2014 NDI 6WS –
Fitzmier/Lundberg/Abelkop
Topicality
Oceans
Excludes Seafloor – 1NC
Interpretation – the oceans are distinct from the seabed floor that lies beneath
them
MarBEF 13 (Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning, funded by the European Union,
“open oceans,” http://www.marbef.org/wiki/open_oceans, accessed 7/7/14)
The open oceans or pelagic ecosystems are the areas away from the coastal boundaries and above the
seabed. It encompasses the entire water column of the seas and the oceans and lies beyond the edge
of the continental shelf. It extends from the tropics to the polar regions and from the sea surface to the abyssal depths. It
is a highly heterogeneous and dynamic habitat. Physical processes control the biological activities and lead to substantial geographic
variability in production.
Violation – the Aff increases exploration and/or development in the seabed –
not the ocean – they are ecologically and legally distinct
Berkman 11 (July 2011, Paul Berkman is head of the Arctic Ocean Geopolitics Programme at
the Scott Polar Research Institute, University of Cambridge, and research professor at Bren
School of Environmental Science & Management, “Race for the Arctic: Let the North Pole be a
pole of peace,” http://www.global-briefing.org/2011/07/let-the-north-pole-be-a-pole-ofpeace/, accessed 7/3/14)
In considering ways to shore up peace in the Arctic Ocean, it is useful to draw a clear distinction between the sea floor (Figure 2a)
and the overlying water column (Figure 2b). Ecologically
and legally distinct, the sea floor and overlying
water column reveal alternative jurisdictional configurations for Arctic and non-Arctic nations alike to share
in strategies that can both promote cooperation and prevent conflict in the Arctic Ocean.
Standards –
1 – Limits – the topic is already massive – they allow the Aff to do anything in
the entire mass of ocean water and do anything to “explore or develop” the
seabed – because exploration and development mean nothing, a strict
interpretation of “oceans” is the only way to limit a realistically unmanageable
topic.
2 – Topic Education – they shift the focus of debates to seabed development
instead of genuine ocean development, which kills predictable clash and core
topic learning.
3 – Extra Topicality – it’s not okay for the Aff to develop both the ocean and the
seabed. If we win that seabed exploration/development is distinct then it’s not
within the gambit of Aff topical fiat.
Topicality is a voting issue – competitive equity and jurisdiction
Excludes Seafloor – 2NC
The seafloor is
sea•floor (ˈsiˌflɔr, -ˌfloʊr) ¶ n.¶ the
solid surface underlying a sea or ocean. Also called seabed.
Random House 10 (Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, “seafloor,”
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/seafloor, accessed 7//2/14)
The ocean floor is distinct from the ocean
Gagosian, No date (Robert B. Gagosian President & CEO of the Consortium for Ocean
Leadership, “Oceanography,” http://curiosity.discovery.com/question/unexplored-ocean-depth,
accessed 7/2/14)
We have explored about 5 to 7 percent of the ocean floor and about a half a percent of the
ocean itself. In the deep ocean, it is even less. Part of it is because it is so hard to get to. I am somewhat optimistic that we will
be learning more and more because of robotics -- the autonomous vehicles that are out there are really quite extraordinary. There is
a program called the ARGO Project. There are 3000 the floats that go up and down the ocean everyday collecting data, mostly
temperature data.
The seabed is just land that is always submerged
Hickford 12 (7/13/12, Mark Hickford is a Crown Counsel at the Crown Law Office, specialising
in public law, the Treaty of Waitangi, Crown-Maori relations and natural resources law, “Story:
Law of the foreshore and seabed,” http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/law-of-the-foreshore-andseabed/page-1, accessed 7/8/14)
The seabed comprises land that is completely submerged under water.
Excludes Contiguous – 1NC
Interpretation – the “ocean” is the area past the contiguous zone
LII, No date (Legal Information Institute, citing US Code Title 33, Chapter 26, Subchapter V, §
101, http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/33/1362, accessed 7/2/14)
(10) The term “ocean” means any portion of the high seas beyond the contiguous zone.
