stock plans in conjunction with buyers; liaising with buyers, analysts, stores, suppliers and distributors; maintaining a comprehensive library of appropriate data; working closely with visual display staff and department heads to decide how goods should be displayed to maximise customer interest and sales; producing layout plans for stores; forecasting profits and sales, and optimising the sales volume and profitability of designated product areas; planning budgets and presenting sales forecasts and figures for new ranges; controlling stock levels based on forecasts for the season; using specialist computer software, for example to handle sales statistics, produce sales projections and present spreadsheets and graphs; analysing every aspect of bestsellers (for example, the bestselling price points, colours or styles) and ensuring that bestsellers reach their full potential; monitoring slow sellers and taking action to reduce prices or set promotions as necessary; gathering information on customers’ reactions to products; analysing previous season's sales and reporting on the current season's lines; making financial presentations to senior managers; accompanying buyers on visits to manufacturers to appreciate production processes; meeting with suppliers and managing the distribution of stock, by negotiating cost prices, ordering stock, agreeing timescales and delivery dates, and completing the necessary paperwork; Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” identifying production and supply difficulties and dealing with any problems or delays as they arise; Managing, training and supervising junior staff. A clothing/textile technologist works on the design, development and production of fibres, yarns and textiles. They carry out a range of technical, investigative and quality control work to ensure the end product performs to specifications. Fabric and Garment Technologist They also work on the development of products, improving production efficiency and quality while liaising with those involved in the production process. The textile and clothing industries are closely linked and end products range widely from clothing to household and industrial textiles. Visual Merchandiser/ Display Designer developing manmade fibres and quality assessing natural fibres; spinning fibres into yarn, and knitting or weaving yarn into fabrics; producing non-woven materials; identifying the latest fabric trends, developments and innovations; overseeing the dyeing, printing and finishing processes; ensuring quality in areas such as strength, durability, colourfastness, and water and chemical resistance; advising commercial colleagues on technical aspects of the business; liaising with designers, and adapting designs to suit production methods; making and sizing pre-production garments; sourcing fabrics and accessories; undertaking quality evaluations of materials and checking the quality of the final product; Responding to product queries, including complaints, from wholesalers and customers. Display designers and visual merchandisers use their design skills to promote the image, products and services of businesses and other organisations. Display designers focus on designing displays, stands and panels for exhibitions, conferences and other events. They also produce point-of-sale displays, which are installed in hundreds of retail outlets. Visual merchandisers create window and in-store displays of goods for retail shops and department stores. The work involves researching to get an understanding of what is needed, and coming up with design ideas. Visual merchandisers also source elements such as lighting, props and accessories. It is important to make the most of the space available, work within a budget and meet deadlines. Installing and dismantling displays may also be part of the job description. making presentations to potential clients to win contracts discussing the brief with the client and identifying the key messages they wish to convey gaining an in-depth understanding of the client's organisation, products, image and target market coming up with design ideas, images and graphics incorporating the client's logo and corporate colours, and discussing these with the client researching costs and working within a budget revising designs according to feedback from clients and other members of the design team 91 | P a g e considering factors such as the space available for the display, any special features it should incorporate (such as chairs, models and computers) and the client's budget Overseeing the production of the chosen design, checking the quality and making sure the project is completed to schedule. Producing a display usually involves working with printers, exhibition contractors, plastics manufacturers and metal fabricators. The job could also involve arranging for the display to be transported to and from exhibitions, installed, dismantled and stored when not in use. Designers may liaise with suppliers of lighting, furniture, flower arrangements and other accessories. Visual merchandisers create imaginative, eye-catching displays of goods in retail stores. They aim to attract the attention of customers and encourage them to buy. Their tasks can include: researching lifestyle and design trends and making sure designs will appeal to the target audience working with other members of the design, marketing and buying team to develop themes and colour schemes for displays - for example Christmas, Valentine's day, sales and special promotions sketching designs and developing floor plans, making the most of the space available taking direction from head office on corporate schemes when appropriate sourcing materials such as props and lighting Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” installing and dismantling displays preparing visual merchandising packs, including plans and photographs, for other stores in the chain, to make sure all displays present a consistent image Visiting branches to train and brief staff on arranging displays. The role of the designer: Read Textiles at the Cutting Edge: p.147-150 Job Description Fashion designers work on the design of items of clothing and fashion ranges. Some may focus completely on one specialist area, such as sportswear, childrenswear, footwear or accessories. They produce designs for the haute couture, designer ready-to-wear, and high street fashion markets. Developments in technology mean that a design can be on sale as a finished product in the high street within six weeks. Depending on their level of responsibility and the company they work for, designers may work to their own brief or be given a brief to work towards, with specifications relating to colour, fabric and budget Areas of fashion: The main areas of work for fashion designers are: High street fashion: this is where the majority of designers work and where garments are mass manufactured (often in Europe or the Far East). Buying patterns, seasonal trends and celebrity catwalk influences play a key role in this design process. It is a commercial area and heavily media led. Ready-to-wear: Established designers create ready-to-wear collections, produced in relatively small numbers. Haute couture: This requires large amounts of time spent on the production of one-off garments for the catwalk - which are often not practical to wear - usually to endorse other brands and create a ‘look’. Typical Work Activities Tasks depend on the market the designer is working for, but core responsibilities include: 92 | P a g e creating/visualising an idea and producing a design by hand or using computer-aided design (CAD); keeping up to date with emerging fashion trends as well as Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” general trends relating to fabrics, colours and shapes; planning and developing ranges; working with others in the design team, such as buyers and forecasters, to develop products to meet a brief; liaising closely with