LINTUL5 default (2013).
Table S1. The phenological parameters for simulated six crops (winter wheat, winter barley, rape seed, grain maize, potato and sugar beet). To interpret the parameters as a table (e.g. day length effects table), linear interpolation was used.
Crops
Winter wheat
Winter barley
Rape seed
Silage maize
Grain maize
Potato
Sugar beet
Base temperature before emergence
(°C)
Ceiling temperature before emergence
(°C)
Thermal time requirement before emergence
(°C day)
Base vernalization requirement
(day)
Satured vernalization requirement
(day)
Temperature vernalization response table
50
50
50
Temperature (°C): -10.0;-4.0;3.0;10.0;17.0;30.0
Vernalization (day): 0.0; 0.0;1.0; 1.0; 0.0; 0.0
Temperature (°C): -10.0;-4.0;3.0;10.0;17.0;30.0
Vernalization (day): 0.0; 0.0;1.0; 1.0; 0.0; 0.0
Temperature (°C): -10.0;-4.0;3.0;10.0;17.0;30.0
Vernalization (day): 0.0; 0.0;1.0; 1.0; 0.0; 0.0
Day length effects table
Day length (hour): 7.0;17.0
Day lenght effects: 0.0; 1.0
Day length (hour): 7.0;17.0
Day lenght effects: 0.0; 1.0
Day length (hour): 7.0;17.0
Day lenght effects: 0.0; 1.0
Temperature and thermal time table
Temperature (°C): -.0;0.0;30.0;45.0
Thermal time: 0.0;0.0;30.0;30.0
Temperature (°C): -5.0;0.0;35.0;45.0
Thermal time: 0.0;0.0;35.0;35.0
Temperature (°C): -5.0;4.0;35.0;45.0
Thermal time: 0.0;0.0;31.0;31.0
Temperature (°C): -5.0;6.0;30.0;45.0
Thermal time(°C day): 0.0;0.0;24.0;24.0
Temperature (°C): -5.0;6.0;30.0;45.0
Thermal time(°C day): 0.0;0.0;24.0;24.0
Temperature (°C): -5.0;2.0;35.0;45.0
Thermal time: 0.0;0.0;33.0;33.0
Temperature (°C): -5.0;3.0;21.0;45.0
Thermal time: 0.0;0.0;18.0;18.0
LINTUL4 default (2011). "LINTUL4 default parameter values." LINTUL4.
LINTUL5 default (2013). "LINTUL5 default parameter values." LINTUL5.
Soltani, A. and T. R. Sinclair (2012). Modeling physiology of crop development, growth and yield, CABI.
Table S2. The used parameters for simulating effects of CO2 enrichment on crop transpiraiton. Since the decrease ratio for winter wheat differs across from different references, we took the mean of them in this study.
Crop
Winter wheat
Base CO2 concentration
370
Elevated CO2 concentration
Winter wheat
Winter wheat
370
370
Winter wheat
Winter wheat
370
365
Winter wheat
Barely
Rape seed
Grain maize
Potato
Sugar beet
370
370
370
370
370
370
550
550
550
550
550
550
550
550
750
550
550
Decrease ratio References
-0.079 Kimball, B.A., Pinter, P.J., Garcia, R.L., LaMorte, R.L., Wall, G.W., Hunsaker, D.J., Wechsung, G., Wechsung, F., Kartschall§, T. (1995) Productivity and water use of wheat under free-air CO2 enrichment. Global change biology 1, 429-442.
-0.04 Hunsaker, D.J., Kimball, B.A., Pinter Jr, P.J., Wall, G.W., LaMorte, R.L., Adamsen, F.J., Leavitt, S.W., Thompson, T.L., Matthias, A.D., Brooks, T.J. (2000) CO2 enrichment and soil nitrogen effects on wheat evapotranspiration and water use efficiency. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 104, 85-105.
-0.12 Burkart, S., Manderscheid, R., Wittich, K.P., Löpmeier, F., Weigel, H.J. (2011) Elevated CO2 effects on canopy and soil water flux parameters measured using a large chamber in crops grown with free‐air CO2 enrichment. Plant Biology 13, 258-269.
