NATIONAL PATHOLOGY ACCREDITATION ADVISORY COUNCIL
REQUIREMENTS FOR MEDICAL TESTING OF
HUMAN NUCLEIC ACIDS
(Second Edition 2013)
NPAAC Tier 4 Document
Print ISBN: 978-1-74241-954-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-74241-955-8
Publications approval number: 10207
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Requirements for Medical Testing of Human Nucleic Acids
1
being given the specific written permission from the Commonwealth to do so. Requests and inquiries concerning
reproduction and rights are to be sent to the Online, Services and External Relations Branch, Department of
Health, GPO Box 9848, Canberra ACT 2601, or via e-mail to copyright@health.gov.au.
First published 2012
(this document was formerly included as part of: Laboratory Accreditation Standards
and Guidelines for Nucleic Acid Detection and Analysis (2006))
Second edition 2013
reprinted and reformatted to be read in conjunction with the Requirements for
Medical Pathology Services
Australian Government Department of Health
Contents
Scope
................................................................................................................................................................... 3
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Definitions ............................................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 5
Pre-Analytical ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.
Ethical responsibilities of Laboratories providing nucleic acid testing for
human genetic conditions ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.
Specimen collection .................................................................................................................................. 7
Specimen collection for Level 2 tests ....................................................................................................... 8
3.
Laboratory facilities and the risk of contamination ............................................................................. 9
Minimum standards for a nucleic acid amplification facility .................................................................. 10
Laboratory hygiene ................................................................................................................................. 11
4.
Specimen preparation and storage ....................................................................................................... 11
Analytical .............................................................................................................................................................. 12
5.
Testing methodologies ........................................................................................................................... 12
Screening for unknown pathogenic variants ........................................................................................... 12
Sequencing to detect unknown pathogenic variants................................................................................ 12
Assays to detect known variants ............................................................................................................. 13
Quantitative assays.................................................................................................................................. 14
Microarrays ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Analysis of limiting amounts of template nucleic acid ........................................................................... 15
Prenatal testing ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Interpretation ........................................................................................................................................... 16
Post-Analytical ..................................................................................................................................................... 16
6.
Reporting Standards ............................................................................................................................. 16
Appendix A Classification of human genetic testing (Normative) ................................................................. 19
Appendix B Send-away tests (Normative)........................................................................................................ 21
Appendix C Report Format (Informative) ...................................................................................................... 22
Reference list ........................................................................................................................................................ 23
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Further information ............................................................................................................................................. 25
The National Pathology Accreditation Advisory Council (NPAAC) was established in 1979 to
consider and make recommendations to the Australian, state and territory governments on
matters related to the accreditation of pathology laboratories and the introduction and
maintenance of uniform standards of practice in pathology laboratories throughout Australia.
A function of NPAAC is to formulate Standards and initiate and promote education programs
about pathology tests.
Publications produced by NPAAC are issued as accreditation material to provide guidance to
laboratories and accrediting agencies about minimum Standards considered acceptable for
good laboratory practice.
Failure to meet these minimum Standards may pose a risk to public health and patient safety.
Scope
The Requirements for Medical Testing of Human Nucleic Acids is a Tier 4 document which must be read in
conjunction with the Tier 2 document Requirements for Medical Pathology Services. The latter is the
overarching document broadly outlining standards for good medical pathology practice where the primary
consideration is patient welfare, and where the needs and expectations of patients, Laboratory staff and referrers
(both for pathology requests and inter-Laboratory referrals) are safely and satisfactorily met in a timely manner.
Whilst there must be adherence to all the Requirements in the Tier 2 document, reference to specific Standards in
that document are provided for assistance under the headings in this document.
The Requirements for Medical Testing of Human Nucleic Acids document sets out the Standards that apply to
medical tests for heritable and non-heritable variants in human nucleic acids. These tests involve the detection,
characterisation and quantification of these nucleic acids.