Violation – the Aff explores or develops within 24 nautical miles of the
coastline, which is not the ocean
NOAA, No date (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Ocean
Exploration and Research, “MARITIME ZONES AND BOUNDARIES,”
http://www.gc.noaa.gov/gcil_maritime.html, accessed 7/2/14)
Territorial Sea¶ Each coastal State may claim a territorial sea that extends seaward up to 12 nautical miles
(nm) from its baselines. The coastal State exercises sovereignty over its territorial sea, the air space above it, and the
seabed and subsoil beneath it. Foreign flag ships enjoy the right of innocent passage while transiting the territorial sea subject to
laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State that are in conformity with the Law of the Sea Convention and other rules of
international law relating to such passage.¶ The U.S. claimed a 12 nm territorial sea in 1988 (Presidential Proclamation No. 5928,
December 27, 1988).¶ Additional reference information:Some of these links are to external sites.¶ Letter to Certain Foreign Ministers
of November 8, 1793 proclaiming a three-mile Territorial Sea of the United States (cannon shot rule)¶ Proclamation 5928 of
December 27, 1988. Territorial Sea of the United States of America. (54 Fed. Reg. 777 (Jan. 9, 1989)).¶ Office of Legal Counsel, U.S.
Department of Justice, "Legal Issues Raised by Proposed Presidential Proclamation to Extend the Territorial Sea" (Oct. 4, 1988)¶
Testimony of Rear Admiral Joseph Vorbach, Chief Counsel, U.S. Coast Guard, before the Subcommittee on Oceanography and the
Great Lakes of the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries regarding the extension of the U.S. territorial sea from 3 to
12 miles (March 21, 1989).¶ USSR – U.S.: Joint Statement with attached Uniform Interpretation of Rules of International Law
Governing Innocent Passage (Wyoming, 1989)¶ Contiguous Zone¶ Each coastal State may claim a contiguous
zone adjacent to
and beyond its territorial sea that extends seaward up to 24 nm from its baselines. In its contiguous
zone, a coastal State may exercise the control necessary to prevent the infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary
laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea, and punish infringement of those laws and regulations committed within
its territory or territorial sea. Additionally, in order to control trafficking in archaeological and historical objects found at sea, a
coastal State may presume that their removal from the seabed of the contiguous zone without its consent is unlawful. In 1972, the
U.S. proclaimed a contiguous zone extending from 3 to 12 miles offshore (Department of State Public Notice 358, 37 Fed. Reg. 11906
(June 15, 1972), consistent with the 1958 UN Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone. In 1999, eleven years after
President Reagan extended the U.S. territorial sea to 12 miles, President Clinton proclaimed a contiguous zone extending from 12 to
24 nm offshore (Presidential Proclamation No. 7219, August 2, 1999), consistent with Article 33 of the Law of the Sea Convention.¶
Additional reference information:Some of these links are to external sites.¶ Department of State Public Notice 358, June 1, 1972), 37
Fed. Reg. 11906 (June 15, 1972) (establishing a Contiguous Zone extending from 3 nm to 12 nm).¶ Presidential Proclamation 7219 of
August 2, 1999, Contiguous Zone of the United States. (64 Fed. Reg. 48701 (August 8, 1999)) (extending seaward limit of the
Contiguous Zones from 12 to 24 nm from the baseline).¶ Correction to Proclamation 7219 (64 Fed. Reg. 49844 (Sept. 14, 1999)).¶
Correction to Proclamation 7219 (64 Fed. Reg. 49276 (Sept. 10, 1999)).¶ Vice-President Al Gore, "Extension of Federal Enforcement
Zone in U.S. Coastal Waters Will Help Prevent Violations of Environmental, Customs, or Immigration Laws"(Sept. 2, 1999).¶ Exchange
of Memoranda between the Department of State (1989) and the Department of Justice (1991) on the Extension of the Contiguous
Zone to 24 nm¶ Exclusive Economic Zone¶ US EEZ limits from Global Perspective.¶ Photo 36: US EEZ limits from Global
Perspective ¶ (NOAA Office of Coast Survey)¶ Each coastal State may claim an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) beyond and adjacent to
its territorial sea that extends seaward up to 200 nm from its baselines (or out to a maritime boundary with
another coastal State). Within its EEZ, a coastal State has: (a) sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving
and managing natural resources, whether living or nonliving, of the seabed and subsoil and the superjacent waters and with regard
to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone, such as the production of energy from the water,
currents and winds; (b) jurisdiction as provided for in international law with regard to the establishment and use of artificial islands,
installations, and structures, marine scientific research, and the protection and preservation of the marine environment, and (c)
other rights and duties provided for under international law.