-0.037 Hunsaker, D.J., Kimball, B.A., Pinter Jr, P.J., Wall, G.W., LaMorte, R.L., Adamsen, F.J., Leavitt, S.W., Thompson, T.L., Matthias, A.D., Brooks, T.J. (2000) CO2 enrichment and soil nitrogen effects on wheat evapotranspiration and water use efficiency. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 104, 85-105.
-0.06 O'Leary, G.J., Christy, B., Nuttall, J., Huth, N., Cammarano, D., Stöckle, C., Basso, B., Shcherbak, I., Fitzgerald, G., Luo, Q., Farre-Codina, I., Palta, J., Asseng, S.
(2015) Response of wheat growth, grain yield and water use to elevated CO2 under a Free-Air CO2 Enrichment (FACE) experiment and modelling in a semiarid environment. Global change biology, DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12830
-0.05 Hunsaker, D., Kimball, B., Pinter, P., LaMorte, R., Wall, G. (1996) Carbon dioxide enrichment and irrigation effects on wheat evapotranspiration and water use efficiency. Transactions of the ASAE 39, 1345-1355.
-0.09 Burkart, S., Manderscheid, R., Wittich, K.P., Löpmeier, F., Weigel, H.J. (2011) Elevated CO2 effects on canopy and soil water flux parameters measured using a large chamber in crops grown with free‐air CO2 enrichment. Plant Biology 13, 258-269.
-0.11 Qaderi, M.M., Reid, D.M. (2005) Growth and physiological responses of canola (Brassica napus) to UV-B and CO2 under controlled environment conditions.
Physiologia Plantarum 125, 247-259.
-0.22 Kim, S.-H., Sicher, R.C., Bae, H., Gitz, D.C., Baker, J.T., Timlin, D.J., Reddy, V.R. (2006) Canopy photosynthesis, evapotranspiration, leaf nitrogen, and transcription profiles of maize in response to CO2 enrichment. Global change biology 12, 588-600.
-0.125 Leakey, A.D., Ainsworth, E.A., Bernacchi, C.J., Rogers, A., Long, S.P., Ort, D.R. (2009) Elevated CO2 effects on plant carbon, nitrogen, and water relations: six important lessons from FACE. Journal of Experimental Botany 60, 2859-2876.
-0.18 Burkart, S., Manderscheid, R., Wittich, K.P., Löpmeier, F., Weigel, H.J. (2011) Elevated CO2 effects on canopy and soil water flux parameters measured using a large chamber in crops grown with free‐air CO2 enrichment. Plant Biology 13, 258-269.
Table S3 Interpolated correction factor of CO
2
effects on crop transpiration for six crops under different projected climate change scenarios, B1, B2 and A1B.
Crops
Winter wheat
Winter barley
Rape seed
Grain maize
Potato
Sugar beet
B1 (487 ppm)
0.958
0.942
0.928
0.932
0.919
0.883
Interpolated correction factor
B2 (478 ppm) A1B (532 ppm)
0.961
0.946
0.941
0.919
0.934
0.937
0.925
0.892
0.901
0.906
0.887
0.838
Fig. S1.
Maps of soil physical properties across European Union 25 (EU25). The resolution is consistent with the simulation unit in Fig 1. The left color bar of volumetric water content is for the first five properties (a‒e) and the color bar in the right side is for the last map of soil depth (f).
Fig. S2. Responses of crop radiation use efficiency (RUE) to the CO
2
concentration for C3 (red lines) and
C4 (blue lines) crops in SIMPLACE <LINTUL5, DRUNIR, HEAT> for three SRES climate change scenarios, i.e. B1, B2, A1B. The CO
2
concentrations are set as 487, 478, 532, respectively, for B1, B2, and A1B. The parameters for RUE response were obtained from Boon-Prins et al. (1993).
Boon-Prins ER, G.H.J. De Koning, C.A. Van Diepen, Vries FWTPD (1993) Crop-specific simulation parameters for yield forecasting across the European Community. Agricultural Information Systems,
Institute for Remote Sensing Applications, Joint Research Centre of the Commission of the European
Community.