sales, buying and production teams on an ongoing basis to ensure the item suits the customer, market and price points; understanding design from a technical perspective, i.e., producing patterns, toiles and technical specifications for designs; sourcing, selecting and buying fabrics, trims, fastenings and embellishments; adapting existing designs for mass production; developing a pattern that is cut and sewn into sample garments and supervising the making up of these, including fitting, detailing and adaptations; overseeing production; negotiating with customers and suppliers; managing marketing, finances and other business activities, if working on a self-employed basis. Experienced designers with larger companies may focus more on the design aspect, with pattern cutters and machinists preparing sample garments. In smaller companies these, and other tasks, may be part of the designer's role. Environmental constraints upon designers – Eco-Fashion Working to client specifications, designing within budgets 93 | P a g e Simply put, the term “eco-fashion” refers to stylized clothing hat uses environmentally sensitive fabrics and responsible production techniques. Eco-fashion clothes can be defined as, “clothes that take into account the environment, the health of consumers and the working conditions of people in the fashion industry.” Clothes and accessories that meet such criteria are usually made using organic raw materials, such as cotton grown without pesticides, or re-used materials such as recycled plastic from old soda bottles. Eco-fashions don't involve the use of harmful chemicals and bleaches to colour fabrics—and are made by people earning fair wages in healthy working conditions. Designers need to take into account the resources of the company for which they work. They need to appeal to the customer profile which may have a set price point. They need to work to a set budget, bearing in mind at all times the cost of raw materials and components and manufacturing processes that will be needed – e.g. loads of seams, complex construction = more expensive. Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Design in the human context Health and Safety: Read more: Textiles at the Cutting Edge p.44/45 H&S during production of textile products H&S at work is the responsibility of the employers and employees. Manufacturers are required by law to follow strict rules and regulations, based on the Health & Safety at Work Act 1974. Employees are required to follow safety procedures to reduce the risks in using materials, machinery and manufacturing processes. Risk Assessment This means identifying the risks and putting control systems in place to minimise the risk of injury or accident. Each production task to be performed will have to have a risk assessment carried out. Risk assessment is also carried out on textile products to ensure that they do not pose a threat of injury or accident. HSE The Health and Safety Executive is a government body which advises employers and employees on all aspects of H&S. It also sets the regulations that employers must follow. COSHH Control Of Substances Hazardous to Health. The COSHH regulations require employers to control substances that can harm workers' health. BSI standards for product testing British Standards Institution (BSI) is the independent regulator of standards for manufactured products. Read more in Chapter 2 Consumer Interests page 266 onwards Products must comply with these standards, one to remember is BS5722 which sets out the flammability performance of fabrics used in sleepwear and dressing gowns. 94 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Impact of technological development: Balance between gain and loss for individual and community in terms of ethical, social environmental and economic considerations Values issues and new technology are discussed on page 247 Textiles and the Cutting Edge. Environmental concerns: Read up on this; page 293 Textiles at the Cutting Edge Use of natural resources Organic production 95 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Materials utilisation Waste disposal Pollution 96 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Recycling Planned obsolescence 97 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Industrial Textiles These are textile materials manufactured to meet specific technical requirements in a wide variety of industries. They are used for functional end-uses, either as part of an industrial process or incorporated into industrial products. Industrial textiles are often used in the aerospace and transport industries. They often replace existing traditional materials because they provide superior characteristics and properties such as strength, lightness, durability and resistance to heat or corrosion. Examples: Fire resistant space suits, optical fibres, Seat belts, airbags, tyres, belts, carpet backing and upholstery, Conveyor belts, filters, cables and ropes The average car contains 13-14kg of textiles. These are used not only in carpets, upholstery, seat belts and airbags but also as flexible reinforcements in the tyres, brake pipes, water hoses and belts. The bodywork may be made from glass-reinforced composites and insulation is achieved through the use of heat and sound absorbing textiles. Oil and petrol filters keep the car running smoothly. Technical requirements relate to the functional performance of a textile, matching its properties and characteristics with its end-use. Technical requirements can relate to the way a textile performs, such as its strength, elasticity, breathability, durability or fire-resistance. For example, the technical requirements of a bouncy castle could be strong, hardwearing, waterproof, puncture proof and non-slip. Technical Textiles Technical textiles are manufactured mainly for their technical performance and functional properties rather than for aesthetic characteristics. Only a small proportion of technical textiles are manufactured from hightech fibres like Kevlar, Nomex or carbon fibres. Most technical textiles are made from everyday fibres such as polyester, polypropylene, polyamide (nylon), acrylic, viscose or cotton. The properties and structures of technical textiles are usually modified to meet the requirements of specific end-uses. This may include the use of microfibers, which can be blended with other synthetic or natural fibres to make fabrics that are strong, lightweight, easy-care and weatherproof. Technical fabrics can be woven, knitted or non-woven, depending on the end use. Many geotextiles, for example, are warp knitted. Technical fabrics are often coated with Teflon or PVC to give them enhanced properties, like stain-resistance. Technical textiles are used in a wide range of applications including protective clothing, upholstery, furnishings, buildings, civil engineering, sports products, leisure goods, agricultural products, medicine and health care. Performance Textiles Technical textiles that are used for more fashion-orientated products for outdoor pursuits or sport are sometimes called performance textiles. These are textiles that relate to a products performance in a specific end-use, such as skiing or swimming. Performance textiles are developed from technical specifications that define how the product should perform, such as ‘windproof’, ‘breathable’ or ‘aerodynamic’. The look of these products is also important if they are to sell into a competitive market, so aesthetic properties are an important factor I their design. The development of performance textiles has been the driving force behind many innovations in clothing fabrics. Some of the benefits originally incorporated into performance wear such as ‘breathable’ are now seen to be indispensable in many fashion products. Similarly, Lycra is now used extensively in fashion clothing to provide comfort properties. Performance requirements relate to the functional and aesthetic performance of a textile, matching its properties and characteristics with its end-use. Performance requirements can relate to the way a textile performs such as tensile strength, tear strength, abrasion resistance or shrink-resistance and the way a textile looks such as its style, drape, or comfort properties. For example, the performance requirements of skiwear could be warm, breathable, waterproof, windproof, durable, easy-care and fashionable. 