Text Structures For Expository Writing
Text Structures vs. Text Features
Text Structures are how the text is organized using specific patterns to inform, describe,
explain or persuade (ex. compare and contrast, sequence).
Text Features are designed to help the reader find specific information
o Organization: titles, tables of contents, glossary, headings and subheadings
o Visual Features: labels, captions, illustrations, diagrams, graphs, tables, maps etc.
o Graphic features: bold, italics, links
Source: Dillabough, D. and J. Siamon
Text Structures in Narrative and Expository Texts
Different narrative and expository genres have different purposes and different audiences,
and so they require different text structures. Beginnings and endings help link the text into a
coherent whole. The organization of the middle of a piece of writing depends on the genre.
Researchers have identified organizational structures for narrative and expository texts:
Text Structure or Organizational Structures
Narrative
Story Elements:
Characters
Setting
Problem/Solution
Plot
Expository
Cause and Effect
Sequence
Enumerative
Problem and Solution
Question and Answer
Description
Compare and Contrast
Explicit teaching in recognizing the underlying structure of texts help students focus attention
on key concepts and relationships, anticipate what is to come, and monitor their
comprehension as they read.
One effective way to help students identify the organization structure of expository texts is to
identify words and phrases that frequently signal organization. For example, if students know
that words such as like, unlike, and in contrast are often used when one thing is being
compared to another, they can readily spot the author's intention and are better equipped to
understand the text as a whole.
Structure
Definition
Signal Words
Sequential
A series of events presented in the order
they happened (chronological). High
order thinking does not occur – writer is
talking about.
first, second, third, next,
meanwhile, on [date], not long
after, today, tomorrow, once,
soon, final(ly), at last, now,
before, after, while, then, later
Enumerative
A main idea followed by examples that are
not in a defined order. High order
thinking does not occur – writer is talking
about.
first, second, third, then, also,
for instance, for example, to
begin with, furthermore, in
addition, more importantly,
more, next, finally, in fact, at
last, another, other
Compare
and Contrast
The similarities and differences between
two or more subjects. Higher order
thinking occurs because the writer must
use criteria to determine similarities and
differences.
compare, contrast, also, too,
between, difference, on one
hand, on the other hand, unlike,
even though, more, than, like,
similar, while, resembles, in
common, both, rather, opposed
to
Cause and
Effect
Cause plus possible effects, or an effect
with possible causes. (Jan is sick. This
may be a result of all the candy she ate or
it could be a consequence of not washing
her hands). Higher level thinking occurs
when the writer tries to establish one
cause by eliminating others, or attempts to
prove the cause resulted in the effect.
as a result, because, due to, this
led to, nevertheless, if, then, in
order that, unless, since, so that,
thus, therefore, accordingly, so,
consequently, another reason,
for this reason, on account of,
some consequences are
Problem and
solution
An issue is presented and a one or more
potential ways to fix it are explained.
Higher level thinking occurs when one is
selected and justified with reasons.
a problem is, a solution is, the
problem is solved by, purpose,
conclude, in conclusion,
research shows, the evidence is,
one reason is, issues are,
propose, conclude, resolved by,
issues are
Question
and answer
A question is followed by one or more
answers to the question. Higher level
thinking occurs when the question is high
level (not Google-able, about).
how, why, when, who, what,
how many, where, as a result of,
question, answer
Description
A topic is discussed and the characteristic
or attributes are described.
Sensory and descriptive
language
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Text Structure Signal Questions and Signal Words
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Text Structure Signal Questions and Signal Words
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Sequential
A series of events or
steps in a process is
being described.
What items, events,
or steps are listed?
What is the process?
Can the steps or
process be
changed?
First, second, third
Next
On [date]
Today, Tomorrow
Finally
Now, then, soon
Enumerative
A main idea
followed by
examples that are
not in a defined
order.
What examples
support the main
idea?
What proof is there?
For instance
For example
To begin with
More importantly,
Another
Other
Compare and
Contrast
Shows how two or
more things are
alike and how they
are different.
