ASPECTS OF KUTURMI PHONOLOGY
A LONG ESSAY SUBMITTED OF THE DEPARTMENT OF
LINGUISTICS AND NIGERIA LANGUAGE, FACULTY OF
ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, NIGERIA.
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR
THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS) IN
LINGUISTICS
By
OYEROGBA, OYEDOLAPO DUPE
07/15CB087
JUNE, 2011.
2
CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting the
requirement for the award of Bachelor of Arts in the Department of
Linguistics and Nigerian Languages University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria.
_______________________
_____________________
MR. WALE RAFIU
DATE
Project Supervisor
_______________________
_________________________
PROF. A.S ABDULSALAM
DATE
3
Head of Department
______________________
_________________________
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
DATE
4
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to Jehovah God, to the entire family
of Oyerogba and to all Kuturmi Language speakers.
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost I would like to thank Jehovah God ‘the
Almighty’ who made it possible for me to gain admission into this
university. May you continue to prove your name in my life.
Great appreciation goes to my loving mother, Mrs.Oyerogba
for her financial and moral support, her unfailing care and advise
helped me sail through the years. May you live long to reap the
fruit of your labour (amen).
My unreserved appreciation goes to my great supervisor. Mr,
Wale Rafiu for sparing time out of his loaded schedule to attend to
me and for his intellectual handing of this project work. Thank you
sir.
I cannot do without saying thanks to my siblings Wole
Oyerogba, Bola Oyerogba, Gboye Badmus, and especially my elder
sisters Tola Oyerogba (Mrs Iyofor) and Bukola Oyerogba (Mrs
6
Abioye) who also supported me financially throughout my stay in
the school. May all of you live long and achieve great things in life.
Special appreciation goes to Adetunji paul Akintade for his
great and continuous love and care in my life. May God continue to
grant your heart desires.
My appreciation also goes to my bunk mates like Mushrafat,
Esther, Pelu, Seyi and my course mates. You are one in a million.
Despite quarrels, I will miss you all.
I would like to thank my lecturers for their support through
my years in school and those that have contributed one way or the
other to the success of the project work. Thanks for participating.
Finally, I thank those whose names are too numerous to mention. I
am very grateful. I pray that may all of the Graduating Linguists of
year 2011 become great achievers in life (Amen).
OYEROGBA, Oyedolapo
Dupe
7
07/15CB087
8
LIST OF DIAGRAMS / CHARTS
PAGE
Chart 1
The genetic classification of Kuturmi.
8
Chart 2
Consonants chart of Kuturmi
35
Chart 3
Distinctive feature matrix of the Kuturmi consonants.
36
Chart 4
Oral chart in Kuturmi
43
Chart 5
Nasal vowel chart in Kuturmi
43
Chart 6
Distinctive feature matrix of the Kuturmi vowel
53
9
Figure 1
The syllable structure of Kuturmi Language
52
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
10
Title page
i
Certification
ii
Dedication
iii
Acknowledgments
iv
List of Diagrams/ Charts
vi
Table of Contents
vii
CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
11
1.1
Introduction
1
1.2
Historical Background
1.3
Socio-Cultural Profile
1
3
1.4
Geographical Location
7
1.5
Genetic Classification of Kuturmi Language
8
1.6
Scope and Organization of Study
10
1.7
Theoretical Framework
11
1.8.1 Data
Collection
18
12
1.8.2 Data Analysis
19
1.9.1 Phonemes
19
1.9.2 Allophones
20
CHAPTER TWO: BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
2.1
Introduction
22
2.2
Phonology
22
2.3
Kuturmi Sounds System
24
2.3.1 Consonant Sound Segments in Kutrumi
25
13
2.3.2
Description and Distribution of Consonants Sounds
26
2.3.3 Phonetic Consonants Charts
35
2.3.4 Fully Specified Consonants Matrix
36
2.3.5 Justification of Consonant Features Used
37
2.3.6 Consonant Segment Redundancies
39
2.4
Vowel Sound Segments in Kuturmi
40
2.4.1 Description and Occurrence of Kuturmi Vowels
43
2.4.2 Fully Specified Vowel Feature Matrix
52
14
2.4.3 Justification of the Vowel Feature Matrix
53
2.4.4 Vowel Segment Redundancies
54
2.5
Syllable Structure
55
2.6
Syllable Processes
58
2.7
Conclusion
62
CHAPTER THREE: PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES
3.1
Introduction
63
3.2
Phonological processes
63
15
3.2.1 Assimilation
64
3.2.2 Deletion
65
3.2.3 Insertion
67
3.2.4 Nasalization
69
3.2.5 Vowel Harmony
71
3.3
Conclusion
73
CHAPTER FOUR: TONE SYSTEM OF KUTURMI
4.1
Introduction
74
16
4.2
Tone System of Kuturmi
74
4.2.1
Types of Tone
75
4.2.2
Tone Distribution
77
4.2.3
Function of Tones
82
4.2.4
Tonological Processes
84
4.3
Conclusion
88
CHAPTER
FIVE:
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSION
5.1
Introduction
89
17
RECOMMENDATIONS
AND
5.2
Summary
89
5.3
Recommendations
91
5.4
Conclusion
92
References
94
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General Background
This study examines aspects of Kuturmi phonology, a language
spoken in some parts of Kaduna State of Nigeria by a population of
about fourteen thousand speakers 14,000. (Vision accessed 19th Jan,
2010). Phonology is a branch of linguistics which investigates the ways in
which sounds are used systematically in different languages to form
18
words and utterances. It is the scientific study of arbitrary vocal symbols
used in human speech, and patterns in which symbols enter to produce
intelligent, meaningful utterances (Oyebade 2004:2).
1.2
Historical Background
The history of Kuturmi people has always been associated with
migration. There are two sources of the Kuturmi origin. One traditional
source says that the people of Kuturmi formerly called ‘the Kutumbawa’
hailed from Daura province in Kastina State. Burdon (1909) allerged,
that Baganda who was the grandson of Bayajidda ‘the snake killer of
Daura’ was the one that led the Kutumbawa people to capture Kano
Empire in the year A.D 499. The second source says that they migrated
from Kano city in 1809 AD as a result of jihad wars and ruled Kano
Empire between 14th to 18th centuries.
The Kuturmi people were nicknamed after the occupation of their
forefather ‘mortal carving by their neighbors. Kuturmi means motar
carving called (Sassakan Turmi in Hausa language) while ‘Turmi’ in their
19
language means ‘mortal’. They can be identified among other tribes
through their longitudinal marks on their chicks. It was alleged that
when Kano empire was over thrown in 1809 AD, the Kuturmi people who
were residing in Kano city under the leadership of
Bakutumba of
Kutumbawa fled to Sabo village to the west of Kano city from where they
migrated southwards in search of refuge. There by passed Zaria to the
north and Kauru to South and settled at a village called Kallah Kauru to
South and settled at a village called Kallah Kauru District of Kajuru Local
Government Areas. On arriving at the place the people attacked and
conquered Kajuru kingdom. The Kuturmi still in search of refuge moved
further southward and settled at Iburu in Kufana district from where
they moved southward and settled at their present site in Kaduna State.
After settling down, their forefathers continued with their traditional
rulership constitution under the leadership of ‘Ogumo’ meaning ‘king’ in
Kuturmi Language.
The headquarters of Kuturmi people was built in Awon village
because their speech form has the standard language of the speakers.
20
There are several dialects in the language. They are Anturu, Akama,
Ariko, Awon, Asane, Akwando. All these dialects speaks differently from
the standard language called Awon,
1.3
Socio-Cultural Profile
Culture is a shared, learned, symbolic system of values, beliefs
and attitudes that shapes and influence perception and behavior. The
socio - cultural life of the Kuturmi which among others, mode of
dressing, belief of system, marriage and festivals are dicussed bellow:
Occupation
The major occupation of their forefathers is making of mortal but
presently then occupation is mostly farming. Others includes fishing,
basket weaving. The farming is carried out in sessions starting with yam,
cocoyam, hungryrice, guinea corn and local maize. Today, because of
their large lands they produce food crops in commercial quantity for sale.
Marriage
21
Marriage in Kuturmi in the olden days was the responsibility of the
parents. The parents chose would be wife, for their sons right from the
day that female child was born. Gifts of foodstuffs were usually
presented at the end of every farming season until she attained marriage
age. In the contemporary kuturmi society, the females marry between
the ages of seventeen and twenty
(17-20) and their males between
twenty one and twenty five (21-25). Their dowry is usually a hen and a
pot of local wine called ‘Burukutu’
Dressing
The Kuturmi men dressed in animal skins and Agwando. The
animal skins were usually worn around the waist with another hung
covering only one part of the body. The Agwando dress is made from
cotton, worn by the male children and adolescence. The women dressed
in ture a piece of cloth of about 1.5 meter long and two inches wide, tied
around the waist and covering only the essential parts of the women
22
while young girls use leaves. Today men dress simply using flowing
gowns while women wear wrappers and blouses with head ties to church
or celebrations.
Religion
The people believes in God, spirits, ancestors, magic and
medicinal practices. The religion of the speakers before the coming of
Christianity just like any other Nigerian community was essentially
traditional but presently they belief in God because they believe that God
is the creator and controller of the universe. The name ‘God’ in the
language is known as ‘Onung’ meaning the ‘supreme being’ Onung is
represented by them as being too holy to be approached directly. Hence,
they have devised other means of approaching him. These means serve
as mediators and one of such means is through the ‘Okwu’ shrine known
as ‘Ujenekwu’ to consult the Supreme Being concerning their problems
and the chief priest Ete-kwu’ normally leads them in performing the
rituals required for them.
23
The spirit means ‘Ushari’ they are said to constitute a world of
their own and live as humans with organized form of life and authority.
Some are associated with protection while others with destruction. The
protective ones are harmless while destructive ones are called ‘red or
black’ depending on the degree of destruction. They cause illness and
death to people. The speakers and strangers are not allowed to visit
such places especially at noon.
The general name for ancestors is ‘Okwu’, both male and female
ancestors. They are believed to be interested in the affairs of the living
members of their families. Ancestors are worshipped on sessional basis
especially after the harvest and at the start of rainy seasons. Individual
families organize generational ceremonies known as ‘Umuroso’ for those
that died at very old age.
Agricultural Resources
The vegetation of the area falls under the guinea savannah type
with prominent feature of tall grasses called ‘elephant grasses’. Among
24
the natural resources of the people are timber, palm produce,
agricultural products such as ginger, maize, millet, yam, and cassava.
1.4 Geographical Location
Kuturmi land is located on latitude 9.5 degree north and 10
degrees south and on longitude 7.5 degrees east and 8.0 degree west.
The region lies to the western part of Kachia district headquarters. The
region is bounded by the river Gwarara to the east and south where
hippopotamus are found and to the north and west by Kadara tribe. In
the northern part of the region is a range of hills called ‘Apan-okung and
at the central location is another range of mountains called Kankan hills.
The kilometers between Kachia Local Government to Awon village where
the standard language of the speakers is spoken, is about 20 kilometers
(20kms).
1.5 Genetic Classification of Kuturmi Language
A genetic classification is a sub-group of all relevant languages
into genetic nodes, meaning group of languages in each of which one
25
language is more closely related to the other than to any language inside
the group. Therefore, genetic classification is based on the assumption
that languages have diverged from common ancestors and the method
used in classifying them is based on the resemblances found in elements
of languages.
According to Ruhlen (1987: 1) ‘the idea that groups of languages
that share certain systematic resemblance have inherited those
similarities from a common origin, is the basis for ‘genetic classification’.
Therefore, Kuturmi language can be classified under Kada sub-group of
Benue Congo.
26
NIGER KORDOFONIA
NIGER CONGO
KORDOFANIA
WEST ATLANTIC
KRU
KWA MANDE
PLATEAU
JUKUOID
PLATEAU 1
CROSS RIVER
PLATEAU 2
ELOYI
ZARIA GROUP
KORO SUB-GROUP
KUTURMI
BENUE CONGO
IDON
KADARA DOKA
KADARA
SUB GROUP
IKULU
KAJURU
Source: Ruhein (1987: 1).
27
1.6 Scope and Organization of Study
This research work describes the aspects of Kuturmi phonology. It
examines the sound system and patterns of Kuturmi language and the
phonological process that are found in the language.
Chapter one focuses on the historical background, geographical
location, socio-cultural profile, genetic classification as well as the
theoretical framework for the study. The research methodology used is
also included in this chapter. Chapter two presents the sounds, types of
syllable and syllable processes of Kuturmi language. It also deals with
the charts of both consonant and vowel sounds. Chapter three examines
the
phonological
processes
like
assimilation,
deletion,
insertion,
nasalization and vowel harmony that are attested in the language.
Chapter four presents the tone and tonological processes of the
language. It also gives detailed information on the types of tone attested
in Kuturmi language. Chapter five concludes and summarizes the work.
Further findings and recommendations are also included in this chapter.
28
1.7 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework adopted for this research work is
Generative Phonology (GP). This theoretical framework is a theory that
builds on the insights of taxonomic phonemics while remodeling the
focus of phonological analysis. Generative Phonology focuses on three
fundamental issues in language which are linguistic intuition, foreign
accent and speech error. The goal of this theoretical framework is to
express the link between sounds and utterance that are present in a
language. Generative phonology view speech as sequences of discrete
segments which are complex of a particular set of phonetic features and
the simultaneous and sequential combinations of these features are
subjects to a set of specific constraint found in this research work.
Hyman
(1975:19)
describes
generative
phonology
as
the
description of how phonological rules can be converted into phonological
representation and to capture the distinctive sounds in contrast in a
language. Therefore, in this research work, we shall consider how
29
phonological representation is converted into phonetic representation
through phonological rules.
According
to
(kenstowicz
1994:8),
phonetic
representation
indicates how the lexical items are to be realized in speech. Sommerstein