98 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Technological Developments Technology Push New technologies used to develop new products Using new styling to develop new products before old ones wear out Explained through: Developments in materials technology or processes e.g. Tencel or Teflon coating Development of new technologies e.g. using Bio-sensors in sportswear to monitor heart rate Improving product quality through development of new materials or processes New technologies used to develop new manufacturing systems or processes The need to increase market share e.g. creating the need to be modern or fashionable Developments in fibres e.g. Sport wool Developments in biotechnology e.g. bio polishing cellulose fabrics to reduce pilling CAD/CAM enables faster time to market ICT enables Quick Response manufacturing Laser technology results in garment size measuring booths Resulting in: Updating existing products or developing new ones Creating new ‘smart’ products Updating existing products through colour and styling Creating new ‘modern’ brands Updating existing products Creating new brands Faster turn-round of fashionable styling Fast response to customer demand Mass-produced bespoke garments Market Influences Market Pull Explained through: A rise in consumer expectations e.g. more money to spend Changes in lifestyle e.g. an ageing population The influence of the work of fashion designer e.g. the need to be fashionable Resulting in: Market place demand creates a need for: Higher quality products Value for money New or modern styling Changing consumer attitudes creates a demand for: Environmentally-friendly or recyclable products Demographics creates a demand for: Products with improved performance, function or appeal Bespoke garments 99 | P a g e Greater awareness of environmental, ethical or moral issues e.g. global warming or deforestation Changes in lifestyle e.g. greater leisure time results in need for higher performance sportswear An ageing population needs clothes with better fit, form and function Updating existing products Creating new brands Targeting specific market groups Using different materials of processes to manufacture existing products Creating new ‘eco’ brands Updating existing products Using different or new materials or technology Mass-produced bespoke garments Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Environmental Issues The manufacture, use and disposal of textile materials and products can have serious consequences for the environment in the following ways: Fibre sources o Growing cotton uses fertilisers and pesticides which can pollute the atmosphere and waterways o Synthetics are made from petrochemicals which come from non-renewable resources and burning of which releases harmful gasses Changes to the landscape because of intensive farming and deforestation o When growing cotton crops and producing wood for regenerated fibres Manufacturing and finishing processes use chemicals such as those found in dyestuffs, and their effluent can be damaging. Large quantities of water are also necessary for these processes Waste is produced when fabrics are made into products, and this may end up in landfill sites The manufacture of components may use plastics and metals as well as energy Packaging of the products can be wasteful of paper, card, plastics, printing inks, and the energy used to produce and transport the packaging Caring for textile products requires the use of detergents, dry cleaning fluids, energy and water Transportation of raw materials and finished goods produces co2 emissions from transport systems o Contributing to global warming and damage to infrastructures as well as pollution to water Disposal of discarded textile products is often to landfill sites o Fabrics and components often take many years to decompose with the consequent methane production, and leeching of heavy metals from components such as zips There are many ways in which textiles can be made ‘greener’ and reduce their carbon footprint. These include: Recycling of fabrics and the production of new fabrics from recycles materials can reduce waste Development of new fibres, such as Tencel, which come from sustainable sources and use ‘clean technology’ in their manufacture. Inego, a new fibre to replace polyester, is made from plant starches and is fully bio-degradable Using fewer dyes or develop fibres which grow ‘coloured’. Microfibers and dark colours use enormous amounts of dye and water to achieve the desired colour Assessing a products life cycle and considering its impact from ‘cradle to grave’ Reducing the amount of packaging; ensure its biodegradable and recyclable Using detergents which are effective at lower temperatures (30°C) and washing machines which are energy efficient and use less water. Only wash clothes when they are dirty and dry them outside when possible Considering using energy produced from renewable resources Using more environmentally friendly forms of transport and consider manufacture of materials and products nearer to the places that they will be sold 100 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Reducing the need to discard perfectly serviceable products just because fashion has changed by having fewer changes in fashion – no more disposable or fad fashions Moral Issues Consumers are becoming more aware of the conditions in which textile products are manufactured. In the UK, there are laws to protect health and safety of workers and prevent them from being exploited by employers. When textile products are made in other countries, especially less economically developed ones (LEDCs), those laws don’t apply. The pesticides and fertilisers used on cotton crops can have disastrous effects on the health of farmers and other workers if they breathe in the spray, or if it comes into contact with their body. Chemicals from the pesticides and fertilisers can pollute water courses, poisoning drinking water. Growing cotton uses vast amounts of water. In many countries where cotton is grown, there is not enough water for the people who live there to drink. Many workers in LEDCs are paid very little and forced to work long hours, often in hot, cramped and dangerous factories. Sometimes these workers are young children. Some manufactures in the UK have been known to employ illegal immigrants to manufacture textile products for little pay in dangerous conditions. Many of the fashion textile products that are sold at low process have been manufactured with no regard for the workers’ health, safety or dignity. People buying such cheap products need to ask themselves if the cheap fashion products, which they will throw away as soon as a new fashion appears, are worth the human suffering involved in their manufacture. Many consumers now look for Fair Trade and eco-friendly products. Fair trade standards specify minimum social, economic and environmental requirements, which producers must meet to be certified. In the Fairtrade system, a company that meets the required standards of manufacture can buy a Licence Agreement with the Fairtrade Foundation. This licence entitles the company to apply the FAIRTRADE Mark to specific products covered by the agreement. 