The Standards in this document are the minimum requirements for the accreditation of Laboratories performing
human nucleic acid testing where the testing is in response to a request by or on behalf of a medical practitioner.
This document cannot be used for conferring or inferring accreditation status in relation to direct-to-consumer
(DTC) human nucleic acid testing.
Tests for paternity, kinship, and identity and forensic analysis of Specimen for use by law enforcement
authorities are not considered in this document.
The Standards for testing for microorganisms that can or may cause disease in humans are described in a
separate NPAAC document Requirements for Medical Testing of Microbial Nucleic Acids.
Abbreviations
AS
ISO
IVD
MLPA
NHMRC
NPAAC
OGTR
RCPA
Australian Standard
International Organization for Standardization
in vitro diagnostic device
multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification
National Health and Medical Research Council
National Pathology Accreditation Advisory Council
Office of the Gene Technology Regulator
Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia
Definitions
Requirements for Medical
Pathology Services (RMPS)
means the overarching document broadly outlining standards for good medical
pathology practice where the primary consideration is patient welfare, and
where the needs and expectations of patients, Laboratory staff and referrers
(both for pathology requests and inter-Laboratory referrals) are safely and
satisfactorily met in a timely manner.
The standard headings are set out below –
Standard 1 – Ethical Practice
Standard 2 – Governance
Standard 3 – Quality Management
Standard 4 – Personnel
Standard 5 – Facilities and Equipment
A – Premises
B – Equipment
Standard 6 – Request-Test-Report Cycle
A – Pre-Analytical
B – Analytical
C – Post-Analytical
Standard 7 – Quality Assurance
Separate area
means a Laboratory space that is functionally separated from other Laboratory
spaces by physical barriers, distance or strict Laboratory practice, or by
performance of the test within the working space of an instrument, as dictated
by the methods and technology available in the Laboratory.
Validation*
ISO9000:2005 3.8.4
means the confirmation by examination and the possession of objective
evidence that the particular requirements for a specific intended use are
fulfilled.
Variant
means any alteration in a gene or genes from a normal reference sequence. It
may cause disease or be benign. In the case of "copy number" variants, such an
alteration can often involve several genes, contiguously located.
Verification*
ISO9000:2005 3.8.5
means the application of the validation process only to a nonconforming aspect
of an otherwise validated IVD.
Verification can comprise activities such as:

performing alternative calculations

comparing a new design specification with a similar design
specification

undertaking tests and demonstrations

reviewing documentation prior to issue.
Introduction
National Pathology Accreditation Advisory Council (NPAAC) accreditation material is designed for the
accreditation of pathology Laboratories under the Health Insurance Act 1973. Paternity testing is in the province
of the Family Law Act 1975. Identity testing and forensic analysis are within the jurisdiction of the various
crimes acts, while kinship testing falls within immigration and inheritance matters. However, many of the
principles described here are also applicable to these additional arenas.
Testing for microorganisms is in the NPAAC Requirements for Medical Testing of Microbial Nucleic Acids.
Human nucleic acid testing is not necessarily provided by a specialist genetics Laboratory. Any medical
Laboratory which provides testing which falls within the scope of this document should make reference to this
document, together with the Tier 2 document Requirements for Medical Pathology Services.
These Requirements are intended to serve as minimum standards in the accreditation process and have been
developed with reference to current and proposed Australian regulations and other standards from the
International Organization for Standardization including:
AS ISO 15189 Medical laboratories – Requirements for quality and competence
These Requirements should be read within the national pathology accreditation framework including the current
versions of the following NPAAC documents:
Tier 2 document

Requirements for Medical Pathology Services
All Tier 3 Documents
Tier 4 Document

Requirements for Cytogenetic Testing
Definition from ISO/FDIS-WD 14971:2005, Medical Devices – Application of Risk Management to Medical
Devices
*
In addition to these Standards, Laboratories must comply with all relevant state and territory legislation
(including any reporting requirements).
