Running Head: EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
The Effects of Self-Determination Interventions on the Post-Secondary Outcomes of Students
with Disabilities
Jeanine Lewis
University of Hawaii
EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Abstract
Postsecondary education and training is an important step in the process of students with
disabilities obtaining meaningful employment and being able to maintain a satisfactory quality of
life. Now more than ever, students with disabilities are entering higher education.
Unfortunately, the completion rates for these students remain low. One possible reason for this
is that many students with disabilities lack the self-determination skills that are necessary for
success in postsecondary education and ultimately the workplace. This literature review
examines the impact that interventions that promote self-determination during the transition
process have on student outcomes in a post-secondary environment.
Keywords: self-determination, transition, disability, post-secondary outcomes,
vocational rehabilitation, person centered planning, behavioral self-management and emotional
and behavioral disorders.
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
The Effects of Self-Determination Interventions on the Post-Secondary Outcomes of Students
with Disabilities
The purpose of transition services is to ensure students’ who have an Individualized
Education Plan (IEP) are adequately prepared for post-secondary education, employment, and
independent living. Federal regulations for providing transition services were included in the
Individuals With Disabilities Act of 2004 (IDEA, 2004) and should be in place by the time a
student is 16 years old (Landmark, Ju, & Zhang, 2010). While regulations serve to reinforce the
development of transition plans for students with disabilities, disparities exist among the postsecondary outcomes between these students and their non-disabled peers. For example, students
with disabilities are more likely than their non-disabled peers to experience difficulty in one or
more of the following four skill areas, including: (a) social skills; (b) career/vocational skills; (c)
academic skills; and (d) independent living skills (Scanlon, Patton, & Raskin, 2011). Research
indicates that transition services are effective for improving the post-secondary outcomes of
students with disabilities (Newman et al., 2011; Wagner, Newman, Cameto, & Levine, 2005).
Nonetheless, the gap for students with disabilities persists.
According to a report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (Newman et al.,
2011) young adults with disabilities were less likely to have enrolled in postsecondary programs
than were their non-disabled peers (60 % vs. 67 %). In addition, the postsecondary completion
rates of students with disabilities were lower than those of similar-aged students without
disabilities (41% vs. 52%). Furthermore, students with disabilities also lag behind their peers
with respect to employment. According to the US Department of Labor Office of Disability
Employment Policy, "Persons with a Disability: Labor Force Characteristics Summary" (2012),
only 20.9 % of people with disabilities participated in the workforce, as compared to 69.4 % for
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
people without disabilities. Finally, the unemployment rate for people with disabilities was
13.9%, as compared to 8.0% for those without disabilities. An effective means of addressing the
gap for students with disabilities is to develop transition plans that include developing selfdetermination skills.
Self-determination is defined as the combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that
enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behavior (Algozzine,
Browder, Karvonen, Test, & Wood, 2001). Self-determination reflects the belief that all
individuals, including those with disabilities, have the right to make choices regarding their own
lives. Teaching and promoting these skills within the provisions of transition services for youth
with disabilities has become an expectation of the federal government with the reauthorizations
of IDEA in 2004 and the Americans with Disabilities Act in 2009. Direct instruction in selfdetermination has been identified as a best practice in the field of special education and has also
been identified as an essential component of a student's transition plan (Test et al., 2009). This
includes embedding self-determination instruction within transition services. A large body of
research indicates that self-determination contributes to individuals with disabilities successfully
transitioning from high school to post-secondary environments (Field, Sarver & Shaw, 2003;
Halpern, Yovanoff, Doren, & Benz, 1995; Konrad, Fowler, Walker, Test, & Wood 2007;
Wehmyer & Schwartz, 1997, 1998; ). The Path Analytic Study, conducted by Solberg, Howard,
Gresham & Carter (2012), found that involvement in quality learning environments and
individualized planning are strongly associated with developing an array of valuable skills and
dispositions that can enhance student self-determination and preparation for adulthood. Also,
research on the personal attributes of successful adults with disabilities indicates that strong
academic skills (Benz,Yovanoff, & Doren, 1997; Halpern, Yovanoff, Doren, & Benz, 1995) and
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
high levels of self-determination (Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997,
1998) are correlated with improved post-secondary outcomes. Self-determination is not
achieved simply because an individual has certain requisite knowledge and skills; it is also
important that key people and institutions in the person’s life provide a context conducive to selfdetermination (Bremer, Kachgal & Schoeller, 2003). Abery and Stancliffe (1996) have noted
that even when youth have excellent self-determination skills, they can be thwarted in their