101 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Fashion designers Vivienne Westwood 1941 – present British Fashion Designer Vivienne Westwood is one of the most influential designers of her time. She went to Harrow Art School, before training as a teacher! In the late 1960s, Westwood opened a highly influential shop in the King’s Road, London, selling leather and rubber clothes. In 1976 Westwood produced her ‘bondage’ collection of studded, strapped and buckled clothing. Although these clothes were thought to be shocking at the time, they have since influence much of mainstream fashion and she is credited with setting off the Punk trend. Westwood’s Pirate and New Romanticism themes of the 1980s set fashions that were ten years ahead of their time. These styles included swirling petticoats, buckles, ruffles and pirate hats. Her signature styles have also included underwear worn as over wear, corsets and crinolines and ‘Grunge’, using torn clothing and exposed seams. In 1991 Westwood began showing her collections in Paris, designing for Vivienne Westwood Red Label and Vivienne Westwood Gold Label. In 1965 Vivienne Westwood met Malcolm McLaren who triggered her interest in fashion and experimentation with her image. He introduced her to a range of political and artistic ideas which continue to influence her work today. In 1971 they took over a shop at 430 Kings Road, London. The first incarnation, Let it Rock, modelled itself on the 1950’s Teddyboy aesthetic. In 1973 let it Rock ceded to Too Fast to Live Too Young to die in tribute to James Dean’s death and stocked fetish wear previously only available by mail order. In 1975 the shop was rebranded SEX, later named Seditionaries’ and became involved with the significant street style of the second half of the 20th century, Punk. It was famous for cruse and evocative garments – bondage trousers, and t-shirts with slogans such as “Cambridge rapist” and “paedophilia” which caused controversy and outrange in the mainstream of British society. The Sex Pistols were a highly effective promotional image for the shop. As punk began to influence the mainstream, she looked towards romanticism. Her pirates collection (1979-1981) was adopted by musicians labelled the New Romantics. In 1983 she turned the subcultural inspiration of the street into a deeper relationship with historicism. It was during this time that Westwood pioneered “underwear as outerwear”, in collections that revelled in the corset. 1985 “Mini-Crini” collection designed and shown in the Cour du Louvre, Paris, and the Limelight nightclub, New York. 1987 Designs “Harris Tweed” collection inspired by the clothes of the British establishment 1990 – her first formal recognition in being awarded Fashion Designer of the Year by the British Fashion Council 1991 designs “slash and cut” menswear collection. Awarded Fashion Designer of the Year for the second year running. 1992 awarded an O.B.E as well as being made Honorary Senior Fellow at the Royal College of Art 1993 designs the Vivienne Westwood iconic Orb 2005 joins the board of trustees for Liberty and designs a T-shirt in defence of Liberty and Human Rights In 2011 she was named Britain's Greatest British Fashion Designer in a poll conducted by Greenall. Over 3000 people voted with the Westwood scooping 24 per cent of the national vote. She dedicated her spring/summer2012 menswear show to the Olympics. Westwood made sure each catwalk look referred to the Games in some manner including T-shirts that came covered in printed torches, medals and statuesque Greek figures. Vivienne Westwood and photographer Juergen Teller went to Africa in 2011 to work on her autumn/winter 2011-12 Ethical Fashion Africa collection. A programme which enlists thousands of local women to use their skills to produce bags for Westwood and earn a fair wage in return. "This project gives people control over their lives," she said. "Charity doesn't give control, it does the opposite, it makes people dependant." In 2011 she joined the Occupy London anti-capitalist protesters outside St Paul's Cathedral. She has often outlined her concerns for climate change and during a talk at the V&A in 2009 Westwood said: "There is hardly anyone left now who believes in a better world." Never shy of controversy, Westwood complained of the lack of style in society. "People have never looked so ugly as they do today, regarding their dress," she told journalists after her Red Label show in London. "We are so conformist, nobody is thinking. I'm a fashion designer and people think 'what do I know?' but I'm talking about all this disposable crap. So I'm saying buy less, choose well, make it last…in history people dressed much better than we do. If you saw Queen Elizabeth it would be amazing, she came from another planet. She was so attractive in what she was wearing." To celebrate the Queen's Diamond Jubilee, she launched a new capsule collection inspired by gowns Queen Elizabeth had previously worn. The range, entitled the Red Carpet Capsule Collection, also paid homage to the British flag. Took out iconic as Alex doesn't like us using it. In 2012 Westwood criticised plans of a London council to ban charity Scope from basing its clothing banks on council-owned land. A keen supported of charity shops she told the Evening Standard: “Charity shops are part of the fabric of our great city, but this short-sighted approach is totally unfair and damages charities at the expense of a quick buck." Vivienne Westwood credited London and its thriving culture scene as her biggest inspiration in a film for the Tate Britain's 'This Is Britain' campaign. "The great thing about London for me is the culture - the museums," the designer said in the film. In 2012 Westwood triggered controversy when she created a T-shirt in support of Julian Assange. The T-shirts were given to her guests to wear front row at her spring/summer 2013 show. "I'm a big supporter of Julian Assange," Westwood told Reuters. She selected the grand setting of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to show her spring/summer 2013 Red Label collection. The choice of the venue was a result of Westwood's involvement in the government's GREAT campaign. The designer fronted an international campaign as part of the initiative, which celebrated excellence in the creative industries, while promoting Britain as the preeminent place to study, visit or invest. In 2012 she partnered with The Woolmark Company to create a luxury 12-piece-collection made from the finest Australian merino wool. "When I first began as a fashion designer, well over 30 years ago, I succeeded in re-introducing into fashion the idea of knitwear, the English twinset," Westwood told British Vogue. "Wool is one of the world's great natural fibres, famous for its versatility and comfort-warm in winter, cool in summer." 102 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” In January 2013 she helped rebrand the English National Ballet with a new campaign that shows the ballet dancers wearing her creations. "It's a dream come true to be able to collaborate with someone of such stature," said Tamara Rojo, the English National Ballet's artistic director. "Her designs capture the creativity and ambition of our dancers who, in turn, add drama and movement to the clothes." Paul Smith Paul Smith is a label that has become synonymous with classic British tailoring and style. Inspired by the traditional British menswear he admired as young boy - such as his brother's Post Office shirts and the tweeds of the Nottinghamshire country set - Smith's greatest attribute is simplicity. He has described his designs as "well-made, good quality, simple cut, interesting fabric, easy to wear" and often adds a splash of vibrant colour, a floral print or his signature multi-coloured stripes. Born in 1946 in Nottingham, England, Smith's childhood ambition was to become a professional racing cyclist. He left school at 15 with no qualifications and began working in a Nottingham clothing warehouse as an errand boy. He relished his cycle to and from the warehouse each day until aged 17 he was in a serious accident and sustained injuries that put an end to his racing ambitions. Six months in hospital followed, during which Smith made friends with people from the local art college who would introduce