(1977:115) also says that it is characterized by ‘a degree of narrowness
such that any two sounds that are distinguished in any human language
are differently represented. For example, in Yoruba language, we have
words like;
[ìjàwó]
‘Wife’
[ajé]
‘world’
[‫כ‬m‫]כ‬
‘child’
The phonetic representations are [ ìjàwó] , [ ajé ], [‫כ‬m‫]כ‬
Structure of Generative of Phonology
According to Oyebade (2004:11), generative phonology assumes
three general components. The underlying representation, the phonetic
30
representation and the phonological rules. Generative phonology
proposes that utterances can be profitably analysed based on two levels
of representations which are underlying level called ‘UR’ and phonetic or
surface level.
Phonological Representation
Oyebade
(2004:11)
says
phonological
or
underlying
representation is assumed to be an abstract representation existing in
the linguistic competence of the native speakers. At this level, items with
variant meanings have identical representations. For instance, the forms
of negation prefix in English language having the same meaning are
accounted for:
e.g. (indirect)
in
(illegible)
(impossible)
il
__
___
/indərəkt/
/ iledзebl/
ir
___
/impƆsəbl/
(incomplete) iŋ
___
/iŋk‫כ‬mpli:t/
31
(imbalance)
im ___
/imbæləns/
Phonological Rules
Phonological rules are directives which join underlying forms on
the surface forms. As Hyman (1975) points out, they are derivational
sequence of items from an underlying level to a phonetic level. They are
regarded as predictable rules. For example, the data below in Yoruba
language shows how phonological rules assimilate nasal segment to the
place of articulation of the following segment.
1) ń-bò ḿbƆ ‘is coming’
ń -bà ḿbà ‘is perching’
2) ń -tò ńtò ‘is
ń -tà ńtá
3)
ń- kí
ήkí
ń- kà ήkà
arranging’
‘is selling’
‘is greeting’
‘is
reading’
32
Three rules are accounted for in this phenomenon.
Rule 1. An alveolar
nasal becomes a bilabial nasal before a voiced
bilabial stop at morpheme boundary.
ŋ→m -b [+nas] _ +cons
+cons
-cont
+ant
+ant
+ant
+cor
-cor
-cor
+nas
+nas
+voiced
Rule 2. An alveolar
nasal becomes an alveolar nasal before a
morpheme, beginning with a voiceless alveolar stop.
n→n − t [+nas]
+cons
+cons
+ant
+ant
+cor
+cor
+nas
+nas
33
+cont
+ant
+cor
-voiced
Rule 3. An alveolar
nasal changes to velar nasal velar it occurs at
morpheme boundary before a velar stop.
n→ŋ − k [+nas] ___
+cons
+cons
+cont
+ant
-ant
−ant
+cor
-cor
−cor
+nas
+nas
-voiced
Distinctive Features
Halle and Clements (2004:22) point out that the sets of
articulatory and acoustic features sufficient to define and distinguish one
from the other is the great majority of the speech sounds used in
languages of the world. This theory of phonological features is
concerned with the discovery and explanation of generalization about the
phonological behavior of phonological segments both in isolation, in
sequence or as member of a segment. There are two major criteria that
potential features must meet to be admitted as distinctive features.
These criteria are phonetic specifiability and morphophonemic relevance.
34
On the basis of these criteria, generative phonologists identified twenty
distinctive features as the only linguistically relevant features of the
human vocal production which can be loosely classified in terms of :
 Major class features (syllabic, consonantal, sonorant)
 Place of articulation features (anterior, coronal, labial).
 Tongue body features (high, low, back, ATR/ tense).
 Manner of articulation feature (continuant)
 Lip feature (rounded).
 Acoustic feature (strident).
 State of glottis feature (voiced, spread, constricted).
 Others (nasals, laterals, distributed).
For instance, in Yoruba language, the following feature can be
used to distinguished vowels with the use of binary features that is, to
determine if a sound is present or absent.
35
High
i
e
a
o
U
+
−
−
−
+
−
−
+
−
−
−
−
−
+
+
+
+
−
+
+
Low
Back
ATR
1.8.1 Data Collection
Samarin (1965:45) says that the kind of corpus a field researcher
obtains is determined by the purpose and the techniques he adopts in
his data. The two types of data collection methods suggested by
Samarian are the informant method and introspective method. The
informant method and frame technique was used in this research while
the native speaker served as a source of information as well as the
means of evaluation of all sounds and tones present in the language.
The introspective method involves the linguist serving as his/her
36
informant. It describes a situation whereby the linguist, or investigator is
working on his/her native or second language. The two informants that
kindly engaged in the development of this project are Mr Jonathan
Shekarau (42years old), an assistant headmaster in kuturmi and Mr
Sunday Dogo Danmadammi (32years old) headmaster.
1.8.2 Data Analysis
All the data obtained in the language were written, transcribed
and recorded using a sixty minute cassette and a tape recorder in the
evenings after their farming work. The classification of the data was
done through parts of speech namely: Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs,
Adjectives, Prepositions, Pronouns, and Conjunctions. All these reflect
parts of the body, household items kinship terms, colour terms,
numerals. We also analyzed information through frame techniques.
1.9.1 Phonemes
Phonemes are sounds that constitutes a difference in the
meaning of words in a language. Its an abstracts linguistic unit that
37
brings about a change in a given language. Phonemes can be identified
in three ways namely, minimal pars, complementary distribution and
analogous environment. For instance in minimal pairs of
English
language, phonemes are members of the smallest unit of sound that
serves to distinguish one utterance from another. e.g.
/bat/, /hat/,
/cat/, /rat/. The four words change in meaning at the initial position.
Therefore, the phonemes are /b/, /h/, /c/ and /r/.
1.9.2 Allophones
According to Ladefoged (1993:40), ‘the variants of the phoneme
that occur in detailed phonetic transcription are known as ‘allophones’.
They are generated as a result of applying the phonological rules to the
segments in the underlying forms of words. It can also be described as
conditional variants of phoneme generated by phonological conditioning.
They are usually represented in a squared brackets. For example in
English language allophones are derived from voiceless alveolar fricative
that is phoneme /s/. Observe the data below:
38
1. Lip - s
‘lips’
Kp - s ‘kps’
ræt - s ‘rats’
2. rib
-z
‘ribs’
r‫כ‬ɖ - z ‘rods’
ræg - z ‘rags’
3. æʃ
- iz
dʒ^dʒ -iz
ʧʒ:ʧ
-iz
‘ashes’
‘judges’
‘churches’
From the example above, the plural suffix in (1) remains voiceless
if
the preceding consonant is voiceless while in (2 and 3) the plural
suffix changes to voiced if the preceding consonant is voiced. The
allophones in the data are [z] and [iz]. derived from phoneme /s/.
[z]- before voiced sounds
/S/
[iz]- before voiced sound
[s]- elsewhere.
39
CHAPTER TWO
BASIC PHONOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
2.1
Introduction
This chapter gives an insight into phonology. It deals with the
sound inventory of Kuturmi, viz; the consonant and vowel sounds. Their
occurrence and distribution patterns are examined. The basic notion of
natural classes which speech sound fall into is illustrated. The syllable
structure of the language is also examined.
2.2 Phonology
Phonology deals with sound patterns and how speech sounds are
used to convey meaning. Hawkins (1984:7) sees phonology as ‘the study
of sound patterns in a language. It stands alongside syntax, morphology
and semantics, it is a level of linguistics that deals with how sounds are
used in a particular language to convey meaning.
40
According to Hyman (1975:1), phonology is ‘the study of sounds
system, that is, the study of speech sounds structure and function in a
language’. Since speech sounds are used to convey meaning, sound
system cannot be fully understood unless they are studied in a wider
context. The task of phonology matches the discovery of the sound
system of a given language, how sounds are combined to produce
meaningful string of words and what contrasts exist in their process. The
goal of phonology is therefore to study the properties of sound system
which speakers must learn or internalize in order to use their language
for the purpose of communication.
Sanusi (1996:30) defines phonology as ‘the study of the sound
system of language in terms of the function of individual sounds in the
words of a language. He opines that phonology could be linked to
phonetics.
Phonetics is the study of analysis and classification of
individuals sounds of a language. It emphasizes the pattern of sounds to
be found in any language. Phonetics and phonology are interrelated
while phonetics is concerned with the study of individual sounds and
41
their pronunciation, phonology focuses on the way in which these
sounds are put together, organized and used in a particular language to
convey meaning.
2.3
Kuturmi Sounds System
Sounds are otherwise called phonemes. Dinnean (1978:23) sees
phoneme as ‘a unit of contrast in a language’. It has only differential
function which implies that phoneme indicate a difference in meaning
without having a meaning on its own.
The major components of the analysis of sound system are
speech forms which is a concatenation of units of a segment, these
segments range over consonants and vowels. They form a unit of
analysis to show difference in some lexical items at some levels. The
sound system of Kuturmi like many African languages. Consist of
consonants, vowels, and tones.
42
2.3.1 Consonant Sounds in Kuturmi
‘Consonant are sounds produced by obstructing the air flow totally
or partially at some point in the vocal tract’ (Yusuf 1992:18). Consonant
sounds are grouped according to their manner and places of articulation.
The manner of articulators of consonants deals with how consonant
sounds are produced. The articulator may close off the oral tract for an
instant or a relatively long period, they may narrow the space
considerably or simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching
each other. The manner of articulation in the language are stops,
affricates, fricatives, nasals, laterals and approximants.
The place of articulation involves various tongue positions,
combined with various locations. It refers to either one or both sides of
the tongue is involved in an articulation. The place of articulation present
in Kuturmi are labials, dentals, alveolars, palatals, velars and glottal
sounds.
43
The State of the glottis involves the voiced and voiceless sounds.
The voiced sounds are produced when the vocal cords are closed
together such that the air has to force it way through them, making it
vibrate in the process while voiceless sounds are produced when there is
a wide opening of glottis, with a big space between the vocal cords.
2.3.2 Description and Distribution of Consonants in Kuturmi
Language
Consonants in Kuturmi
There are twenty- six consonant sounds in the language. We have
ten voiceless sounds and sixteen voiced consonant sounds. The
consonants are described according to place and manner of articulation.
Distribution of consonants has to do with the environment of occurrence.
The consonant sounds are therefore described and distributed thus:
Stops
[P] voiceless bilabial stop: it occurs only at word medial position.
[ѐpé]
‘saliva’
44
[ipa]
[uperi]
‘egg’
‘moon’
[b] voiced bilabial stop: it occurs at medial position as in:
[íbíbi]
‘bad’
[ub‫כ‬ru]
‘room’
[ìbáríkì]
‘town’
[ìbáníb‫כ‬rù]
‘wall’
[t] voiceless alveolar stop: it occurs at medial position as in:
[otá]
‘shoot’
[‫כ‬toma]
‘horn’
[òtúà]
‘name’
[ùtama]
‘chin’
[d] voiced alveolar stop: it occurs at medial position as in :
[ὶdídoma]
‘good’
[odírà]
‘remember’
[ada]
‘ matches’
[K] voiceless velar stop: it occurs initially as in:
[kronhe]
‘follow’
Medial position
[okúnà]
‘pour’
45
[okarah]
‘extinguish’
[òkúíkwi]
‘law’
[ukoro]
‘spear’
[g] voiced velar stop: it occurs at word medial position as in:
[ogáráh]
‘split’
[àgànì]
‘bud’
[ogró]
‘guinea corn’
[ege]
‘teeth’
[Kw ] voiceless labialized velar stop: it occurs at word medial
position
[ukw úvomùú]
‘well’
[ὶkwí]
‘rat’
[lkwí]
‘head’
[gw] voiced labialized velar stop: it occurs at word medial position.
[àgwàgwá]
‘duck’
[Ky] voiceless labio-velar stop: it occurs only at initial position as in:
[KyeKye]
‘sit down’
[kyaŋ]
‘go’
[kyìràh]
‘climb’
]kp̂] voiceless labio-velar stop: it occurs initially
]kp̂arah]
‘fake
46
]kp̂iram]
‘pay’
]kp̂ére]
‘kill’
medial position
[okp̂á]
‘fall’
[ukp̂oo]
‘die’
[ikp̂in]
‘heart’
[gb̂] voiced labio-velar stop: it occurs in initial position
[gb̂ina]
‘sell;
Medial position
[àgb̂ágbàn]
‘long’
[ugb̂óro]
‘bag’
[àjàbà gb̂ằgb̂ằ]
‘plantain’
Fricatives
[f] voiceless labio-dental fricative: this sound occurs at word medial
position as in:
[ὶfrò]
‘hat’
[ùfóró]
‘maize’
[afáà]
‘bush’
[ufùnó]
‘fly’
[v] voiced labio dental fricative: it occurs only at medal position
[avu]
‘hand’
47
[ovu]
‘arm’
[ovεvεh]
‘break’
[ovúràh]
‘build’
[s] voiceless alveolar fricative: it occurs at word medial position
[ùsóró]
‘thirts’
[isinari]
‘fifty’
[ésésà
‘new’
[osà]
‘drink’
[z] voiced alveolar fricative: it occurs at word medial position:
[izé]
‘market’
[azèríja]
‘spin’
[azèríha]
‘thread’
[h] voiceless glottal fricative: it occurs at medial position
[ufuha]
‘arrive’
[okéhì]
‘hat’
[Kronhe]
‘follow’
Final position
[omarah]
‘swell’
[uw‫כ‬h]
‘pull’
[ukáwàh]
‘divide’
48
[opah]
‘pound’
Affricates
[ʧ] voiceless palato- alveolar affricate: it occurs initially as in:
[takuṹ]
‘taste’
Medial position
[ὶsétètàri]
[ὶsétùpàri]
[etsὶtàri]
‘ninety’
‘eighty’
‘nine’
[dз] voiced palato- alveolar affricate: it occurs initially
[dзuro]
‘return’
Medial position
[udзuro]
‘ask’
[ùdзídзí]
‘hard’
[ὶdзídзi]
‘small’
[s] voiceless palato- alveolar affricate: it occurs initially :
[sìnὲ]
[sùrò]
‘stand’-up
‘descend’
Medial position
[oóo]
‘guinea fowl’
[uoo]
‘strong’
49
[uàã]
‘toad’
Nasals
[m] voiced bilabial nasal: it occurs initially as in
[màh]
‘give’
Medial position
[umoro]
‘sleep’
[ókùmà]
‘hundred’
[umorú]
‘heavy’
[ukénimòrá]
‘cooking’
Word final position
[oprἐm]
‘jaw’
[ὶyúm]
‘hunger’
[ὶrùm]
‘fear’
[ὶkám]
‘elephant’
[n] voiced alveolar nasal: it occurs at word medial position
[ùnú‫]כ‬
‘salt’
[ὶnamá]
‘meat’
[osina]
‘laugh’
[ὶuὲ]
‘stand-up
50
Final position
[ofên]
‘throw’
[ujén]
‘show’
[òmún]
‘water’
[úg‫כ‬r‫כ‬mún]
‘boat’
[ŋ] voiced velar nasal: it occurs only at word final position
[onuŋ]
[ìsít‫כ‬ŋ]
‘chicken’
‘fifty’
[ìsítèŋ]
‘sixty’
[ukéŋ]
‘walk’
Approximants
[w] voiced labio- velar approximant: it occurs at initial position
[wùrò]
[w‫כ‬rùjé]
‘choose’
‘take-off’
Medial position
[ùw‫כ‬r‫]כ‬
‘pass’
[usirὶwé]
‘untie’
[anúwa]
‘wash’
51
[j]voiced palatal approximant: it occurs only at word- medial
position.
[ujénè]
‘delecate’
[urijari]
‘lie down’
[azerija]
‘spin’
[uji]
‘gather’
Lateral
[l] voiced alveolar lateral: it occurs only at word medial position.
[ulóbũ]
‘vulture’
[ulòrù-ὶwé]
‘tie rope’
[ukli-owùron
‘dwell’
Central
[r] voiced alveolar central: it occurs at word initial position
[rah]
[rere]
‘enter’
‘buy’
Medial position
[ὶrùm]
‘hunger’
[ὲrέrimε]
‘male’
[ὶsarà]
‘he-goat’
[eperi]
‘rainy-season’
52
Fricatives
k
n
s
l
Central
r
Glottal
gw
h
dз
Glide
j
Consonants Chart of Kuturmi Language
53
Kw