efforts to become self-determined by people and institutions that present barriers or fail to
provide needed supports. Multiple studies indicate that self-determination status is a predictor of
quality of life for individuals with disabilities and is positively correlated with improved
employment, independent living, and community inclusion outcomes (Lachapelle, et al., 2005;
Nota, Ferrari, Soresi, & Wehmeyer, 2007; Wehmeyer et al., 2005). Students may lack
opportunities to act independently and make decisions for themselves. This may result in less
experience in self-advocacy, which is an important component of self-determination. Because of
these limitations, students may not be successful in negotiating the daily challenges that they will
experience in post-secondary education and the workplace. Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003)
conducted studies of students with disabilities one and three years after they left school to
examine how they were doing in three major life categories: employment, independent living,
and community integration. The results of these studies indicated that students who were more
self-determined fared better across the three major life categories. Teaching self-determination
skills is important, but also working collaboratively with schools, vocational rehabilitation, and
community based agencies is necessary in order to provide the supports needed to enhance
quality of life and post-secondary outcomes for students with disabilities
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Vocational Rehabilitation
In her statement before the Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions at the
United States Senate, Commissioner Sharon Lewis of the Administration on Developmental
Disabilities, US Department of Health and Human Services stated,
For people with intellectual and developmental disabilities, self-determination
is another important factor in employment outcomes. Individuals with ID/DD
[intellectual disabilities/developmental disabilities] who have the degree of
control they desire over their lives consistent with their capacities, strengths
and needs are more likely to express satisfaction with their individual
employment outcomes" (Lewis Testimony, US Senate, 2011).
There is a growing body of evidence in the field of vocational rehabilitation that, in
particular, enhancing choice opportunities for clients leads to better vocational rehabilitationrelated outcomes. For example, Farley, Bolton, and Parkerson (1992) evaluated the impact of
strategies to enhance consumer choice and involvement in the vocational rehabilitation process,
and found that consumers who were actively involved in vocational rehabilitation planning
enhanced vocational career development outcomes. In the book Real Work for Real Pay by
Wehman, Brooke and Inge (2007), one of the major barriers in the area of unemployment for
people with disabilities is their lifelong inexperience of gaining control over the major events in
their lives (Izzo & Lamb, 2003). Oftentimes, people with disabilities are not offered the
opportunity to make decisions for themselves. They are the recipients of others' choices for
them. Because of this they often lack the self-confidence to decide what they want to do as
opposed to just doing what others choose for them, which in turn does not allow for enhanced
self-determination. Izzo and Lamb (2003) also stated that given that only 29% of people with
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
disabilities ages 18-64 are employed, it is not unreasonable to assume that a lack of selfdetermination skills contributes to these poor employment outcomes. Informed choice,
consumer empowerment and other values related to self-determination are addressed in
rehabilitation legislation and rehabilitation education programs, but these topics have not been
widely studied in the rehabilitation literature (Thoma & Sax 2003). However, there is
compelling evidence from the special education literature that enhanced self-determination leads
to more positive adult outcomes (Wehmeyer, 2003). In the late 1990’s there was a growing
mindfulness in the fields of disability services, rehabilitation, education, and psychology of the
need to promote self-determination for individuals with mental retardation and developmental
disabilities (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998). The role of vocational rehabilitation in the
transition process is to allow students to have more opportunities for choice. In their study on
career development needs of college students, Hitchings, Luzzo, Risto, Horvath, Retish, and
Tanners (2001) found that a major attribute of highly successful adults with disabilities was their
sense of control over career-related events and a conscious decision to take charge of one's life.
The 1998 amendments to the State Vocational Rehabilitation Services Program
Act states that disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way diminishes the
right of individuals to: (a) live independently; (b) enjoy self-determination; (c) make choices; (d)
contribute to society; (e) pursue meaningful careers; and (f) enjoy full inclusion and integration
in the economic, political, social, cultural and educational mainstream of American society
(Wehmeyer, 2003). Not only are self- determination and choice included in federal mandates (as
indicated above), but according to Wehmeyer and Palmer (2003), “students who were more selfdetermined fared better across multiple life categories, including employment and the access to
health and other benefits” (p. 131). It is imperative that vocational rehabilitation services
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
coupled with education and community-based programs provide adequate opportunity for
students with disabilities to transition into the community and become viable, self-determined
individuals with the ability to enjoy the personal fulfillment and self-sufficiency that their nondisabled peers enjoy.