him to the world of art and fashion. Returning to his job at the warehouse, he used his newly acquired interest in art and fashion and began making displays for the showroom. Soon after, he was made menswear buyer. Smith also started to take evening classes in tailoring in Nottinghamshire where he learned to cut cloth as well as the basics. Soon after, he joined Lincroft Kilgour in Savile Row after being spotted by Chairman Harold Tillman, where his designs were worn by celebrities including footballer George Best. Paul Smith now has 15 shops and concessions in the UK and 200 shops worldwide, in markets including Japan, Paris, Milan, New York and Hong Kong. The business, still based in his native Nottingham, has turnover of £325million. As chairman and designer, Sir Paul is still involved in every aspect of it. Known for his positive outlook on business and life, Smith has become a key figure of the British fashion industry. Although he is an internationally celebrated fashion artist nowadays, Smith is known to have remained very much down to earth. He frequently visits his shops, talks to customers, and learns about his clientele's needs. In 1969, Smith met his wife-to-be Pauline Denyer, then a fashion design student at the Royal College of Art. With Denyer's encouragement he opened his first shop called Paul Smith Vêtement Pour Homme on 10 Byard Lane, Nottingham in 1970. It was the only shop outside London to sell labels like Kenzo and Margaret Howell, and Smith soon started selling pieces that he had designed himself and had made up by local manufacturers. "That first shop was only 12ft square and I thought, "There's not much to see. Why would anyone come?" So I'd always have a poster from the Pompidou Centre to sell, or three school notebooks from a trip to Greece," Smith told the Telegraph in 2008. By 1976 Paul showed his first menswear collection in Paris, under the Paul Smith label. He gradually expanded the retail business, being the first fashion brand to open on Floral Street in London's Covent Garden in 1979. His shop offered an eclectic combination of clothes and finds for men which reflected his own magpie personality. In 1990, Smith created his first children's collection. After discovering that 15 per cent of his clothes were bought by women, who were attracted to his modern use of fine and classic materials, he first introduced a women's collection in 1993. In the same year, Smith took over the traditional (established in 1885), but bankrupt work wear company R. Newbold and quickly incorporated many of their famous cuts into his collection. He received a CBE in 1994 for his services to the British fashion industry. In 1995, Paul Smith Limited was awarded The Queen's Award for Industry for export achievement. In the same year, London-based Design Museum opened a retrospective of Smith's 25 years of work in the fashion business, called True Brit, marking the first time the renowned museum devoted an entire exhibition to a single fashion designer. He was awarded the Honorary Freedom of the City of Nottingham in February 1996. In 2000, Smith was awarded a knighthood, an accolade that until then had only been bestowed upon one designer - Hardy Amies. On the same day he wed Pauline, his partner of 30 years. In October 2001, Smith published his first book, entitled You Can Find Inspiration in Everything. The tome was described by Smith as his “brain on to the page". In May 2002, Smith accessorised the England team for their World Cup matches in Japan and Korea. Working with the FA and Umbro he designed a selection of leather wallets, cufflinks, shoes, eyewear, watches and luggage. He won Menswear Designer of the Year and Women's Contemporary Designer of the Year at the British Style Awards in 2003. In September 2004, Paul Smith was named Designer of the Year for the fourth year running at theGQMen of the Year awards. "I am absolutely delighted," he said. "It's a really genuine honour." In February 2007, Smith was awarded an honorary fellowship of the Royal Institute of British Architects - an organisation that rewards outstanding contributions made to the world of art, design and architecture. The lifetime accolade is handed out to just ten people annually. "Receiving the honorary fellowship is a real honour," said Smith. "I am both shocked and delighted because RIBA is an association that I really admire, and architecture is very close to my heart." Smith admires the work of Yves Saint Laurent. "I was fortunate enough to see some of Yves Saint Laurent's first haute couture shows in his Paris salon - one in particular I remember was in homage to the Vietnam War and it was all in black. Then he did the famous see-through blouse in clear silk chiffon. The audience literally took a mass in-take of breath - as if we'd been watching a firework display. Obviously the fact that he pioneered le smoking for women proved how modern his thinking was," Despite his earlier accident, Smith has maintained his interest in cycling and is an avid follower of professional racers. He dressed professional cyclists and Olympic winners Sir Chris Hoy and Bradley Wiggins CBE for their various official engagements, following their successes at the 2008 Beijing games. In May 2009 Sir Paul Smith dressed football team Manchester United ahead of their Champions League Final against Barcelona. He created two suits - one in a grey Prince of Wales check and the other in black wool - which both featured specially created red lining and stripe piping, accompanied by a black raincoat and luggage set for each player. "It is exciting to be involved with Manchester United," Sir Paul Smith said. "They have such an international fan base and I know our customers in Japan, Korea, and Hong Kong - in fact all South East Asia, Europe and the US - will be interested in the partnership. It has been an honour designing and supplying suits for the team." 103 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” In 2010 Smith was honoured at the Condé Nast Traveller Innovation and Design Awards. He launched Paul Smith Junior in the autumn of 2010. Staying true to his unique vision showcasing a bright, punchy colour palette and silhouettes inspired by the men's and women's catwalk offerings. "It is really exciting to return to designing clothes for babies and children. It is 10 years since we had a children's collection which we stopped because we literally could not keep up with the workload due to the business of our men's and women's collections," said Sir Paul Smith. Alexander McQueen Born in the East End and the son of a taxi driver, Alexander McQueen was the quintessential bad boy made good. He had brains and brawn, having survived over ten years as a solo designer and being brought into the Gucci Group stable, which bought a 51 per cent stake in his company 2002. In 2008, his company not only turned a profit but was also opening new stores from LA to Beirut. He was awarded the coveted Designer of the Year Award at the British Fashion Awards four times. Alexander McQueen was born in 1970 in the East End of London - the son of a taxi driver. He left school at 16 and trained on Savile Row at Gieves & Hawkes, where he reportedly once embroidered a suit for the Prince of Wales with the words "I am a c**t" (in the lining). In 1991 his entire degree show was bought by influential stylist Isabella Blow, whose later suicide in 2007 led to him dedicating his entire spring/summer 2008 collection to her memory. He earned his master's degree in fashion design from London's Central Saint Martins (formerly Central Saint Martin’s College of Art and Design) in 1992. The of LVMH president, Bernard Arnault, controversially installed McQueen as John Galliano's successor at Givenchy in 1996. McQueen told Vogue in October 1997 that his debut couture offering for the label was "crap", but he stayed with the house until March 2001 continuing to create challenging collections, including one featuring car-robots