Fig. S3. Phenology observations (sowing, flowering and harvest, column 1 – 3) and calculated thermal requirements (emergence to flowering and flowering to maturity, column 4 – 5). For potato and sugar beet, dates in the flowering columns indicate time starting tuber growth. As dates of starting tuber growth for the potato (v) and sugar beet (A) were missing in the database, we computed the total thermal time requirement from emergence to maturity. The total thermal time (from emergence to maturity) was subdivided into the two stages before and after tuber growth according to the ratio in the default crop parameters.
Fig. S4.
Maps of mean of historical nitrogen input rates for the simulated six crops across simulation units in EU25.
The data is sourced from FAO (2009).
The six crops include winter wheat (a), winter barley (b), rape seed (c), grain maize (d), potato (e) and sugar beet (f).
Fig. S5. Simulated impacts of climate change on the net irrigation requirement (∆NIR) of six crops in the SRES B1 scenario across simulation units in EU25. The six crops are winter wheat (a and b), winter barley (c, d), rape seed (e and f), grain maize (g and h), potato (i and j) and sugar beet (k and l). Simulations are performed without considering CO2 effects on crop growth and transpiration considering (a, c, e, g, i and k) and with CO2 effects considered (b, d, f, h, j and l).
Fig. S6. Simulated impacts of climate change on the net irrigation requirement (∆NIR) of six crops in the SRES B2 scenario across simulation units in EU25. The six crops are winter wheat (a and b), winter barley (c, d), rape seed (e and f), grain maize (g and h), potato (i and j) and sugar beet (k and l). Simulations are performed without considering CO2 effects on crop growth and transpiration considering (a, c, e, g, i and k) and with CO2 effects considered (b, d, f, h, j and l).
Fig. S7. Simulated impacts of climate change on the yields of six crops in the SRES B1 scenario across simulation units in EU25. Irrigation was considered in the simulations. The six crops are winter wheat (a and b), winter barley (c, d), rape seed (e and f), grain maize (g and h), potato (i and j) and sugar beet (k and l). Simulations are performed without considering CO2 effects on crop growth and transpiration considering (a, c, e, g, i and k) and with CO2 effects considered (b, d, f, h, j and l).
Fig. S8. Simulated impacts of climate change on the yields of six crops in the SRES B2 scenario across simulation units in EU25. Irrigation was considered in the simulations. The six crops are winter wheat (a and b), winter barley (c, d), rape seed (e and f), grain maize (g and h), potato (i and j) and sugar beet (k and l). Simulations are performed without considering CO2 effects on crop growth and transpiration considering (a, c, e, g, i and k) and with CO2 effects considered (b, d, f, h, j and l).
Fig. S9. Temporal correlations (Spearman’s Rho) between simulated and observed yields for six crops from 1984 to 2006 under rainfed (a, c, e, g, i, k) and irrigated conditions (b, d, e, f, h, j, l). Note the irrigated condition is not full irrigation, but considering actual irrigation ratio according to eq. 5. The six crops are winter wheat (a and b), winter barley (c, d), rape seed (e and f), grain maize (g and h), potato (i and j) and sugar beet (k and l).
Fig. S10. Root mean square errors between simulated and observed yields for six crops from 1984 to
2006 under rainfed (a, c, e, g, i, k) and irrigated conditions (b, d, e, f, h, j, l). Note the irrigated condition is not full irrigation, but considering actual irrigation ratio according to eq. 5. The six crops are winter wheat (a and b), winter barley (c, d), rape seed (e and f), grain maize (g and h), potato (i and j) and sugar beet (k and l).
Fig. S11. Changes of growing season length (∆GSL) under the SRES A1B scenario for six crops across simulation units in EU25. The six crops include winter wheat (a), winter barley (b), rape seed (c), grain maize (d), potato (e) and sugar beet (f).
Fao (2009) FAOSTAT-FAO Statistical Databases. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Lintul4 Default (2011) LINTUL4 default parameter values. LINTUL4.
Lintul5 Default (2013) LINTUL5 default parameter values. LINTUL5.
Soltani A, Sinclair TR (2012) Modeling physiology of crop development, growth and yield, CABI.