t
Lateral
ky
ŋ
z
Affricates
g
Labialize
d velar
d
Palataliz
ed velar
t
Palatals
kp gb
v
Velar
m
f
Palato
alveolar
Nasals
b
Alveolar
P
Labio
velar
Bilabial
Stops
Labio
dental
Manners of
articulation
2.3.2 Place of articulation
w
2.3.3 Fully Specified Matrix.
p
b
t
d
k
g
k
g
k
g
k
p̂
b̂
w
w
y
m
n
ŋ
f
v
s
z

t
d
h
l
r
j
w
з
Cons
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Son
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
Ant
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Cor
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Nasals
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Cont
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
-
-
Centra
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
Labial
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
-
+
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
High
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
Round
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
Voiced
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
Strid
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
Syll
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
l
54
2.3.5 Justification of Consonant Features Used
The features illustrated below are used in classifying consonant sounds. The
consonant features are defined according to Oyebade (1998:26-30) thus:
Consonantal (±cons): These are sounds production with a sustained vocal
tract constriction least equal to that required in the production fricative. Nasal liquids
and obstruents are (+cons) while vowel and glides are (-cons).
Sonorant (± son): These are sounds produced with a vocal tract configuration
sufficiently open that the air pressure inside and outside the mouth is approximately
equal. vowels. glides, liquids and nasnal are (+son).
Coronal (±cor) : These are sounds produced by raising the tongue blade
towards the teeth in the hard palate, dentals, alveolar, palato alveolar and palatals are
(+cor) while labials, velars, uvular are (-cor).
Anterior (±ant): These are sounds produced with a primary constriction at or
infront of the alveolar ridge. Labials, dentals and alveolars are (+ant) while palato
alveolar, palatals, velars and uvulars are (-ant).
Labial (±lab): These are sounds produced with a constriction at the lips. Labial
consonants and rounded vowels are (+labial while all other sounds are - labial).
Continuant (±cont): Continuant sounds are formed with a vocal tract
configuration allowing the airstream to flow through the mid region of the oral tract.
Vowels, glides ‘r’ sounds and fricatives are (+cont) while nasal stops, oral stops and
laterals are (- cont).
Strident (±strid): These are sounds produced with a complex constriction
forcing the airstream to strike two surfaces, producing high intensity fricative noise.
Sibilants, labio-dentals and uvulars are (+ strid) while all other sounds are (- strid). The
feature (+ strid) is found only in fricatives and affricates.
Nasals (± nas): They are produced by lowering the velum and allowing it to
pass on toward the nasal cavity. Nasal sounds are (+ nas) while oral sounds are (nas).
Voiced (± voice): They are produced with a laryngeal configuration permitting
periodic vibration of the vocal cords. Voiced consonants are (+ voice) while voiceless
consonants are (- voice).
2.3.6 Consonant Segment Redundancies
If:
[-son] This claim states that non soronants are always non nasals
Then: [-nas]
lvi
If :
[-cont] This claim implies that +continuant sound is always is -nasal
Then:
If:
[-nas]
[+nas] This claim implies that if a sound is +nasal then it must be voiced
Then: [+rd]
If: [+cont] This claim states that a + continuant sound is always+strident.
Then: [+strid]
If :
[+lab]
This claim states that a + labia sound is also- coronal.
Then: [-cor].
2.4 Vowel Sound Segments in Kuturmi
According to Ladeforged (1975), in the production of vowel sounds, the
articulators do not come very close together and the passage of the airstream is
relatively unobstructed, vowel sounds are the least constricted of all sounds, they are
never produced by cutting off the flow of air or by touching the tongue blade to the
teeth or alveolar ridge.
Vowels may be described in terms three factors which are: the height of the body
of tongue, the front or back position of the
tongue and the degree of lip rounding.
lvii
The vowel system of Kuturmi can be grouped as oral vowels and nasalized vowels.
The oral vowels are seven in numbers while the nasalized vowels are five in numbers,
the nasalized vowels are represented with a tilde (~) on them to indicate nasality.
lviii
Oral Vowel Charts of Kuturmi
Front
High
Central
Back
i
Mid-high
u
e
Mid-low
o
‫כ‬
ε
Low
a
Nasalised Vowel Charts
Front
High
Central
Back
ĩ
Mid-high
Ũ