spraying paint over white cotton dresses and double amputee model Aimee Mullins striding down the catwalk on intricately carved wooden legs - until the contract which he said was "constraining his creativity" was ended. McQueen won the British Fashion Awards' British Designer of the Year four times and won the Men's Wear Designer of the Year award in 2004. In 2003, he received the CFDA Award for Best International Designer and was honoured with a CBE from Queen Elizabeth II for his services to the fashion industry. His spring/summer 2010 collection, which featured alien-inspired make-up and reptilian prints, was lauded as his best by the fashion press, with Selfridges buying director Anita Barr telling VOGUE.COM she believed it would be the department store's "bestselling collection ever". McQueen died, aged 40, on February 11 2010, amid unconfirmed reports that he committed suicide. Alexander McQueen delivered collections that were often described in superlatives: "I didn't plan out my life like that," he said. "When people recognise and respect what you do, that's nice, but I don't think you ever do this to be famous. Fame should be left to the film stars. We're just offering a service." Alexander McQueen was one of the most influential and creative fashion designers around. He learned his tailoring skills when working as a pattern cutter for a Savile Row men’s tailor. He then trained as a theatre costume designer and worked for Romeo Gigli in Milan, before training at Central Saint Martin’s College of Art and Design in London. In 1992 McQueen launched his own label and became the ‘enfant terrible’ of the fashion world. Despite the shock value of his designs McQueen is a highly creative designer with finely honed tailoring skills. He designed for his own label and was chief designer for the French fashion house Givenchy. McQueen used cutting edge fabrics, such as laminated lace, vinyl with metal rivets, tartan PVC and synthetic fabric spattered with stainless steel. John Galliano John Galliano was born in Gibraltar and graduated from Central Saint Martin’s College of Art and Design in London. He sold his graduation collection to the London designer store Brown’s in 1984. He is one of the most influential and original designers of the late 20th century, whose clothes are often shocking. His collections are sometimes based on themes such as ‘Fallen Angels’. Galliano also bases his ideas on historical themes, using contexts such as the Highlands of Scotland, the Russian Steppes, and American gangsters, to product kilts, frock coats and ball gowns. Although Galliano raids historical themes for his ideas, he uses modern fabrics and precision tailoring with bias fabric cutting to create clothes that influence many other designers. In 1995 Galliano was made chief designer for the French fashion house Givenchy haute couture and RTW, but left in 1996 to design for Dior. He also designs for his own label. Is John Galliano a pirate, Russian émigré, revolutionary, dandy, or soldier? For every collection as chief designer at Dior, he adopted each look as he thoroughly immerses himself in his creative process. Incredibly, after 20 years in the business, he still maintains the drive of the impoverished fashion student he started out as. Superb tailoring and delicate detail are his trademarks. Born in Gibraltar in 1960. His first class degree collection from Saint Martin’s College, 'Les Incroyables', was bought by Joan Burstein for the window of her South Molton Street shop, Browns. John Galliano launched his own label in 1984. He was British Designer of the Year in 1987, 1994 and in 1997 he shared it with Alexander McQueen. Due to frequent bankruptcy, in 1995 he accepted the job of creative director Givenchy in Paris. He was the first Brit to head a French couture house (His designs from that era are now collector's items). In 1996, Galliano was appointed as creative director of Christian Dior. He was made a Chevalier in the French Legion of Honour in January 2009. 104 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Galliano is almost as famous for his dramatic final-bow-costumes as he is for his fantastical designs. He has finished his show wearing all from Napoleon and country squire outfits to looks inspired by the artful dodger and an astronaut. In 2011, he helped VOGUE.COM celebrate its 15th birthday by sharing his 15 favourite fashion memories, from Kate storming the runway in a crinoline to dressing Diana, Princess of Wales. He is known for creating some of the industry's most famous collections, including the Blanche Dubois (inspired by Streetcar Named Desire and starring Kate Moss) in October 2008, the Napoleon and Josephine (inspired by the love story of these famous historic figures) in March 1992 and the Princess Lucretia (inspired by the Russian princess) in October 1993. Last season saw him celebrate 15 years working at Dior - he marked the occasion with a collection inspired by one of Dior's long-term friends and original illustrators, Rene Gruau. For his own label he offered a show that looked like a raid on a Twenties theatre wardrobe, with pantomime wigs, chiffon dresses and floral silk blouses. To achieve his considerable output Galliano relies on an extreme fitness regime, including a daily six mile jog along the Seine. "It helps to concentrate the mind and I find that I have so much more energy and focus." In February 2011, Galliano was arrested for an alleged assault and shortly afterwards a video appeared online of him apparently making anti-Semitic remarks towards people in a Paris bar. As a result, Dior dismissed him from his role as creative director on March 1 2011. Christian Dior Christian Dior was a French couturier, best known for his eponymous fashion house which is often referred to as just Dior. Born in the seaside town of Granville on the coast of Normandy in 1905, he was the son of a wealthy fertiliser manufacturer and was one of five children. Aged five, he moved with his family to Paris. Although his parents had hopes of him becoming a diplomat, Dior was artistically inclined and began to sell his sketches on the street to make pocket money. Upon leaving school, Dior took over a small art gallery which his father bought for him, where he and a friend sold work by artists including Pablo Picasso. Following the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, the death of both his mother and his brother, and the collapse of his father's business, Dior was forced to close his art gallery. He then went to work with fashion designer Robert Piguet until he was called up for military service in 1940. At the end of his service in 1942, he began working for couturier Lucien Long, where he and Pierre Balmain were the primary designers. During the war, Lelong - like other French ateliers including Jeanne Lanvin and Nina Ricci - dressed the wives of Nazi officers and French collaborators as a way of preserving the fashion industry throughout the conflict for both economic and artistic reasons. At the same time, Dior's younger sister Catherine joined the French Resistance, resulting in her capture by the Gestapo and subsequent imprisonment at the Ravensbrück concentration camp. She survived and was liberated in 1945. In 1947, Dior named his debut fragrance Miss Dior as a tribute to her. He founded the house of Christian Dior on December 16, 1946 at 30 Avenue Montaigne Paris, backed by Marcel Boussac, a cotton-fabric magnate. Officially, the house of Dior considers 1947 to be the year of conception as that is when Dior showed his first collection. On February 12, 1947, Dior showed his debut collection, presenting the 90 different looks. Named "Corolle" and "Huit", the lines were quickly christened the "New Look", a phrase coined by US Harper's Bazaar magazine editor Carmel Snow. The look consisted of a calf-length, full skirt, a cinched waist and fuller bust than had been seen since the turn of the century. A rebuttal to post-war fabric