Despite consensus on the significance of self determination as part of the transition
process, the research and practice knowledge bases on its functions and how best to promote it
are lacking (Scanlon, Patton, & Raskin 2011). Evidence demonstrates academic skills developed
in conjunction with self-determination skills promote more positive outcomes for students with
disabilities. Instruction in fundamental self-determination skills (e.g., goal-setting, self
management) actually promotes academic skill development (Fowler, Konrad, Walker, Test, &
Wood, 2007; Konrad, Treia, & Test, 2006). School programs should not only emphasize
academic skills development, but also self-determination development as well.
Terminology
For the purposes of this literature review, self-determination as defined by Deci & Ryan
will be used which states, that human motivation requires an innate psychological need for
competence, autonomy, and relatedness (2000, 2008). The social contexts that support these
basic needs allow for a growth process that fosters intrinsic motivation, which in turn allows for
goal attainment and satisfaction with personal well being. Post-secondary outcomes are defined
according to Indicator 14 of IDEA, which is:
Outcomes for youth who had individualized education programs (IEPs) are no
longer in secondary school and who have been competitively employed, enrolled
in some type of postsecondary school, or both, within one year of leaving high
school (U.S.C.1416(a)(3)(B)).
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Transition services are defined in IDEA as:
A coordinated set of activities for a child with a disability that-- (a) is designed
to be a results-oriented process, that is focused on improving the academic and
functional achievement of the child with a disability to facilitate the child's
movement from school to post-school activities, including post-secondary
education, vocational education, integrated employment (including supported
employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living,
or community participation; (b) is based on the individual child’s needs, taking
into account the child's strengths, preferences, and interests . 34 CFR §§300.43
and 300.320(b).
According to the US Department of Human Services (2012), vocational rehabilitation is a
program that provides individualized vocational rehabilitation and supportive services to assist
eligible individuals with disabilities to get and keep jobs compatible with their skills and
abilities. Because of the disparity between the mandates that require students with disabilities
who receive transition services that include self-determination and the apparent lack of selfdetermination skills being demonstrated by students in post-secondary environments, my
research question is: What is the impact of interventions that teach self-determination skills on
students with disabilities in a postsecondary environment? The purpose of this analytical
literature review is to examine the research to determine the impact that interventions that
promote self-determination have on student outcomes in a post-secondary environment and
synthesize the findings in order to address this disparity by providing insight into what can be
done to better serve this student population.
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Methodology
Search Process
For this literature review an electronic search was conducted using EBSCOhost,
Academic Search Premier, Professional Development Collection and ERIC. I also completed a
manual search of articles in Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, which was not
available to me at the time in an online format. A search of references of all articles that were
collected and previous literature reviews on self-determination, person centered planning and
transition was also completed. Key words identified for the online search are as follows: selfdetermination, transition, disability, post-secondary outcomes, vocational rehabilitation, person
centered planning, behavioral self-management and emotional and behavioral disorders.
Criteria for Selection
In this review all participants included were required to have at least one identified
disability according to IDEA or the Americans with Disabilities Act or be identified by agencies
that provide services as having a disability. Studies that do not identify a disability status will be
excluded. Studies included participants who were in a transition program or a post secondary
environment, in a job training program, community college, 4-year college, unemployed or
currently employed in any capacity paid or volunteer. Included are studies that demonstrate the
use of interventions that include at least one component of self-determination. Excluded are
those studies that do not address any component of self-determination. Both qualitative and
quantitative measures of outcomes will be included in this review. Anecdotal information and
articles that do not contain empirical research are excluded from this review. The studies
reviewed were published between the dates of January 2000 and March 2012. Peer reviewed
journals as well as dissertations were reviewed.
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Results
Student Demographic Information
1624 students were included in the eight studies, with a range of 6-954 participants. Two
studies included students who were below age 18, but also served students who were between the
ages of 18-21, which allowed for inclusion. There were 1049 (61.9%) male and 635 (39.1%)
female participants. Only four studies listed the ethnicity of the participants. Of those four
studies 77% (1207) were Caucasian, 11% (156) Hispanic, 6% (109) African American and 5%
(93) were listed as other. Disability categories were listed for each of the 8 studies analyzed for
this review. Participants fell into one or more of 5 categories: Learning Disability, 49% (823),
Mental Retardation, 15% (252), Emotional Behavioral Disturbance, 11% (187), Physical
Disability, 1% (21), and other, 22% (371).
Setting
Of the eight studies examined, five interventions occurred in a post-secondary
environment in both job related and academic settings. In three studies the intervention occurred
in a secondary environment and the data were then subsequently collected and analyzed in a
post-secondary setting. Six studies were conducted within one state and two studies used
multiple states to collect data. Geographically, the states represented all quadrants of the US
mainland, excluding Alaska.