‫כ‬
Mid-low
low
ã
2.4.1 Description and Occurrence of Kuturmi Vowels.
The vowel sounds of Kuturmi are described according to the height of the
lix
body of the tongue indicating if a vowel is high, mid-high, mid-low or low. The front or
back position of the tongue is also measured for describing vowels, showing if a vowel
is a front vowel or central or back vowels.
Finally, a vowel is described according to the degree of lip rounding indicating if
a vowel is rounded or unrounded. The vowel sounds of Kuturmi will be described in
accordance with the above parameters and their occurrence will be shown as regards
their environment of occurrence thus:
Description of Oral Vowels
[i] front high unrounded vowel: It occurs in words initial position
[ìrε]
‘nose’
[ìkrà]
‘eye’
[ìkpàrí]
‘two’
Medial position
[ìbíbi]
‘bad’
[ugópìam]
‘compound’
[akpirim]
‘mouse’
lx
Final position.
[ ìí ]
‘firewood’
[ìteri]
‘snow’
[ìnarí]
‘four’
[u] back high rounded vowel: It occurs in word initial position .
[umorú]
[utεrε]
[ùtama]
‘heavy’
‘full’
‘chin’
Medial position
[ókùmà]
‘hundred’
[odùmú]
‘fall’
[ogumo]
‘king’
Final position
[ìbàníbr‫כ‬ù]
‘wall’
lxi
[orokru]
‘man’
[ùbámú]
‘palmwine’
[e] front mid-high unrounded vowel: It occurs in word initial position as in:
[èvó]
‘mosquito’
[ewũ]
‘dry season’
[ezèríha]
‘thread’
Medial position
[ìkèrì]
[okéhì]
[ὲkperi]
‘snail’
‘hot’
‘old person’
Final position
[ure]
‘dawn’
[igèé]
‘sand’
[eperé]
‘rainy season’
lxii
[ε] front mid-low unrounded vowel: It occurs in word initial position
[εkperi]
‘old person’
[εkpεrìm]
‘father’
[εjen̂]
‘oil’
Medial position
[ltέri]
‘feather’
[utεrε]
‘full’
[upεrε]
‘finish’
Final position
[izε]
‘market’
[ùfέ]
‘money’
[otε]
‘song’
[a] low central unrounded vowel: This sound occurs initially
lxiii
[avu]
‘hand’
[avra]
‘rain’
[àjàbà]
‘banana’
Medial position
[ìpàrí]
‘two’
[atata]
‘ground’
[àtábà]
‘tobacco’
Final position
[ìkrà]
‘eye’
[urá]
‘war’
[utama]
‘dun’
[‫ ]כ‬back mid-low rounded vowel: It occurs in word initial position as in:
[‫כ‬rokon]
‘senior’
lxiv
[‫כ‬toma]
‘horn’
[‫כ‬k‫כ‬r‫]כ‬
‘cock’
Medial position
[et‫כ‬ṹ]
‘mud’
[lg‫כ‬rṹ]
‘back’
[ub‫כ‬ru]
‘room’
Final position
[ur‫כ‬g‫]כ‬
‘cassava’
[ík‫כ‬r‫]כ‬
‘basket’
[it‫כ‬m‫]כ‬
‘iron’
[o] back mid high rounded vowel: It occurs at word initial position
[orá]
[okàrá]
[ojàá]
‘fire’
‘thorn’
‘leaf’
lxv
Medial position
[ukóro]
‘spear’
[isoũ]
‘calabash’
[ugbóro]
‘bag’
Final position
[ìfrò]
‘hat’
[uso]
‘mortar’
[ìtúò]
‘hoe’
Description of Nasalized Vowels
[ĩ] nasalized high front unrounded vowel: It occurs only at word final position
[ikpĩ]
‘heart’
[enĩ]
‘soup’
[ìteĩ]̀
‘six’
lxvi
[ũ]nasalized high back rounded vowel: It occurs only at word final position
[òbóṹ]
‘gass’
[orṹ]
‘waterpot’
[takuũ]
‘taste’
[‫ ]כ‬nasalized mid-low back rounded vowel: It occurs only at word final position.
[umr‫]כ‬
‘neck’
[ùtárúk‫]כ‬
‘grinding stone’
[ùt‫]כ‬
‘ashes’
[̃] nasalized mid-low front unrounded vowel: It occurs only at word final
position
[uk̃ ]
[ikp̃]
[op̃]
‘smoke’
‘rope’
‘blow’
[ã] Nasalized low central unrounded vowel: It occurs only at word final position.
[trã]
‘refuse’
[ejã]
‘breast’
lxvii
[uàã]
‘toad’
2.4.2
Fully Specified Vowel Feature Matrix
a
e