restrictions - the average dress used 20 yards of fabric - the look received some criticism upon release. The opulence of his designs contrasted with the grim post-war reality of Europe, and helped re-establish Paris as the joyful fashion capital it had once been. The house was inundated with orders and world-famous stars such as Rita Hayworth and Margot Fonteyn bought and wore pieces, raising Dior's profile significantly. Dior was even invited to stage a private presentation of the collection for the British royal family - although King George V reportedly forbade the young princesses, Elizabeth and Margaret, from wearing the New Look in case it set a bad example at a time when rationing was still in force. He was known to be very superstitious, a quality which increased with age. Each collection included a coat named after his place of birth, Granville; in each show at least one model wore a bunch of his favourite flower, lily of the valley; and he never began a couture show without having consulted his tarot card reader. Dior established a luxury ready-to-wear house on the corner of 5th Avenue and 57th Street in New York in November 1948. It was the first of its kind. In the same year, he launched Dior Parfums - with Miss Dior being the first fragrance to launch, and Diorama launching the following year. In 1949, Dior was the first couturier to arrange licensed production of his designs. Having realised the importance of the complete look - and that the New Look could not be successfully achieved without the correct Dior shoes, gloves and hat - Dior, together with business partner Jacques Rouët, licensed his name to a range of luxury accessories. Furs, stockings, ties and perfume were also manufactured in regional centres across the world, spreading his brand name quickly around the globe. Although this move was heavily criticised by the French Chamber of Couture - who denounced the move as cheapening the haute couture industry - licensing became a profitable move for Dior and the atelier's lesson was followed by nearly all of the period's fashion houses. In 1955, the 19-year-old Yves Saint Laurent became Dior's design assistant. Christian Dior later met with Yves Saint Laurent's mother, Lucienne Mathieu-Saint Laurent, in 1957 to tell her that he had chosen Saint Laurent to succeed him at Dior. She said at the time she had been confused by the remark, as Dior was only 52 at the time. 105 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Shortly after his meeting with Saint Laurent's mother, Christian Dior suffered a fatal heart attack on October 24, 1957, leaving the house in disarray. Some 2,500 people attended his funeral, including all of his staff and famous clients led by the Duchess of Windsor. In an attempt to stabilise the label, Jacques Rouët appointed the then-21-year-old Yves Saint-Laurent as artistic director. Saint Laurent remained in the position until he was conscripted into the army, during which time he was dismissed from Dior by Rouët and replaced by Marc Bohan. Bohan proved very successful as Saint Laurent's replacement, defining a new era and new silhouette for Dior, the Slim Look, a more modern and svelte version of Dior's iconic shape. In 1978, the Boussac Group filed for bankruptcy and its assets, including Dior, were sold to the Willot Group. After it went into administration, Bernard Arnault and his investment group purchased the Willot Group's holdings for "one symbolic franc" in 1994. On assuming power, Arnault drastically altered Dior's operations. In 1985, Arnault became chairman, CEO and managing director of Christian Dior. He repositioned it as the holding company Christian Dior S.A and in 1988, took a 32 per cent equity stake into the share capital of LVMH creating one of the leading and most influential luxury goods conglomerates in the world, whilst Christian Dior remains to stand alone as a megabrand in its own right. Gianfranco Ferre was made stylistic director of Christian Dior in 1989, replacing Marc Bohan. He remained in this position until 1997. In 1997, Arnault appointed British designer John Galliano to replace Marc Bohan at the creative helm. "Galliano has a creative talent very close to that of Christian Dior. He has the same extraordinary mixture of romanticism, feminism and modernity that symbolised Monsieur Dior. In all of his creations - his suits, his dresses - one finds similarities to the Dior style," said Arnault of Galliano. Coco Chanel So great is Coco Chanel's legacy that fans make pilgrimages to her Paris apartment (although she also lived in the Paris Ritz for 30 years), which is preserved as she left it and endlessly referenced for style - as is every image of her and every tiny thing she ever designed. From her use of monochrome to her oversized 'costume' pearls and cuffs, everything is still sublimely, continuously referenced. As she once said: "Fashion fades, only style remains the same." • Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" Chanel was born in 1883 and died in 1971 • She created a new look for women in the 20th century, creating clothes that were primarily comfortable. A Chanel suit of 1923 or handbag is still seen as a landmark purchase for women of increasingly younger ages • The Chanel No.5 scent is the bestselling in the world • The interlocking Cs of Coco Chanel remain one of the ultimate brand insignia • Since 1983, Chanel has been designed by Karl Lagerfeld • The building where her apartment is in Paris was bought by Chanel in 1920, and still houses the ground-floor shop, the haute couture workrooms in the attic (where 100 seamstresses still work entirely by hand), and what is now Karl Lagerfeld's study Coco Chanel's bobbed hair, bright red lips and outspoken manner also broke the mould. This smoking, outspoken woman never married although she had relations with the English industrialist Arthur "Boy" Capel - who lent her the money to buy Rue Cambon - Igor Stravinsky and the second Duke of Westminster Hugh "Bendor" Grosvenor, the richest man in Europe. Keira Knightley followed Kate Moss as the new face of Coco Mademoiselle in 2007. The brand could not be more alive with watches, beauty, fragrance, womenswear and new stores. In 2009 a biopic film based on her life titled 'Coco before Chanel' was released. Audrey Tatou was given the lead-role and follows as she goes from orphan to Haute Couture designer. 1920’3 and 1930’s: In France, the designer Coco Chanel epitomised the modern woman. She designed comfortable, loose blouses, chemise dresses and clothes that were sporty, relaxed, wearable and well suited to the outdoor lifestyle that was being promoted as healthy in the 1920s. These clothes were designed to be worn without corsets and were made with fewer linings to make them lighter and more flexible. Chanel believed that fashion must meet the needs of modern lifestyles and give women freedom of movement. In 1916 she began using knitted jersey fabrics, a relatively cheap fabric previously sued for underwear and by 1918 was producing cardigans and twinsets. Chanel was one of the most influential designers of the 20th century. Her clothes broke away from the fussy over decorated clothing of the 19th century. She adapted men’s tailoring and produced classic suits with short skirts, always relying on good cut, finish and high quality fabric. What we now consider to be a normal part of women’s clothing – trousers, tweeds, pea jackets, berets, blazers, raincoats, the little black dress, slinback shoes and accessories were all introduced by Chanel. In the 1920s fashion clothing became more widely available as clothing by designers like Chanel was copied by RTW. Clothing that once had only been for the wealthy suddenly became available to the woman on the street. This was a dramatic change for ordinary people who had previously only has every day and ‘best’ clothes that had to last for years. Of course, designer clothing was still unaffordable for most people, but its very