In order to be included in this literature review, the independent variable had to include
at least one component of self-determination. The components of self-determination that were
included are goal setting, personal choice, person centered planning regarding employment,
independent living skills, self-directed planning, self-advocacy, internal locus of control,
autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment, and self-realization.
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Experimental Design
Quantitative, qualitative and mixed method research designs were all used for the studies
included in this literature review. One study ( Jameson, 2007) used a two-phase process utilizing
both qualitative and quantitative methods. For the quantitative portion of the study a survey and
the ARC Self-Determination Scale (Weymeyer & Ketchner, 1995), which is a 72 item self-report
scale that measures with points the level of perceived self-determination within the four domains
of autonomy, self-regulation, empowerment and self-realization, were mailed to the participants.
Jameson then followed up with the qualitative portion of the study and interviewed all
participants in order to further explore and give voice to the participants. All of the other studies
examined used quantitative methods to analyze the findings. The group size varied widely
between the studies. The largest group had 956 participants and the smallest group had 6
participants. All of the studies reported gains in self-determination post intervention. Of the
eight studies examined in this literature review, four used an adaptation of the Self-Determined
Learning Model of Instruction (Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000). In each
of these four studies, the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction was used on different
student populations and in different settings. For example, Wehmeyer et al., (2003) adapted this
model to accommodate a small study of 6 adults in order to examine career development and
Wehmeyer, Palmer, Lee, Williams-Diehm, & Shogren (2011), also adapted this model to study
493 participants who ranged in age from 11-21 in order to examine the impact of the intervention
"Whose Future is it Anyway?" on transition knowledge and skills. Information was collected
about participants' levels of self-determination using The Arc's Self-Determination Scale
(Wehmeyer & Ketchner, 1995) in four of the eight studies. Other methods used to measure selfdetermination were, the Autonomous Functioning Checklist (Sigafoos, Feinstein, Diamond, &
12
EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Reiss, 1988), Goal Attainment Scale (Kiresuk & Lund, 1976), the How I Feel About Myself
Scale (Rehfeldt, 2006) and the Adult Hope Scale (Snyder, Harris, Anderson, Holleran, Irving,
Sigmon, et al., 1991).
Domains of Self-Determination
According to the ARC Self-Determination Scale (Wehmeyer & Kelchner, 1995), the
essential characteristics that make up self-determination are autonomy, which involves the
degree of independence that a person exercises on the basis of personal beliefs, values, and
interests; self-regulation, which is composed of interpersonal cognitive problem solving, goal
setting and attainment, and task performance; psychological empowerment, which measures
locus of control; and self-realization which is the ability to understand one’s strengths and
weaknesses and the ability to use these attributes to positively influence quality of life. There are
many characteristics that make up sub-domains, which fall under these major categories. Each
of the studies examined looked at more than one characteristic that makes up self-determination.
Because all of these studies focused on transition and post-secondary outcomes they all
measured goal setting and attainment, decision-making, and independent living behaviors. Only
one study looked at self-determination within a social construct. All studies had an academic
skills component as well as a vocational component.
13
Running Head: EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
TABLE 1
Summary of Literature of the Effects of Self-Determination Interventions
Study
Agran & Wehmeyer
(2000)
Intervention
Sample
Method
Self-Determined
Learning Model of
Instruction
19 students categorized as having
a disability and served through
special education services. 12
students were male and 7 were
female. .
Quantitative
single case
Delayed
multiple
baseline across
groups
Outcomes
89% of student goals
were at or above the
expected level of
outcome as rated by
their teachers.
3 Groups
Benz, Lindstrom &
Latta
(1999)
Youth Transition
Program
Jameson (2007)
Learning Center Basic
Skills Assessments
956 Students receiving transition
services through local school
districts and state vocational
rehabilitation services. 601 male
and 355 female.
48 community college students
who formally or informally
Baseline Phase
Training Phase
Post-training
Phase
Quantitative
Descriptive
Mixed Methods
90% high school
completion. 82%
secured competitive
employment, postsecondary education or
combination at program
exit. 80% maintained a
rate of employment or
education consistently
for 2 years after
program.
This mixed methods
study found that the
EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
disclosed a physical, emotional or
learning disability.
Karpur, Clark, Caproni
& Sterner (2005)
Steps-to-Success
68 students who had at least one
year of program exposure.
Morningstar, et al.
(2010)
Family Role and
76 students attending 2 or 4-year
Transition Programming colleges who had an IEP in high
school.
students with lower selfQuantitative
determination described
Descriptive
more negative postsecondary outcomes.