What things are
being compared?
In what ways are
they alike?
In what ways are
they different?
Same as
Similar
Alike
Different from
As opposed to
Both
Instead of
Cause and
Effect
Explains why
something
happened (cause)
and what happened
(effect).
What happened?
Why did it happen?
What caused it to
happen?
Therefore
Because
If…then
This led to
As a result
Reason why
Problem and
Solution
Tells about a
problem and then
gives one or more
possible solutions.
What is the
problem?
Why is there a
problem?
What can be done to
solve the problem?
Question is…
The puzzle is…
To solve this…
One reason for the
problem is…
Question and
Answer
A question is
followed by one or
more possible
answers.
What is the
question?
What are the
possible answers?
How
Why
What
How many
Where
As a result of
Description
A topic is described
by listing its
characteristics or
attributes.
What specific thing
or topic is being
described?
What is important to
remember about it?
For instance
Such as…
To begin with
An example
To illustrate
Characteristics
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Instructional
Strategies
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Instructional Reminders
Clarity (Be Clear What You Mean)
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Teach text structures/organization explicitly
Use common language for terms
 Do Not Use A Variety of Terms:
 Lead, Introduction, Topic
 Body, Development, Expansion, Example
 Transition, Sequence, Signal
 Conclusion, Ending, Resolution, Tie-Back
Show students organizational structures (what it looks like) using anonymous samples,
content area, and textbook (mentor texts) samples
Have students find characteristics in samples (inductive processes for the more
advanced)
Check understanding by having students self-ask, “How does knowing or being
familiar with text structures or how a text is organized help me as a reader?”
Scaffold initial writing, such as the use of writing frames for primary students
Post criteria (anchor charts) and make explicit and repeated references
Have students self-assess and set feed forward goals
Tool Selection (Use the Right Tool for the Mental Task)
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Use technical tools for organization
o Inspiration tips
o Smart Art in Microsoft Word
Imagine the right graphic organizer for the type and structure of writing
Use a variety of engaging instructional strategies
o Refer to attached instructional ideas
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Assess (Where Are You? And Where Do You Want To Go Next?)
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Assess often, evaluate rarely
Release control
o Gradual release of responsibility cycle
Track by type of expository text organization
Instructional Ideas
1. Show students how writers use text structures to organize information. Introduce
the concept to them, and reinforce it every time students read and write.
Text Structure Examples allow students to see how each structure looks using the
same topic.
(http://www.literacyleader.com/sites/litlead.essdack.org/files/Text%20Structure%20Goose%20Bumps
%20examples.doc)
2. Skim and scan to predict text structure(s). Make predicting possible text structures
a part of every pre-reading activity.
3. Teach the signal words for each text structure. Provide explicit instruction in
showing students specifically how to attend to signal words while reading different
content areas or using signal words when writing expository text. Prior to reading,
skim and scan passages and make predictions about text structure. During reading,
analyze text and revise predictions about structure.
4. Teach and model the use of graphic organizers to go with each text structure.
Identify text structures in advance and provide appropriate advanced organizer. For
example, modelling charting the structure of specific paragraphs while reading and
also provides practice in using the graphic organizer to write different text types.
This site has printable Graphic Organizers for five of the text structures.
(http://www.literacyleader.com/sites/litlead.essdack.org/files/Text%20features.structures.pdf)
Text Structure Workmat allows students to put a paragraph or article in the middle of
the mat and have a visual of all graphic organizers that might help them identify the
structure of the text.
5. Scaffold instruction using the gradual release of responsibility model. Spend
quality instructional time in each phase of the model when teaching text structure
strategies. For example, use a think aloud to model for demonstration. Then invite
students to participate for shared demonstration. Students then practice with teacher
support for guided practice. Finally, students apply the skills and strategies they have
learned for independent practice.
6. Model a think-aloud strategy. Read aloud a paragraph, pausing at appropriate
points to share own comprehension strategies and understanding of the text. Next
move to a shared-reading strategy, encouraging students to talk aloud as they engage
in the process with the teacher. For example, ask students to talk about the clues they
use to try to identify the text structure.