exclusivity increased its desirability. The production and distribution of affordable RTW fashion was an important turning point in the democratisation of fashion. The very styling of the clothes themselves, together with lower prices meant that social class was not immediately discernible through what you wore. 106 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Art Movements Arts and Crafts Movement Inspired by socialist principles (everyone being equal) and led by William Morris, the members of the movement used the medieval system of trades and guilds to set up their own companies to sell their goods. Unfortunately, it has the reverse effect and, apart from the wealthy middle classes, hardly anyone could afford their designs. The arts and crafts movement is called a ‘reform movement’ because it was closely associated this the ‘antiindustrial’ movement that came about in the late 19th century. William Morris (1834-1836) was the most influential thinker of the Arts and Crafts movement. His philosophy revolved around a love of simple design inspired by the Middle Ages when art and production were closely connected in medieval craft ‘guilds’ Morris saw the effects of industrialisation – environmental pollution, poverty for workers and the production of poor quality products – and proposed the reform of commercial art in order to manufacture well-designed and well-crafted consumer goods. This was the start of the revolt against the over decorated products beloved by well-off Victorians. The Arts and Crafts movement promoted the idea of handcrafted products as being superior to industrial ones. This type of simple undecorated furniture and furnishings created a demand for simplicity of design and fitness for purpose It had an important influence on Art Nouveau, the Bauhaus, on Scandinavian and UK design and can be said to form the basis of modern design in Europe The legacy of William Morris is still seen today. “have nothing in your house that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful” Morris raised the design for everyday domestic accessories and fittings to an art form. He drew his inspiration from the flowing shapes of nature and interpreted them as repeat prints for wallpaper and textiles These products represented the values of ‘truth to material and form’. Morris’s style has been reproduced and reinterpreted throughout the 20th century, making him one of the UKs most influential textile designers. Today, manufacturers such as Liberty’s and Sanderson are still producing textiles inspired by Morris. Art Nouveau Art Nouveau was an important reform movement that developed at the turn of the 19th century in France 107 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” It developed into an international movement between 1895 and the First World War. Art Nouveau styling was built around the use of simple natural forms, the curved lines and shapes of climbing plants, geometric forms based on Japanese art. Art Nouveau was an influential decorative style, which was used in architecture, wrought ironwork, glass, furniture, fabrics and wallpaper. The paintings of Gustav Klimt, often used as inspiration by textile designers typify the Art Nouveau style. In some ways the Art Nouveau movement was similar to the Arts and Crafts movement. Art Nouveau designers considered themselves to be artists rather than designers, rejected industrial mass production, produced design work that was only available to the wealthy. Art nouveau is sometimes described as being between art and industry, because it encouraged a return to handcrafted [products. Some say that it delayed the development of modern industrial design. The Bauhaus 1919 – 1933 The Bauhaus school was founded by the architect Walter Gropius in 1919. In 1937 the ‘new’ Bauhaus was founded in the USA, where the Bauhaus style became known as the ‘international style’ The place of Bauhaus as the centre of modernism and functionalism is unchangeable, because it laid down the basic principles of design that are still meaningful today These design principles influence modern teaching about industrial design – many Bauhaus products still look modern today. The principal aims of the Bauhaus were to use modern materials and to combine the concepts of ‘form and function’ Design and education in the Bauhaus school was centred on students experimenting with colour, form and modern materials In some ways it has a similar philosophy to the reforming Arts and Crafts movement, because it offered an education in artistic and handicraft skills The Bauhaus art training was given by important artists of the day, such as Johannes Itten, Lyonel Feininger, Paul Klee, Georg Muche and Oscar Schlemmer. It was the first time that professional artists were involved in teaching future industrial designers. The key difference from the Arts and Crafts movement was that the Bauhaus linked the design of products to their manufacture by industry Students chose a commercial workshop and the longest running and most successful was textiles, which was run and attended by women Textiles in the hierarchy of design was seen as ‘women’s work’. However the Bauhaus textile designers were talented designers who embraced technology and incorporated the use of new or unusual materials, such as cellophane, leather and early synthetics. The result was a rebirth of hand weaving and a new professionalism in designing textiles for mass production The Bauhaus textile designers created fabrics that has acoustic and light-reflecting properties, were reversible, were multi-layered with some combining double and triple weaves, were made by the Jacquard loom Art Deco Art Deco was originally a French phenomenon that was influential in the early decades of the 20 th century Although Art Deco style was thought to be highly modern and elegant, it was definitely anti-mass production It focused on one-off, expensive products made from precious materials like snakeskin, ivory, bronze, crystal and exotic woods. Later materials like steel, glass and plastics were used, but the aim was to exploit their decorative characteristics rather that any functional properties The Art Deco style was influenced by Art Nouveau, Cubism, Futurism, African Art and Egyptian cultures In furniture and other products the styling made use of geometric shapes and zigzag patterns or ornamental inlays imitating ivory and tortoiseshell Although it was anti-mass production, Art Deco did influence the design of many mass-produced products that were made from new materials such as aluminium The Art Deco style was used extensively in domestic interiors and architecture between 1920 and 1939. The great couturiers such as Poiret, Chanel and Schiaparelli were all influential designers of the Art Deco era. 108 | P a g e Textiles AS/A2 Revision “Bible” Memphis Memphis was the name of a group of designers who established themselves in Milan in Italy in 1981 The main figure in the group was the architect Ettore Sottass, a consulting product designer The Memphis designers were interested in the practical objects of daily life, the mass production of such objects and their promotion and marketing through advertising Influenced by comic strips, films, punk music and different combinations of materials, their witty, stylistic designs typified the fast pace of interior fashion in the 1980s Memphis designers combined materials such as colourful plastic laminates, glass, steel, industrial sheet metal and aluminium Emerging at exactly the right time in the 80s, the Memphis group introduced a new understanding of design, the main purpose of which was decorative and witty, rather than functional The group’s sheer innovation and boldness influences any number of bright, interesting ideas that emerged around that time. It sparked a chain reaction across Europe, most notably Spain, Germany, France and the UK. Inspired by Memphis, designers shunned the purely functional in favour of the funky. 109 | P a g e