i
o
‫כ‬
u
ã
̃
ĩ
‫כ‬
Ũ
Syll
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
High
-
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
+
Back
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
+
+
Low
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
-
Rounded -
-
-
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
+
+
ATR
-
+
-
+
+
-
+
-
-
+
-
+
Nasal
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
2.4.3 Justification of the Vowel Features Used
The features illustrated below are used to justify the features of vowel sounds.
Syllabic (±syll): These sounds are those that constitute syllable peak, non syllabic
sounds are those that do not constitute syllable peak. All vowel sounds are (+syll).
High (±high): These sounds are those that are produced by raising the body of
the tongue towards the palate. High vowel are (+high) while other vowels are (- high).
lxviii
Back (±bk): These sounds are produced with the tongue body relatively
retracted, while non back sounds are produced with the tongue not retracted. All back
vowels are (+bk) while non back are (-back)
Low (±low): These are sounds produced by drawing the body of the tongue
down away from the root of the mouth. Non low sounds are produced without such a
gesture.
Rounded (±rd) : These sounds are produced with lips protusion and are (+rd)
while unrounded sounds are (-rd) and they are not produced with such protrusion.
Advanced tongue root (±ATR): They are features implemented by drawing
the root of the tongue forward, enlarging the pharyngeal and raising the tongue
forward as well.
Nasal (±nas) : They are produced by lowering the velum and allowing the air
to pass outward through the nasal cavity. This feature distinguishes nasal vowels from
oral vowels.
2.4.4 Vowel Segment Redundancies
The features shown below illustrate the segment redundancies of vowels in Kuturmi
Language.
lxix
If :
[+high] This claim implies that if a vowel sound is +high, then it must be low.
Then: [-low]
If :
[+low]
This claim implies that if a vowel is +low, automatically it is –high
Then: [-high]
If :
[-bk]
This implies that if a vowel is back, it must be –round.
Then: [-rd]
If :
[+rd]
This claim is symmetrical to (3)
Then: [+bk]
If :
[+ATR] This claim implies that a vowel with +ATR feature is –low
Then: [-low].
2.5 Syllable Structure
Consonant and vowel sounds are merged to form words. Their structure is
captured in what is called ‘syllable’. Syllable structure is another area of interest in
Kuturmi. Skinner (1997:23), defines syllable “as the smallest sound segment that is
easy to pronounce” It can also be seen as a pulse or beat timed to about one sixth of a
second, and this more or less regular
pulsation is timed to another rhythmic
lxx
activities of the body.
Two basic categories of syllables are identified viz; closed
syllable and open syllable. A closed syllable is ‘checked’ or arrested in a consonant while
an open syllable ends in a vowel. The two types are attested in the language under
study.
A syllable consists of the onset and the core, the core is divided into two
segment, the peak and coda.
SYLLABLE
ONSET
CORE
PEAK
CODA
Onset is the beginning of a syllable. The peak is vowel of the syllable and it is usually
described as the nucleus of the syllable. The coda is the closing segment of a syllable.
It is the consonant that comes after the peak. Coda is applicable to a closed syllable.
Open Syllables
[ofó]
‘belly’
[ege]
‘teeth’
lxxi
[ìr]
‘nose’
[epe]
‘saliva’
[ùnú‫]כ‬
‘salt’
Closed Syllables
[ugópìam]
‘compound’
[ùmùsom‫כ‬h]
‘cloth’
[ufrim]
‘bat’
[àrádзìm]
‘brother’
[okpáh]
‘fall’
2.6 Syllable Processes
With respect to the syllable structure of the language, we will also consider the
syllable processes of the language such as monosyllabic, disyllabic, trisyllabic,
polysyllabic and quadrisylabic words.
Monosyllabic Words.
These are words which consists of only one syllable peak as in:
lxxii
[mah]
‘give’
cvc
[rah]
‘enter’
cvc
[bah]
‘come’
cvc
Disyllabic Words.
This are words which consists of two syllable peaks as in:
[rere]
‘buy’
cvcv
[wùrò]
‘choose’
cvcv
[gbina]
‘sell’
cvcv
[‫כ‬ùrò]
‘descend’
cvcv
[omá]
‘thing’
lxxiii
vcv
[otá]
‘shoot’
vcv
[uso]
‘mortar’
vcv
Notably, disyllabic words in kuturmi comes in form of vcv, cvcv.
Trisyllabic Words
Trisyllabic words are words which constitute three syllable peaks as in:
[àtáká]
vcvcv
‘shoe’
[ùwàá]
vcvv
‘bark’
[opía]
vcvv
‘touch’
[usue]
vcvv
‘take’
[okáràh]
vcvcvc
‘throw’
[àkúrám]
‘in-low’
vcvcvc
Thus, trisyllabic words in kuturmi comes in form of vcvcv, vcvv, vcvcvc.The
lxxiv
common form is vcvcv.
Polysyllabic Words
These are words which have four syllabic peaks such as:
[ùtárúk‫]כ‬
vcvcvcv
‘grinding stone’
[anúmúra]
vcvcvcv
‘needle’
[ugópìam]
vcvcvvc
‘compound’
[ìdàfáà]
vcvcvv
‘village’
[egeígre]
vcvvccv
‘female’
It could be noted that polysyllabic words are presented in vcvcvcv, vcvcvc, vcvcvv
and vcvvcc syllable structures.
Quadrisyllabic Words
]ìbáníb‫כ‬rù]
vcvcvcvcv
‘wall’
[ukénimòrá]
vcvcvcvcv
‘cooking’
[ìsétùpàri]
vcvcvcvcv
‘eight’
lxxv
[ìsétùpéri]
‘ninety’
vcvcvcvcv
Quadrisyllabic words in Kuturmi language constitute five syllable peaks as
presented above.
2.7
Conclusion
The analysis of the sound system of Kuturmi language has been able to give an
insight into the use of sounds to convey meaning. Also, the analysis help us to know
the sound system, the syllable structure and most of all the possible sequence allowed
in the language. This helps us to realized that Kuturmi language like other languages
makes use of some sounds in the production of words and that the sounds are the main
tool of effective communication.
CHAPTER THREE
PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES
lxxvi
3.1
Introduction
Phonological processes is the focus of this chapter. Although other aspects of
phonology such as tone, syllable structure and sound segments are prone to change
over time, the change involving sound segments is the major aim of this chapter.
Phonological processes be language universal or language specific. In order words, the
changes which are observed in sounds both within words and across words form the
focus of analysis in this section.
3.2 Phonological Processes
Phonological processes are defined as ‘the various changes that take place when
morphemes are combined together to form words. (schane 1995:17).
Oyebade (1998:56) says “phonological processes are sound modifications
motivated by the need to maintain euphony in a language to rectify violation of well
formedness constraints in the production of an utterance”. The attested phonological
processes in kuturmi are: assimilation, deletion, insertion, nasalization and vowel
harmony.
3.2.1 Assimilation
“Assimilation is a process whereby contiguous segments influence each other by
becoming more alike”.
lxxvii
Oyebade (1998:5) desribes assimilation as when two contiguous sounds which
have different modes of production become identical in some or all of the features of
their production. When a segment changes to become more like the segment preceding
it, we have progressive or preservative assimilation while when a segment changes and
become more like the sound that follows it, we have regressive or anticipatory
assimilation. Kuturmi attests both progressive and regressive assimilation, which occur
between vowels otherwise known as vowel- vowel assimilation.
Progressive Assimilation
/arό
+ una/