In each section of this document, points deemed important for practice are identified as either ‘Standards’ or
‘Commentaries’.

A Standard is the minimum requirement for a procedure, method, staffing resource or facility that is
required before a Laboratory can attain accreditation – Standards are printed in bold type and prefaced
with an ‘S’ (e.g. S2.2). The use of the word ‘must’ in each Standard within this document indicates a
mandatory requirement for pathology practice.

A Commentary is provided to give clarification to the Standards as well as to provide examples and
guidance on interpretation. Commentaries are prefaced with a ‘C’ (e.g. C1.2) and are placed where they
add the most value. Commentaries may be normative or informative depending on both the content and
the context of whether they are associated with a Standard or not. Note that when comments are
expanding on a Standard or referring to other legislation, they assume the same status and importance as
the Standards to which they are attached. As a general rule, where a Commentary contains the word
‘must’ then that commentary is considered to be normative.
Please note that any Appendices attached to this document may be either normative or informative and should
be considered to be an integral part of this document.
Please note that all NPAAC documents can be accessed at DoHA Website
While this document is for the use in the accreditation process, comment from users would be
appreciated and can be directed to:
The Secretary
NPAAC Secretariat
Department of Health
GPO Box 9848 (MDP 951)
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Phone:
Fax:
Email:
Website:
+61 2 6289 4017
+61 2 6289 4028
NPAAC Email Address
DoHA Website
Pre-Analytical
1.
Ethical responsibilities of Laboratories providing nucleic acid testing for human genetic conditions
(Refer to Standard 1, Standard 2 and Standard 3 in Requirements for Medical
Pathology Services)
Further information relating to the ethics of Laboratory nucleic acid testing is available in the NHMRC
publication Medical Genetic Testing: Information for health professionals (NHMRC 2010)1 and in the
joint Australian Law Reform Commission – NHMRC publication Essentially Yours — The Protection
of Human Genetic Information in Australia (ALRC–NHMRC 2003)2.
S1.1
The Laboratory must provide medical nucleic acid testing only in the context of a
clinical service provided by a medical practitioner.
S1.2
2.
The Laboratory must be able to provide guidance regarding the categorisation of the
tests that they perform as Level 1 or Level 2 tests (see Appendix A) according to the
ethical implications.†
C1.2(i)
The distinction between Level 1 (standard DNA test) and Level 2 (DNA test with
potential complex issues) would preferably be made by the medical practitioner ordering
the test, since that individual will be best placed to appreciate the short-term and longterm implications of the test for the patient and other family members.
C1.2(ii)
Laboratories are not required to sight copies of the consent for Level 2
testing but an indication that consent has been obtained should be
documented.
C1.2(iii)
If there is concern in the Laboratory that a Level has not been correctly
assigned, the clinical scientist/pathologist in charge of the Laboratory
should arrange for the test to be deferred and the requesting medical
practitioner to be contacted so that the uncertainty about the Level of the
test request is resolved.
Specimen collection
(Refer to Standard 6A in Requirements for Medical Pathology Services)
S2.1
†
‡
For Specimens collected by the patient, clear and appropriate written
instructions must be available.
C2.1(i)
Specimens collected by the patient are not ideal for nucleic acid tests due
to the greater risk of incorrect identification of the patient, labelling and
contamination of Specimen.
C2.1(ii)
Wherever possible, nucleic acid detection tests should be performed on
dedicated Specimens or on aliquots taken before other tests are
performed.‡ Where it is necessary to perform nucleic acid detection tests
on Specimens that have already been used for other purposes and there is a
significant risk of cross-contamination, the report should be annotated
accordingly and the results confirmed on a dedicated Specimen (if one is
available).