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(http://www.literacyleader.com/sites/litlead.essdack.org/files/Text%20Structure%20Workmat.pdf)
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Sample Think Abouts from Traits of Writing (Culham)
Creating the lead
 Did I give the reader something interesting to think about from the start?
 Will the reader want to keep reading?
 Have I tried to keep the reader’s attention
 Did I let the reader know what is coming
Structuring the body
 Have I shown the reader where to slow down and speed up?
 Do all the details fit where they are placed?
 Will the reader find it easy to follow my ideas?
 Does my organization help the main idea stand out?
Ending with a sense of resolution
 Have I wrapped up all the loose ends?
 Have I ended in the best place?
 Do I have an ending that meets the reader’s needs?
 Did I leave the reader with something to think about?
7. Ask focusing questions targeting text structure. Use focusing questions as a means
of scaffolding the use of strategies or assisting students in the think-aloud process. For
example, ask a student which signal word might be best to show a particular
relationship among ideas in a text structure.
8. Create and provide pattern guides and teacher-made organizers that reflect that
structure of the original text. These tools help students focus on the key elements of
the reading selection. Model the use of technical tools for organization such as
Inspiration, Kidspriration, or Smart Art in Microsoft Word.
9. Present students with a completed graphic organizer as a pre-reading strategy.
Have students write a probable paragraph using a predicted text structure prior to
reading. After reading, compare students’ probable passages and the original text.
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10. Write using the text structures. While students watch, model writing a paragraph
using a particular text structure and describes actions while writing. Then students
write their own paragraphs using text structure/ paragraph frames as templates.
Frame (Fill in the blank paragraph)
Topic Sentence or Introduction
During the week before Christmas, our class had lots of fun. The first thing we did
was _________________________________________. The second activity was
______________________. After that, we _____________________________________
_______________________. Finally, we _________________________________________.
We had a great time!
Concluding sentence or clincher
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Signal words
11. Make the connection between reading and writing. Teach organization or structure
of text using mentor texts. When students read an example of a particular text
structure, have them write using that same text structure. Writing can be done as a
pre-reading or post-reading strategy.
12. Rewrite a paragraph or passage using a different text structure than the original.
Compare the two and analyze why the author might have chosen the original pattern.
13. Read and analyze a variety of text, both single-structure passages and multistructure passages. Use every opportunity that students read as an opportunity to
teach text structure.
14. Have a text structure treasure hunt with a newspaper, classroom magazine,
nonfiction book, textbook chapter, or students’ independent reading material
15. Use summary frame questions to guide students’ comprehension before, during,
and after reading. Each organizational structure suggests questions which readers
should consider as they are reading and be able to answer once they've finished reading
the passage.
16. Use text coding strategies – highlighters, Post-It Notes, etc. – targeting text
structures. Remember to model these strategies in advance and be consistent in your
procedures (same colour each time, etc.). For additional coding ideas, visit the Text
Mapping site: http://www.textmapping.org/overview.html
17. Use text structure sorts to compare different paragraphs on a single topic. Begin
by analyzing and sorting only one text structure at a time, then add another and so on.
Text Structure Paragraphs that can be used as examples or a sorting activity:
elementary samples and secondary samples.
(http://www.literacyleader.com/sites/litlead.essdack.org/files/Text%20structure%20sorts%20%20elm.
pdf)
(http://www.literacyleader.com/sites/litlead.essdack.org/files/text%20structure%20sort%20secondary
_0.pdf)
Source: http://www.literacyleader.com/sites/litlead.essdack.org/files/TextStructureResources.pdf
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18. Organize texts. Write each sentence or phrase of an expository text on a sentence
strip. Students organize the text. Use timed trials to add motivate students.