Standards –
1 – Limits – the topic is already massive – exploration and development mean
the Aff can do anything – if we allow the Aff to “explore or develop” anywhere
the topic would be unmanageable.
2 – Topic Education – they shift the focus of debates to coastal development
instead of genuine ocean development, which kills predictable clash and core
topic learning.
3 – Resolutional Accuracy – our interpretation is the legal bright line codified in
U.S. code and used by the NOAA
4 – Extra Topicality – it’s not okay for the Aff to develop both the ocean and the
contiguous zone. If we win that they are distinct then it’s not within the gambit
of Aff topical fiat.
Topicality is a voting issue – competitive equity and jurisdiction
Excludes Contiguous – 2NC
The ocean is past the contiguous zone
Mathews 11 (Joe Mathews, J.D., University of Florida Levin College of Law; M.A. University of
Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, “Redefining the Territorial Sea in
the Clean Water Act: Replacing Outdated Terminology and Extending Regulatory Jurisdiction,”
http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/sglpj/Vol4No1/Matthews.pdf, accessed 7/8/14)
The “ocean” is defined as “any portion of the high seas beyond the contiguous zone.”49 Although
the high seas is not defined in the CWA, the “ocean” as used in the CWA has been interpreted to include the
Exclusive Economic Zone (seaward a distance of 200 nautical miles)50 as well as the high seas beyond the jurisdictional
reach of the United States.51 Part VII of UNCLOS III, which discusses the “High Seas” states that it applies “to all parts of the sea that
are not included in the exclusive economic zone, in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State, or in the archipelagic
waters of an archipelagic State.”52 Although such an expansive definition was unlikely the intention of Congress when it passed the
CWA, the statute does assert authority over ocean waters falling outside U.S. jurisdiction and it is a reasonable interpretation of the
statutory language in light of UNCLOS III. This serves as another example of the confusion generated by Congress’ failure to update
the CWA to reflect the existing extent of maritime claims under international law.¶
Oceans must be outside of territorial claims
Black’s Law Dictionary No Date (Black's Law Dictionary Free Online Legal Dictionary 2nd
Ed. “Law Dictionary: What is OCEAN? definition of OCEAN” http://thelawdictionary.org/ocean/,
accessed 7/8/14)
What is OCEAN? The main or open sea; the high sea; that portion of the sea which does not lie within the body of any country
and is not subject to the territorial jurisdiction or control of any country, but is open, free, and
common to the use of all nations. See U. S. v. Rodgers, 150 U. S. 249. 14 Sup. Ct. 100. 37 L. Ed. 1071; U. S. v. New Red- ford Rridge,
27 Fed. Cas. 120; De Lovio v. Roit. 7 Fed. Cas. 428; U. S. v. Morel, 26 Fed. Cas. 1312.
Excludes EEZ – 1NC
Interpretation – Oceans Start where Exclusive Economic Zones End
Black’s Law Dictionary, No Date (Black's Law Dictionary Free Online Legal Dictionary 2nd
Ed. “Law Dictionary: What is OCEAN? definition of OCEAN” http://thelawdictionary.org/ocean/,
accessed 7/8/14)
What is OCEAN? The main or open sea; the high sea; that portion of the sea which does not lie within the body of any country
and is not subject to the territorial jurisdiction or control of any country, but is open, free, and
common to the use of all nations. See U. S. v. Rodgers, 150 U. S. 249. 14 Sup. Ct. 100. 37 L. Ed. 1071; U. S. v. New Red- ford Rridge,
27 Fed. Cas. 120; De Lovio v. Roit. 7 Fed. Cas. 428; U. S. v. Morel, 26 Fed. Cas. 1312.
Violation – the Aff increases exploration or development in the EEZ
Standards –
1 – Limits – the topic is already massive – exploration and development mean
the Aff can do anything – if we allow the Aff to “explore or develop” anywhere
the topic would be unmanageable.