C2.1(iii)
To minimise the risk of contamination in nucleic acid amplification
techniques, some special Specimen collection and preparation is needed, in
addition to the usual requirements for pathology testing. The precise
method of Specimen collection, initial processing and transportation
depends on the Specimen concerned and the nucleic acid target (DNA or
RNA).
See Normative Appendix A - Classification of human genetic testing
Where Specimens are referred to another Laboratory for testing, see also Appendix B
C2.1(iv)
The potential for false positive or false negative results to occur in nucleic
acid testing, particularly for serious conditions, should be considered as
part of the evaluation and setting up of diagnostic assays.
C2.1(v)
Patients may require that Specimens be collected using a de-identification
protocol, through a trusted third party (TTP) intermediary such as a gene
trustee2,3. In such cases, patient and Specimen identification should use the
coded identifiers provided by the TTP, and appropriate registration of the
patient and Specimen identification numbers must be made with the TTP.
To comply with the patient’s consent and with the TTP protocols,
Laboratories should not separately record any linkage between the
physical identity of the patient and the identification codes provided by the
TTP for the patient and any Specimens.
Specimen collection for Level 2 tests
For Level 2 tests§, additional procedures are strongly recommended to minimise the
possibility of errors. The issue of Specimen collection for Level 2 tests is discussed in the
RCPA document Sample requirements for medical genetic testing: Do genetic tests demand a
different standard?4. Procedures that could be considered include the following options:
(a)
the testing of two Specimens collected at different times, with both Specimens tested
independently
(b)
splitting the Specimen on receipt in the Laboratory and processing in different batches
(c)
the Specimen tube is signed by the patient (or appropriate delegate) to confirm the Specimen
identity.
Most errors in medical testing are not analytical but reflect events that occur outside the Laboratory, including
errors in Specimen collection. Studies of pre-transfusion testing have revealed that 0.5-0.8 Specimens per
thousand are blood from the wrong patient.5,6 There is a similar rate of non-analytical errors in genetic testing.7
The significance of a sampling error varies according to the probability of the result being clinically significant
and the availability of other evidence to corroborate or refute the result. Errors in genetic testing are of particular
concern because a genetic test may identify a healthy person as being at high risk of developing an illness in the
future without there being corroborating evidence. Such a prediction may also carry significant medical
implications for genetic relatives.
The context in which a genetic test is performed dictates the level of risk that may be acceptable in Specimen
collection. A single unsigned Specimen (the usual practice in medical testing) is appropriate for tests that carry
few implications for genetic relatives e.g. tests for somatic variants, pharmacogenetic tests, population-based
carrier testing.
Duplicate sampling and testing is warranted for tests which carry major implications for genetic relatives and for
which there is little or no evidence to corroborate the result e.g. unexpected or abnormal diagnostic tests for
heritable disorders, and pre-symptomatic or carrier testing of genetic relatives.
§
Refer to Appendix A
A single Specimen signed by the collector or a parent is appropriate for fetal Specimens collected for prenatal
testing.
The clinical significance of a sampling error varies with the clinical context, and the pathology Laboratory will
not necessarily be aware of this context. Hence the decision to utilise different sampling protocols to reduce the
risk of Specimen errors rests with the medical practitioner requesting the test. Laboratories should be able to
advise medical practitioners of the appropriate sampling strategy in different settings, and should make reference
to such recommendations in reporting results. The risk of a Specimen being incorrectly identified is increased if
Specimens are collected from genetic relatives simultaneously, or in operative settings such as during prenatal
diagnosis.
3.
Laboratory facilities and the risk of contamination
(Refer to Standard 5 in Requirements for Medical Pathology Services)
Laboratories undertaking nucleic acid amplification need to be configured to minimise the risk of contamination
of Specimens and reagents by other Specimens in the Laboratory or by amplified material.
Nucleic acid detection techniques are usually designed to maximise sensitivity and are capable of detecting very
small amounts of nucleic acid. Contamination may occur:
(a)
during Specimen collection or transport
(b)
during handling or testing in the testing or referring Laboratory before nucleic
acid detection
(c)
during extraction of nucleic acids from the Specimen
(d)
during amplification
(e)
during product detection
(f)
by contamination from reagents used for the test.