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Resources
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Websites on Identifying Text Structure
Literacy Matters: Text Structure http://www.literacymatters.org/content/text/intro.htm#geninfo
Text Structure Resources http://www.literacyleader.com/?q=textstructure
Text Structure http://forpd.ucf.edu/strategies/strattextstructure.html
Structural Clues in Nonfiction - PDF
http://www.eastsideliteracy.org/tutorsupport/documents/HO_StructuralClues.pdf
Text Structure Resources from eThemes - Includes links to lessons and ideas for teaching
at grades 2-6 (http://www.emints.org/ethemes/resources/S00001273.shtml).
ReadWriteThink – Juried lesson plans. Search by text structure and grade level for
multiple ideas (http://readwritethink.org/).
Online Resources for Teaching Text Structure
Teaching Text Structure & More PPT
http://www.literacyleader.com/sites/litlead.essdack.org/files/Text%20Structure%20G
CHS.ppt.pdf
Printable graphic organizers for various text types
http://t4.jordan.k12.ut.us/teacher_resources/inspiration_templates/#cause
Instructional techniques for text structure with links
http://www.literacymatters.org/content/text/intro.htm
Printable STUDENT page from Scholastic
http://teacher.scholastic.com/reading/bestpractices/nonfiction/fiveTextStructures.pdf
Information from Heinemann
http://www.heinemannlibrary.com/tools/Nonfiction_Instruction.pdf
Print Resources
Atwell, Nancie. Lessons that change writers. Portsmouth, NH: Firsthand/Heinemann, 2002.
Calkins, Lucy. Units of study for primary writing: a yearlong curriculum. Portsmouth, NH:
FirstHand, 2003.
Portsmouth, NH: FirstHand, 2006.
Culham, Ruth. 6 + 1 traits of writing: the complete guide, grades 3 and up. New York:
Scholastic Professional Books, 2003.
Culham, Ruth. 6 + 1 traits of writing. New York: Scholastic, 2005.
Culham, Ruth, and Raymond Coutu. Using picture books to teach writing with the traits an
annotated bibliography of more than 150 mentor texts with teacher-tested lessons. New
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Calkins, Lucy, and Leah Mermelstein. A guide to the writing workshop, grades 3-5.
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York: Scholastic, 2008.
Culham, Ruth. Traits of writing: the complete guide for middle school. New York:
Scholastic, 2010.
Gear, Adrienne. Reading power: teaching students to think while they read. Markham, Ont.:
Pembroke Publishers, 2006.
Gear, Adrienne. Nonfiction reading power teaching students how to think while they read
all kinds of information. Markham, Ont.: Pembroke Publishers, 2008.
Gear, Adrienne. Writing power teaching writing strategies that engage thinking. Markham,
Ont.: Pembroke Publishers, 2011.
Goudvis, Anne, and Stephanie Harvey. Strategies That Work: Teaching Comprehension for
Understanding and Engagement. Toronto: Stenhouse Pub, 2007.
Harvey, Stephanie and Goudvis, Anne. Toolkit Texts Short Nonfiction for Guided and
Independent Practice. Heinemann, 2007. Grades 2-3. CD included.
Harvey, Stephanie and Goudvis, Anne. Toolkit Texts Short Nonfiction for Guided and
Independent Practice. Heinemann, 2007. Grades 4-5. CD included.
Harvey, Stephanie and Goudvis, Anne. Toolkit Texts Short Nonfiction for Guided and
Independent Practice. Heinemann, 2007. Grades 6-7. CD included.
Keene, Ellin Oliver, and Susan Zimmermann. Mosaic of Thought, Second Edition: The
Power of Comprehension Strategy Instruction. Chicago: Heinemann, 2007.
Keene, Ellin Oliver. To Understand: New Horizons in Reading Comprehension. Chicago:
Heinemann, 2008.
Miller, Debbie. Reading With Meaning: Teaching Comprehension in the Primary Grades.
Portland, Maine: Stenhouse, 2002.
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Peery, Angela B.. Writing matters in every classroom. Englewood, Colo.: Lead + Learn
Press/Leadership and Learning Center, 2009.
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