2 – Topic Education – they shift the focus of debates to coastal development
instead of genuine ocean development, which kills predictable clash and core
topic learning.
3 – Extra Topicality – it’s not okay for the Aff to develop both the ocean and the
contiguous zone. If we win that they are distinct then it’s not within the gambit
of Aff topical fiat.
Topicality is a voting issue – competitive equity and jurisdiction
Excludes EEZ – 2NC
Oceans are past the continental shelf
MarBEF 13 (Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning, funded by the European Union,
“open oceans,” http://www.marbef.org/wiki/open_oceans, accessed 7/7/14)
The open oceans or pelagic ecosystems are the areas away from the coastal boundaries and above the
seabed. It encompasses the entire water column of the seas and the oceans and lies beyond the edge
of the continental shelf. It extends from the tropics to the polar regions and from the sea surface to the abyssal depths. It
is a highly heterogeneous and dynamic habitat. Physical processes control the biological activities and lead to substantial geographic
variability in production.
The continental shelf ends at the same distance from shore as the EEZ
UN 98 (United Nations, “EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE AND CONTINENTAL SHELF ACT,”
http://www.un.org/depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/PDFFILES/chn_1998_eez_act.pdf,
accessed 7/8/14)
The exclusive economic zone of the People's Republic of China is an area beyond and adjacent to the
territorial sea of the People's Republic of China extending to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines
from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. ¶ The continental shelf of the People's Republic of China comprises the
seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extend beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land
territory to the outer edge of the continental margin, or to a distance of 200 nautical miles from
the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured where the outer edge of the continental margin does not extend up to
that distance.
The EEZ and the ocean are legally distinct
Rieser and Bunsick 99 (Alison Rieser, University of Maine School of Law and Susan Bunsick,
University of Delaware, “OFFSHORE MARINE AQUACULTURE IN THE U.S. EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC
ZONE (EEZ): LEGAL AND REGULATORY CONCERNS,”
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/websites/retiredsites/natdia_pdf/16rieser.pdf, accessed 7/8/14
Future development of marine aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is constrained by legal
and regulatory concerns which need to be addressed in order for the industry to become financially viable and internationally
competitive. These concerns relate to property rights for aquaculture operators, conflicts with competing uses of public waters,¶ and regulatory gaps
and overlap. Failure to resolve these issues creates uncertainties for the economic viability of offshore aquaculture projects, making it difficult for
potential investors to obtain financing. While some states have addressed these concerns for projects within the portion of the EEZ under their
jurisdiction (for most states, out to 3 nautical miles), the federal government approach with respect to aquaculture facilities in the federal portion of
the EEZ (from the state boundary out to 200 nautical miles offshore) is piecemeal. Most
importantly, there is no clear legal
basis for granting property rights that are needed to protect the large investments necessary to build and operate offshore aquaculture
facilities in the open ocean.
Exploration
Excludes Research – 1NC
Interpretation – Ocean Exploration is purely observation and recording of
findings
NOAA, No date (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Ocean
Exploration and Research, “Exploration,” http://explore.noaa.gov/Exploration/Overview.aspx)
The President's Panel Report on Ocean Exploration defined ocean exploration as discovery through disciplined,
diverse observations and recordings of findings. It includes rigorous, systematic observations and
documentation of biological, chemical, physical, geological, and archaeological aspects of the
ocean in the three dimensions of space and in time.
Violation – the Aff is Research, Not Exploration or Development
NOAA 2012 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Ocean Exploration
and Research, "Independent Review of the Ocean Exploration Program 10 Year Review 2001 2011," May 21, http://explore.noaa.gov/sites/OER/Documents/about-oer/program-review/oeprogram-history-overview.pdf, accessed 7/2/14)
As described in the President’s Panel Report, ocean exploration is defined as “discovery through disciplined
diverse observations and the recording of the findings. An explorer is distinguished from a
researcher by virtue of the fact that an explorer has not narrowly designed the observing strategy to test
a specific hypothesis. A successful explorer leaves a legacy of new knowledge that can be used by those not yet born to
answer questions not yet posed at the time of the exploration.” Above all, the overarching purpose of ocean exploration is to
increase our knowledge of the ocean environment; its features, habitats, and species; and how it functions as part of the global
ecosystem.