[aróona]
we
house
‘husband’
/avo
hand
+ urá/
right
/turo
stab
+ aváh/
dog
/uloru
tight
+ ìwé/
thread
[avoòrá]
‘right hand’

[túróovah]
‘stab a dog’

[ul‫כ‬ruùwé]
‘tightening thread’

Regressive Assimilation
/èkwékwi
+ ushí/
‘short’
‘stick’

[èkwékwuushí]
‘short stick’
/asá +
uba/
‘drink’
‘pap’

[asúuba]
‘drinking pap’
/ọnọ

[‫כ‬núurό]
+ uró/
lxxviii
‘son’
‘concubine’
‘bastard’
3.2.2 Deletion
Deletion involves the loss of a segment under some language specifically
imposed conditions. The types of deletion that is present in Kuturmi is a vowel deletion
called ‘elision’ which is a general phonological phenomenon of mid-high back rounded
vowel [o] as the following examples justify:
Vowel Deletion (Elision).
/akú
‘they’
/akri
‘sit’
/osumo
‘ripe
/upo
‘death’
+ ora/
‘eating’
+ owúron/
‘rest’
+ oshìrà/
‘rice’
+
onúng/
‘chicken’


[akúra]
‘they are eating’
[akriwúron] ‘sit and rest’

[osumoshìrà] ‘riped rice’