Qualitative
The students with higher
Phenomonology self-determination
Interviewing
described more positive
post secondary
outcomes
Quantitative
Intervention group
41.9% employed. NonDescriptive
Intervention group
50.6% employed,
unexpected result. Postsecondary education I
group 27.9% non-I
group 8.7 statistically
significant.
Incarceration rate: I
group 2.8% non-I group
11.6%. I group 3 times
more likely to continue
education as compared
with non-I group.
Quantitative
School-based transition
services and family
Descriptive
involvement. 3
dimensions of selfdetermination used
revealed strong
correlations between
hope and psychological
empowerment, hope and
15
EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Wehmeyer, et al. (2003)
Self-Determined Career
Development Model
6 Adults receiving vocational
rehabilitation services
Single case
design
Multiple
Baseline
across 3 pairs
locus of control, and
psychological
empowerment and locus
of control
Range in mean
increased responses 0%45%. Overall mean
increase from baseline
to treatment was 25%.
Nonparametric
tests and visual
analysis
Wehmeyer, et al. (2006)
Beyond High School
15 Students 18-21 years. 8 male 7
female.
Quantitative
Descriptive
Pre-Post
Wehmeyer, et al. (2011)
Whose Future is it
Anyway?
493 students receiving SPED
services across multiple disability
categories in 6 states.
Scores from 40-60 in
line with acceptable
performance. Mean
score of 51.5. 5% below
40. 60% above 50 &
35% above 60.
Quantitative
2 measures of selfdetermination, SDS and
Experimental
AIR. Students in
intervention group
Randomly
showed gains in both
assigned control measures, but showed
and treatment
significantly more
group
positive results for AIR
than control group.
16
Running Head: EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
Discussion
The findings from this literature review indicate that teaching self-determination skills is
beneficial for successful post-secondary outcomes for students with disabilities. Hitchings et al.,
reported that a major attribute of highly successful adults with disabilities is a "strong sense of
control over career-related events and a conscious decision to take charge of their lives" (p. 9).
This statement is consistent with the findings of this literature review. Overall, the students who
participated in the studies reviewed all had higher levels of ability in regards to the decisionmaking process post intervention, as demonstrated by, Wehmeyer, et al. (2006), in their Beyond
High School intervention. Students scored significantly higher on decision-making skills postintervention. The Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction has been studied in various
environments with different student populations. This model appears to be a very valuable
model of instruction for teaching self-determination skills to students with disabilities based on
empirical research.
Gaps in the Literature
In this literature review the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction was used in
four of the nine studies. The model was studied across various populations examining different
aspects of self-determination. Although this is very valuable research indicating positive effects
through replication across multiple populations, it would also be beneficial to study other
interventions as intensely in order to offer variation in relation to programs offered and empirical
research. Self-determination is a complex construct that is comprised of a broad range of skills
(Konrad, et al., 2007). Because of this, it is difficult to determine exactly which selfdetermination skills result in positive outcomes and whether it is the attainment of selfdetermination skills or maturation on the part of the students that is the causal agent. Although
EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
research indicates that there is a correlation between self-determination and positive postsecondary outcomes it is difficult to say that the intervention itself was a causal agent. Because
of the ever-changing quality of life situations that students with disabilities face on any given day
it is difficult to ascertain whether the self-determination intervention was actually the impetus of
the gain or whether life-changing events caused the more positive outcomes.
Recommendations for Future Research
Only one study in this review looked at the social aspects of self-determination. Because
communication skills and the ability to assimilate into a social or work environment is critical to
autonomy, it would be beneficial to study how teaching social skills affects self-determination
and success in a post-secondary environment. Also, more varied models, based on different
combinations of self-determination skills and the different needs of individual students, such as
more culturally responsive curricula for culturally and linguistically diverse students with
disabilities, should be developed in order to study what works best with different disabilities and
different levels of autonomy, self-regulation, psychological empowerment, an self-realization.
Experimental studies to pinpoint exactly what interventions work with the individual
needs of students would be beneficial in order to provide the individualized services that students
need in order to become successful in post-secondary environments. This in turn would allow
teachers providing transition services, vocational rehabilitation counselors, faculty and staff at
two and four year educational institutions, and service providers in the community the ability to
more effectively provide students with disabilities the opportunities to lead a more productive,
fulfilling lives in the community to the best of their abilities.
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EFFECTS OF SELF-DETERMINATION INTERVENTIONS ON POST-SECONDARY OUTCOMES
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