Standards –
1 – Limits – Research gives the Aff access to a completely separate, limitless
reservoir of plans and advantages that would make this already massive topic
unmanageable.
2 – Topic Education – they shift the focus of debates from exploration and
development to research, which kills predictable clash and core topic learning.
3 – Resolutional Accuracy – our interpretation is the bright line used by the
NOAA
4 – Extra Topicality – it’s not okay for the Aff to both explore and research the
ocean. If we win that they are distinct then it’s not within the gambit of Aff
topical fiat.
Topicality is a voting issue – competitive equity and jurisdiction
Excludes Research – 2NC
Ocean exploration is distinct from the development of technologies for use in
the ocean
COL 12/4/13 (Consortium for Ocean Leadership, 12/4/13, The Consortium for Ocean
Leadership is a Washington, DC-based nonprofit organization that represents more than 100 of
the leading public and private ocean research and education institutions, aquaria and industry
with the mission to advance research, education and sound ocean policy, “Director, Office of
Ocean Exploration and Research, NOAA,” http://oceanleadership.org/director-office-oceanexploration-research-noaa/, accessed 7/2/14
¶ The Director, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research (OER) provides programmatic direction for the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the field of ocean exploration, research, and advanced technology
development and provides advice to the NOAA Assistant Administrator for Research and the Under Secretary.¶ ¶ The Office provides coordination for planning and programming with all of
NOAA’s Strategic Planning Goal Teams and multiple Programs. The OER office combines the historic agency missions of undersea
exploration and advanced undersea research and technology development. NOAA leads other federal agencies
through this national program to discover and research novel aspects of the oceans, Great Lakes, and unexplored or little known regions of the sea. The Office serves the strategic scientific and technical needs of
the agency by directly conducting and directing exploration, research and field operations with dedicated operational assets. The Office also funds and supports peer-reviewed research projects through national
competitions and through extramural cooperative institutes.
Ocean exploration enhances research, policy, and management decisions, but is
distinct from those categories
OER 3 (Office of Ocean Exploration and Research at the NOAA, “OER Mission and
Vision,” http://explore.noaa.gov/Home.aspx, accessed 7/2/14)
OER explores the ocean to enhance research, policy and management decisions, to develop new lines of
scientific inquiry, and to advise NOAA and the Nation on critical issues by:¶ • Leading partnerships to accomplish national ocean exploration
goals;¶ • Conducting interdisciplinary baseline characterizations of unknown or poorly-known ocean areas, processes, and resources; ¶ • Increasing the pace, scope, and
efficiency of exploration and research to improve the technical capability of the United States marine science community; ¶ • Engaging and educating audiences in ocean
Exploration advances the breadth of knowledge and Research advances
the depth of knowledge. Cutting-edge technologies and methodologies continue to be developed by the men and women dedicated to ocean exploration,
exploration through innovative means.¶
but the potential of ocean exploration has only begun to be met. OER is investing in new technologies, in state-of-the-art platforms, undersea vehicles and infrastructure, in data
and information management, in transmission networks, in research programs, and in the efforts to inform and educate society on the importance of a National program
dedicated to ocean exploration and research. Through its important work, OER will certainly make discoveries and perform breakthroughs to the benefit of all life on Earth.
Its
Excludes Market/Private – 1NC
Interpretation – Its means:
its¶ Top 1000 frequently used words¶ Syllabification: its¶ Pronunciation: /its /¶ DETERMINER¶ 1Belonging
to or associated with
a thing previously mentioned or easily identified:¶ turn the camera on its side¶ he chose the area for its atmosphere
Oxford Dictionary 14 (Oxford Dictionary, “its,”
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/its, accessed 7/2/14)
Violation – the Aff is private ownership which means the exploration or
development no longer belongs to the federal government
Lienert 9 (Ian Lienert, senior economist for the International Monetary Fund, an organization
of 188 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation and secure financial stability,
“Where Does the Public Sector End and the Private Sector Begin?,”
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp09122.pdf, accessed 7/3/14)
The concept of ownership is critical in defining the institutional units that belong to the public or
private sectors. International accounting standards give precedence to economic ownership over legal
ownership. Economic ownership is exercised by a controlling entity when it has the power to govern the financial and operating
policies of the other entity. Two
conditions are essential for economic control: first, at least one “power”
condition, such as the majority voting interest or the power to appoint or remove governing board members, is
required; second, at least one “benefit” condition, such as the power to dissolve the entity or to control
asset distributions, is also needed.