[uponúng]
‘dead foul’
From the data cited above, it can be deduced that the vowel elision is
systematic owing to the fact that it is peculiar to a certain class of vowel. Thus, a
phonological rule which can account for the above phonological process can be
postulated thus: A mid-high back rounded vowel becomes deleted when it is preceded
by a vowel at morpheme boundary.
lxxix
-high
-low
+ syll
+back
Ø
+ __________
-cons
+round
+ATR
3.2.3 Insertion
It is a phonological process whereby an extraneous element not present
originally is introduced into the utterance usually to break up unwanted sequences. In
Kuturmi Language. Vowel insertion is used when a word is borrowed from another
language. Examples of borrowed words from Yoruba Language
insertion process operates in Kuturmi are cited below:
/ i + ltọ́lá/

[it‫כ‬la]
‘name of a person’
lxxx
upon which the
/ i +ikunle/
/i + wale/

[ikunle] ‘name of a person’

[iwale]
‘name of a person’
Also we have the same situation with borrowed words from Hausa Language which
are given as follows:
/ i + búrédì/
/ i + rédíyò/
 [ ibúrέdì]
‘bread’
 [irédíyò]
‘radio’
/ i + máńgòrò/
 [imáńgòrò]
‘mango’
/ i + górò/
 [ ig‫כ‬r‫]כ‬
‘kola nut’
From the examples above, a front high vowel is inserted at the initial position of a
word which begins with a consonant.
+ syll
Ø
 - back
+ high
#
__ +cons
-syll
lxxxi
3.2.4
Nasalization
It is a process whereby vowels become nasalized. To indicate nasalization
diacritic [~] is usually placed on such segment. These vowels are called nasal vowels. It
is important to note that the assimilatory process of nasalization in Kuturmi Language
can be accounted for using two different phonological rules: nasalization rule and
deletion rule. This situation further explains that the nasalization process of Kuturmi
nasal vowels consequentially leads to the deletion process. This phenomenon can be
illustrated using the following examples:
/enín/

[enĩ]́
‘soup’
/omún/

[omṹ]
‘water’
/uwọ́n/

[uw‫]כ‬
‘skin’
/ewún/

[ewṹ]
‘dry season’
/lkp̂in/

[lkp̂ĩ]
‘heat’
From the above data, we have two rules to account for the nasalization process.
Rule one: a vowel becomes nasalized when it occurs before an alveolar consonant.
e.g
/enín/
́
 [enĩn]
lxxxii
/uwọ́n/
 [uw‫כ‬n]
+cons
+ syll
 [+nas]
__
+ant
- cos
+nas
Rule two: delete a word- final alveolar nasal consonant after a vowel
e.g
́
/enĩn/

[enĩ]́
/uw‫כ‬n/

[ uw‫]כ‬
+cons
+cor
+ant
Ø
+ syll
____ #
- cons
+nas
3.2.5 Vowel Harmony
According to Hyman (1995:233), vowel harmony means that all vowels within a
lxxxiii
specified unit agree in some phonetic features. The oral vowel sounds of Kuturmi are
grouped into sets based on their co-occurrence in words in the language such that the
vowels group themselves into two distinct harmonic sets as follows:
set
1
i
2
i
u
u
e
o
ε
a
‫כ‬
a
The harmonic co- occurrence of the Vowels in
Set 1:
oshé
oyàá
otíná
isoun
umoro
ìjéré
ogró
set
‘tree’
‘leaf’
‘sleep’
‘calabash’
‘darkness’
‘beans’
‘guinea corn’
The harmonic co-occurrence vowels in
Set 2:
ùfέ
‘money’
uw‫כ‬n
‘skin’
ur‫כ‬g‫כ‬
‘cassava’
ikama
‘knife’
ík‫כ‬r‫כ‬
‘basket’
ìt‫כ‬m‫כ‬
‘iron’
ìbáníb‫כ‬rù
‘well’
lxxxiv
In Kuturmi language, [i] [u] and [a] constitutes a neutral set i.e, they can cooccur with any vowel from the two sets which are [e,o,] from set 1and [ε ‫ ]כ‬from set 2.
[e] cannot co-occur with [ε] neither can [o] co-occur with [‫ ]כ‬but [i,u,a] can co-occur
in the language. This intuitively informs us that Kuturmi language is a prototypical
example of a language which operates partial vowel harmony.
3.3 Conclusion
We have seen that Kuturmi language like most African languages observe some
phonological processes which help to bring about more insight into the sound system of
the language. The phonological processes attested in the language show that Kuturmi
language obeys some rules in the realization of words, that is sounds that can co-occur
and the ones that cannot be grouped.
lxxxv
CHAPTER FOUR
TONE SYSTEM OF KUTURMI
4.1
Introduction
One of the general characteristics of West African Languages is the use of tone.
Kuturmi language is not an exception because it shares in this general feature called
‘Tone’. Every Language uses pitch, which is central to all prosodic features. The major
focus of this chapter is the tone of Kuturmi. The tone system and tone behavior in
Kuturmi are examined in this chapter.
4.2 Tone System of Kuturmi
A tone Language is “a language in which pitch phonemes and segmental
phonemes enter into the composition of some morphemes”. (Welmers 1973:1). The
function of tone in any Language that utilizes it is very crucial especially among words
with similar graphemes, (i.e same spelling). Tone aids pronunciation thereby enhancing
communication which is the major function of a human Language.
lxxxvi
The features of spoken Language which are not easily identified as discrete
segments are variously referred to as Prosodic Features, Non-segmental Features or
Supra- segmentals. The term imply a difference between segmental sounds which are
commonly thought of as entities, and features such as pitch. rhythm, and tempo which
are likely to be perceived as features extending over longer structures of speech. Most
African Languages that are tone bearing unit (TBU) are superimposed on a basic
message of consonants and vowels which serves as an integral part of speech
production and often a fully meaningful contribution to the message itself.
4.2.1 Types of Tone
The types of tone attested in Kuturmi Language are Register Tone and Contour
Tone.
Register Tone Language
This type of tone language has a uniform pitch level. Kuturmi Language operates
this type of tone. However, in some exceptional cases such as the occurrence of
Contour voice, we have contour tones. Register tones can further be divided into two
types namely; discreet tones and terraced tones.
Discreet Level Tone
lxxxvii
Languages which have discreet level tone have the gaps between tones being
consistent. Three tones are given, the high tone [/], the mid tone [-] (usually not
marked) and the low tone [\]. In any utterance here is always a consistent gap
between each of the tones, making a clear distinction of each tone.
Terraced Level Tone
In terraced level tone, there is a pitch distance between the tones which
decreases gradually as we speak from one tone to another. Kuturmi Language attests
only the discreet level tone. The tone levels attested in Kuturmi are:
High Tone [/]
Mid Tone [-] usually unmarked
Low Tone [\]
4.2.2 Tone Distribution in Kuturmi
These are possible forms which each tone could come or co-occur in Kuturmi
language.
The Distribution of High Tone [/]
After the high tone, there are three possibilities which are: High- High, High-Mid and
lxxxviii
High-Low.
High – High (H – H)
[téré]
‘look for’
[óprέ]
‘thigh’
[úkwó]
‘bone’
High – Mid (H - M)
[dзúro]
‘return’
[ékro]
‘strong’
[óma]
‘thing’
High – Low (H – L)
[ínṹ]
‘bird’
[ávù]
‘hand’
Distribution of Mid Tone
After a mid tone, there are three possibilities which are: Mid-high,
and Mid-low.
lxxxix
Mid-mid
Mid – High (M – H)
[ogró]
‘guinea corn’
[urá]
‘eat’
[osá]
‘drink’
[oé]
‘tree’
[ofó]
‘belly’
Mid – Mid (M – M)
[urum]
‘knee’
[oro]
‘arm’
[ora]
‘fire’
[ota]
‘bow’
Mid – Low (M – L)
[avrà]
‘rainy season’
[ugrò]
‘river’
xc
Distribution of Low Tone [\]
L–H
L–M
L–L
Low – High (L – H)
[ìpáh]
‘penis’
[àdá]
‘matchet’
[ùfέ]
‘money’
[ìí]
‘fire wood’
Low – Mid (L – M)
[ìr]
‘noise’
[èjã]
‘breast’
xci
Low – Low (L – L)
[ìrùm]
‘fear’
[àkrà]
‘fat’
[ìfrò]
‘hat’
[ìkrà]
‘eye’
[wùrò]
‘choose’
Contour Tone Language
Contour tone languages are languages which do not have pitch level that is
uniform. Two tones are usually produced simultaneously, there are possibilities of high
and low tone or the low and high tone. Examples of contour tones are:
[] - a combination of low and high tones thereby producing a rising tone.
[V] – a combination of low and high tones thereby producing a falling tone. Kuturmi
language attests this type of tone. Copious data are given below:
xcii
/ẹyen – jeri/ 
[ὲjên-dзérí]
‘oil palm’
/ofen/