Standards –
1 – Limits – Market-based mechanisms give the Aff access to a completely
separate, limitless reservoir of plans and advantages that would make this
already massive topic unmanageable.
2 – Topic Education – they shift debates to focus on mechanism instead of
content, which kills predictable clash and core topic learning.
3 – Ground – the resolution says its for a reason – all private exploration and
development is core Negative ground on this topic that their interpretation
deprives us of.
Topicality is a voting issue – competitive equity and jurisdiction
Excludes Market/Private – 2NC
The public sector consists of government and government-owned properly, but
specific criteria are needed – only our evidence provides those
IIA 11 (December 2011, The Institute of Internal Auditors is an international professional
association and is the audit profession's global voice, recognized authority, acknowledged
leader, chief advocate, and principal educator, “Supplemental Guidance: Public Sector
Definition,” https://na.theiia.org/standardsguidance/Public%20Documents/Public%20Sector%20Definition.pdf, accessed 7/3/14)
In general terms, the public sector consists of governments and all publicly controlled or publicly funded
agencies, enterprises, and other entities that deliver public programs, goods, or services. It is not, however, always
clear whether any particular organization should be included under that umbrella. Therefore, it is necessary to identify
specific criteria to help define the boundaries.
The government only owns corporations that they can determine the corporate
policy of
UNECA 8(Presentation of the 2008 SNA, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa,
“Mauririus Government Sector,”
http://ecastats.uneca.org/acsweb/Portals/20/Economic%20Statistics/Presentations%20of%20m
eetings/EGM%20on%20the%20implementation%20of%20the%202008%20SNA/MauririusGover
nmentSector.pdf, accessed 7/8/14)
¶ Government control of corporations¶ A corporation is a public corporation if a government unit, another
public corporation, or some combination of government units and public corporations controls the entity, where
control is defined as the ability to determine the general corporate policy of the corporation.
(SNA ‐ 4.77)¶ Institutional units owned or controlled by government that qualify as corporations are
known as public corporations (GFS 2.14)¶ Definition of an institutional unit of government :¶
Entities funded by appropriations made in accordance with a budget controlled by the
legislature
Shifting any part of a government-owned asset to the private sector releases
the government of ownership
Keetch 12 (Cristiane Carvalho Keetch, Master of Arts in Political Science Department of
Government and International Affairs College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida, in
her thesis, “Trends in the Contracting out of Local Government Services,”
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5902&context=etd, accessed
7/8/14)
On one side of the debate, some authors characterize privatization as the outright sale of a governmentowned asset to the private sector, releasing the public¶ sector from any responsibility for delivery
the service (Feigenbaum & Henig, 1994; Leroux, 2007). Reflecting another perspective, Feigenbaum and Henig (1994) took a
broader definition of privatization as “the shifting of a function either in whole or in part, from
the public sector to the private sector” (p. 185). The authors recognized that this definition will be disputed by some
scholars, but argued that overemphasizing the distinctions between specific technological tools for privatization
obscures the political dynamics that are much more worthy of discussion.
Affirmative Materials
Oceans
Includes Seafloor
The seabed is the floor of an ocean
Merriam Webster No Date (Merriam Webster Dictionary. http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/seabed, accessed 7/8/14)
Definition of SEABED : the floor of a sea or ocean
The ocean floor is a region of the ocean
ONR ’13 (June 21, 2013. Office of Naval Research: Science and Technology Focus. “Ocean
Regions” http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/ocean/regions/default.htm, accessed 7/8/14)
Ocean Regions: Blue Water Characteristics Deep Ocean Humans & the Environment Quick Quiz Littoral Zone
Characteristics The Navy & the Littoral Zone Ocean Floor Characteristics Continental Margin & Rise Deep Ocean Basin MidOcean Ridge Quick Quiz
The continental shelf is a part of the ocean
Meadows ’12 [Kelly Meadows works for the Barkley Bridge Elementary School. “The Ocean
Floor” http://alex.state.al.us/lesson_view.php?id=24060]
Students will learn about parts of the ocean including the beach, ocean ridge, continental shelf, and
trenches. Also, students will research the Internet for information on the ocean floor and animals of the ocean. Students
will recreate the ocean floor using their own creativity.