[ofên]
‘throw’
/ẹrimẹn/

[rim̂n]
‘husband’
In the above data, Kuturmi attests only the falling tones, usually represented on
the mid-high front and mid low front vowel.
4.2.3
Functions of Tone
In African Languages, tone performs both lexical and grammatical functions. The
lexical functions of tone distinguishes the meaning of words while grammatical function
of tone helps to distinguish one grammatical form from one another through this
function of tone, grammatically constructions are differentiated. Kuturmi attests the
lexical function of tone.
Lexical Function of Tone in Kuturmi
Lexical function of tone in Kuturmi as shown in morphemes or words have the
same sound but different tones thereby indicating different meanings. Illustrations are
xciii
given below:
[ògúmó]
‘king’
[ogumo]
‘chief’
[ìkwí]
‘rat’
[ikwí]
‘head’
[utere]
‘reply’
[utére]
‘turn around’
[ufuno]
‘jump’
[ufúnó]
‘fly’
[òkaràh]
‘extinguish’
[okáràh]
‘fry’
4.2.4 Tonological Processes
Tonological processes are the methods which aid the connection of underlying
phonological representation of tones to their surface phonetic representation. The
tonological processes are the different modifications that tones had undergone before
xciv
reaching its actual phonetic manifestations. This underlying process or build in
mechanism responsible in tone languages is referred to as tone processes (Hyman
1975:22). It also deals with the influence of tone on each other or the modification of
tone brought about by their interaction and relationship with segment (Schane
1973:215). These tonological processes includes: Tone stability, Tone spreading, Tone
floating, Tone elision e.t.c. The tonological processes that is found in the language as a
result of ample data are; tone stability and tone elision.
Tone Stability
Tone stability refers to a situation whereby a vowel desyllabifies or is deleted by
some phonological rule, the tone it bears does not disappear, rather it shifts its location
and shows up on some vowel (Goldsmith 1976:30). Examples are shown below.
/ijiji + àkámá/
/little
house
/urá + ìnamá /
eat
‘little wine’
wine/
/èsésà + una/
new
 [ijijakámá]
meat

[èsésùna]
‘new house’
 [urínamá]
‘eat meat’
xcv
/ìpàrí + ìwé/
two
‘two eggs’
eggs
/ukọ́rọ́+ otẹ/
old
 [ìpàríwe]
song

[ukórót]
‘old song’
In the data above, it is observed that the mid, low and high tone retains their
position while the vowels are deleted.
Tone Spreading
This is a situation whereby the tone of a particular syllable is attached or
extended to another syllable, when it occurs, there is the tendency of the tone syllable
into the next syllable. It occurs during reduplication in most languages i.e. the tone of
the root morpheme spreads such that the stem morpheme carries the tone. The
function of tone spreading is not found in Kuturmi language.
Floating Tone
Another type of tone process is tone floating which at same point during
derivation, segment is specified for tone but merges with vowel
xcvi
thus , passing its
specification of tones to the next vowel.(Oyebade 2008:151). There is no evidence of
tone floating in Kuturmi language.
Tone Elision
Tone elision is a tonological process that deals with the deletion of tones. In
most cases where tones are deleted, vowel deletion also occurs. Three examples are
given in Kuturmi language.
[urá]
‘eat’
[ìjou]
‘snake’
/urá + ìjou/
 [urájòú]
‘eat snake’
[rere]
‘buy’
[ègórò]
‘kolanut’
/rere + ègórò/
 [reregòr‫]כ‬
‘buy kolanut’
[òmṹ]
‘water’
[oyàá]
‘leaf’
/òmṹ + oyàá/
 [omóyàá]
‘water leaf’
xcvii
In the examples above, it is noted that Kuturmi speakers usually delete vowel (I,
e, and u) in order to aid easy pronunciation when communicating with each other.
Thereby deleting the tones on the vowel sounds.
4.3
Conclusion
The analysis of the tone system of Kuturmi language has given us an insight into
the structure of the language with respect to tones. As mentioned earlier, one of the
general characteristics of West African Languages
is that they are tone languages.
Kuturmi as one of the African Languages is not an exclusion i.e. it also shares in these
characteristics.
xcviii
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1
Introduction
This chapter gives the summary, recommendation and conclusion of the research
which has been carried out on the phonology of Kuturmi Language.
5.2
Summary
This research work was carried out in order to examine the aspects of Kuturmi
phonology. Kuturmi is spoken by the Awon tribe in Kaduna state. The Ibadan four
hundred wordlist was used as a basis for phonological analysis.
The research work was divided into chapters to enhance organized and
systematic analysis. Chapter one served as the introduction. It introduced the speakers
of Kuturmi, by discussing their historical background, sociolinguistic background,
geographical location, genetic classification and the method of data collection.
Chapter two examined the phonological concept in Kuturmi Language. The
consonant sound system was analyzed according to their environment of occurrence.
Kuturmi
Language
has
twenty
six
consonants and twelve vowels.
xcix
The
analysis of the vowel sound system revealed that Kuturmi has seven oral and five nasal
vowels. The justification of the features used in describing both the consonants and
vowel sounds was written. Lastly, we discussed syllable structure of Kuturmi and a
conclusion was drawn.
The third chapter of this research work examined the phonological process
evident in Kuturmi using copious data for illustration. The phonological processes
discussed were; Assimilation, Deletion, Insertion, Nasalization and Vowel Harmony.
Chapter four dealt predominantly with the tone system of Kuturmi language.
Kuturmi attests three level tones mainly; the high tone, mid tone, and low tone. The
lexical function of tone and phonological processes were discussed. The concluding
chapter, chapter five, summarized the research and gave a conclusion to the work.
5.3
Recommendations
That this long essay has only addressed the phonological aspect of Kuturmi
Language is an eloquent testimony to the fact that other aspects such as morphology,
syntax e.t.c. are craving for vigorous study in the language. On this premise, it would
be recommended that language teachers, linguistic researchers and students alike
should consider it s a great academic responsibility to carry out further vigorous
researches into these aspects yet to be scrutinized. In other words, it will make a sense
c
if researchers can go on to examine the morphology and syntax of more language as a
mean for language teachers to use Kuturmi as a medium of linguistic exemplification for
language students in language classes.
In addition to the above, that this long essay has only analyzed Kuturmi with
regard to phonology does not necessarily imply that the language has been fully
exhausted phonologically. Therefore, it will be laudable if other phonologist can further
their research more into the phonological component of the language most especially
the supra-segmental aspect.
Finally, language planners should complement the vigorous academic efforts of
linguists towards the structural development of Kuturmi by considering it a point of
duty to promote the language in such a way that it will serve a functional role of mass
media communication in the country. Also, It should be promoted as a language of
instruction in schools at least in secondary education as an emblem of language
development.
5.4
Conclusion
Like other human languages, Kuturmi has a phonological structure. It is on this
note that a thorough linguistic investigation has been done on the phonology of Kuturmi
Language, spoken in Kaduna State, Nigeria. It has been observed that the phonological
ci
structure of the language is quite phenomenal in the way phonological processes such
as assimilation, deletion e.t.c. are operated on underlying structures in other to convert
them to surface structures as it is in line with the frame work of generative phonology.
Thus, it is pertinent to conclude that this research project is indeed a reliable
point of research reference for further linguistic researches into the language by
professional linguistic researchers.
cii
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