“Ocean” refers to a habitat that supports life
NOAA 14 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, Last updated 6/24/14, “What
percentage of life is estimated to be in the ocean?”
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ocean_life.html, accessed 7/1/14)
Covering over 70 percent of the Earth’s surface, the ocean represents our planet’s largest habitat, containing
99 percent of the living space on the planet. This vast area supports the life of nearly 50 percent of all
species on Earth.¶ Scientists are currently conducting the first ever “Census of Marine Life,” to assess and explain the diversity,
distribution, and abundance of life in the ocean. Expected to be completed in 2010, this project will be the first to develop a
comprehensive global list of all forms of life in the ocean. Additionally, scientists estimate that perhaps a million or more species
remain unknown, yet to be discovered.¶
Includes EEZ/Contiguous
The EEZ an area of the ocean
USGPO, 1998 (U.S. Government Printing Office, Report of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation,
Senate Report 105-209, June 10, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-105srpt209/html/CRPT-105srpt209.htm)
As a nation with extensive borders on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic Oceans, the United States maintains an especially close
relationship with the sea. The oceans play a crucial role in the United States' national security and provide a conduit of
transportation for95 percent of U.S. foreign trade. One out of every six American jobs is marine-related. More than one-half of the
The U.S. exclusive economic zone, that
area of the ocean extending from 3 to 200 miles seaward from the coast, is equal in size to the entire land
United States' population lives and works within 50 miles of the coastline.
area of the United States.
Exploration
Includes Research
Exploration is observing and recording of findings – includes research
NAS 3 (National Academy of Sciences, 2003, advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering,
and Medicine, Exploration of the Seas: Voyage into the Unknown, page 17,
http://explore.noaa.gov/sites/OER/Documents/national-research-council-voyage.pdf, accessed
7/8/14)
As defined by the President’s Panel on Ocean Exploration (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2000), exploration is
discovery through disciplined, diverse observations and the recording of findings. Ocean
exploration has included rigorous, systematic observation and documentation of the
biological, chemical, physical, geological, and archaeological aspects of the ocean in the three
dimensions of space and in time. This definition of exploration is much broader than the definition one would find, for example, within the context for
the extractive industries, where exploration is a search for hydrocarbon or mineral deposits. More
general approaches allow
researchers to develop and ask questions that are not rooted in specific hypotheses and that often
lead to unexpected answers— a difficult task to promote within the current approaches to research funding. ¶ Exploration is an early component of the
research process; it focuses on new areas of inquiry and develops descriptions of phenomena that inform the direction of further study. It
is the
collection of basic observations that later allow hypotheses to be posed to connect those
observations with the laws of physics, chemistry, and biology. In some disciplines, such as physics, exploration has been pursued aggressively,
and the resources are best invested in testing hypotheses and conducting controlled experiments. In other disciplines, the system under investigation is
oceans are excellent
examples. This nation and others have invested heavily in the exploration of outer space and the functioning of the human genome, and each
so vast, complex, or remote that exploration is still the necessary first step. Outer space, the human genome, and the
program has both captured the imagination of the public and produced tangible, valuable discoveries. No similar systematic program exists for ocean
exploration, despite its promise.
Includes Methane Hydrates
Researching methane hydrates increases exploration and development
Kamagai 13 (10/31/13, Takeo Kamagai, Japan oil news editor, “Japan urges US to move
forward methane hydrate cooperation agreement,” http://www.platts.com/latestnews/natural-gas/tokyo/japan-urges-us-to-move-forward-methane-hydrate-27583047,
accessed 7/8/14)
"Methane hydrates represent research challenges but a very important resource potential,"
said Moniz, a physics professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology before President
Obama appointed him. "In my former life at MIT, when we wrote on natural gas, we noted that
methane hydrates could be the next big revolution following shale gas, although it will take
some time, certainly, to make this a commercially viable activity."¶ Under the 2008 agreement,
the two countries said the proposed cooperation would enhance understanding of gas
hydrates and speed up research into their exploration and development.
Impacts
Ocean Education Good
Learning about the ocean is key to effective environmental policies in the
future
OLF 13 (Version 2, March 2013, Ocean Literacy Framework, a project designed to teach K-12
students about the ocean, funded by the NOAA, the National Geographic Society, and others,
“Ocean Literacy: The Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts of Ocean Sciences for
Learners of All Ages,”
http://www.coexploration.org/oceanliteracy/documents/OceanLitChart.pdf, accessed 7/8/14)
The ocean covers most of our planet, is the source of most life¶ on Earth, regulates our weather and climate,
provides most of our oxygen, and feeds much of the human population. After decades of pollution, habitat
degradation and overfishing, now climate change and ocean acidification threaten the health of
the ocean in unprecedented ways.¶ Better public understanding of the ocean is an important
part of resolving these complex and critical issues. While the public generally has limited understanding of the
ocean (The Ocean Project, 2009), the more people know, the more they are willing to support policies
to keep the ocean healthy (Steel et al., 2005). Understanding complex systems like the ocean is difficult. However, the use
of models, computer simulations, and first-hand experiences strongly enhance learning and teaching (Tran, 2009). Engaging learners
in experiences focused on the ocean helps them build personal connections to the ocean, coasts, and Great Lakes that motivate
them to become ocean literate and to act on behalf of the ocean.
Ocean literacy is crucial to environmental and developmental policies relating
to the oceans
Steel, et. al 5 (Brent S. Steel, Department of Political Science, Oregon State University, Court
Smith, Department of Anthropology, Oregon State University, Laura Opsommer, Master of
Public Policy Program, Oregon State University, Sara Curiel, Department of Political Science,
Oregon State University, Ryan Warner-Steel, Department of Biology, University of Oregon,
Corvallis, "Public ocean literacy in the United States,”
http://oregonfuture.oregonstate.edu/instruct/anth/smith/OcPolSurArticle.pdf, accessed
7/8/14)
On April 20, 2004, the 16 member Oceans Commission, appointed by President Bush, issued a report detailing the
deteriorating condition of the nation’s coastal waters. The Commission’s chairman, Adm. James Watkins, commented at the
release of the report: ‘‘Our oceans and coasts are in serious trouble’’ [1, p. A-15]. The Commission’s report, along with
numerous other studies including the recently released Pew Oceans Commission report America’s Living Oceans: Charting a
Course for Sea Change, argue for new approaches and actions to mitigate and correct these deteriorating conditions. Along
these lines, the Pew Oceans Commission called
for ‘‘a new era of ocean literacy that links people to the
marine environment’’ [2, p. 91]. The Commission further argues that there is a ‘‘need to provide the public
with understandable information about the structure and functioning of coastal and marine
ecosystems, how ecosystems affect daily lives, and how we affect ecosystems’’ [2, p. 11]. Similarly,
the Report of the US Commission on Ocean Policy states: ‘‘To successfully address complex ocean- and coastalrelated issues, balance the use and conservation of marine resources, and realize future
benefits of the ocean, an interested, engaged public is essential’’ [3, p. 85]. Doug Daigle echoes this call
for greater public involvement in coastal conservation, ‘‘the only hope for further progress on environmental
protection and sustainable development lies with a public that is not only informed but also
engaged’’ [4, p. 230]. Knowledge is vital in developing an individual’s perception of the oceans
and the resources they provide. Additionally, knowledge is a key component in accomplish- ing effective
environmental policies [5–7]. As Janicke comments, ‘‘without a doubt, environmental knowledge and public
awareness are important factors influencing environmental policy and management’’ [8, p. 11].
Because citizens are either directly or indirectly involved in activities and behaviors that may place our ocean and coastal
areas at risk, it is indeed important to assess the scope and depth of policy- relevant knowledge among the public and to learn
where people tend to acquire their information about ocean and coastal conditions.