The sources of potential contamination include:
(a)
positive Specimens (cross-contamination)
(b)
amplified nucleic acid (e.g. contamination of stock reagents or equipment, or
in aerosol droplets)
(c)
operator-derived nucleic acid.
Mathematical methods can be used to assess the potential significance of contamination in the use of PCR-based
methods8.
The wording of the following sections is intended to allow flexibility of Laboratory layout without
compromising the guiding principle that Laboratories undertaking nucleic acid amplification should be
configured to minimise the risk of contamination.
S3.1
Laboratories using genetically modified organisms must comply with the relevant
standards set by the Office of the Gene Technology Regulator**.
C3.1
The use of genetically modified organisms poses a potential risk of
contamination of studies of human genetic material. Appropriate precautions
and monitoring must be implemented.
Minimum standards for a nucleic acid amplification facility
S3.2
The layout of the Laboratory areas must be designed to minimise the potential
for contamination.
S3.3
The clinical scientist/pathologist in charge of the Laboratory must ensure that the
degree of separation is adequate for the specific stage. Care must also be taken to
ensure that co-location of research and diagnostic activities do not compromise
this Standard.
C3.3
S3.4
**
Instruments capable of producing aerosols (e.g. vortex mixers, PCR machines
and microcentrifuges) and robotic equipment must be considered when
assigning the separate areas.
In order to reduce the risk of contamination, there must be a separate area for
each of the following activities:
(a)
preparation of reagents (including dispensing of master mixes)
(b)
nucleic acid extraction, preparation and handling before amplification
(c)
amplification and product detection
(d)
manipulation of Specimens prior to a second round of amplification.
C3.4(i)
Where the areas for preparation of reagents and Specimen preparation are
located within a single room, wide separation of these activities must be
maintained and procedures and controls must be implemented to detect
contamination.
C3.4(ii)
Specimens (pre- and post-amplification), reagents and equipment must be
held in their respective areas and labelled accordingly. In particular,
patient Specimens must not be taken into the reagent preparation area.
C3.4(iii)
Post-PCR analysis must not be incorporated into areas where reagent
preparation or Specimen preparation occurs. The post-PCR area must be
contained and positioned so as to minimise the possibility of
contamination from pre-amplification areas.
C3.4(iv)
The movement of Specimens and used equipment must be unidirectional;
that is, from pre-amplification to post-amplification areas. PCR
OGTR Website
amplification tubes must be sealed when carried between the preamplification area and the post-amplification area.
S3.5
C3.4(v)
Where equipment (such as tube racks) is returned against the flow, it must
first be decontaminated before being moved from the post-amplification
area back into a pre-amplification area.
C3.4(vi)
Where a single instrument, such as a liquid handler, is used, the
Laboratory must demonstrate functional separation of the steps of the
assay by the use of suitable protocols and controls.
C3.4(vii)
Aerosol-resistant pipette tips or positive displacement pipettes are strongly
recommended to minimise contamination, and should be used routinely.
The clinical scientist/pathologist in charge of the Laboratory must ensure that
procedures and controls are implemented to prevent and detect contamination.
This must include the use of no-template controls in amplification assays.
Laboratory hygiene
S3.6
Work surfaces and equipment must be decontaminated at a frequency that is
appropriate for the case load of the Laboratory.
S3.7
Equipment from other areas must not be taken into the reagent preparation area
without prior decontamination.
S3.8
Laboratory gowns and gloves must be worn and must be changed frequently
enough to avoid contamination and in accordance with the Laboratory’s
protocols.
C3.8(i)
The movement of gowns and gloves must be unidirectional from pre- to
post-amplification areas. Gowns and gloves that have been used in the
post-amplification area must not be used in other areas.
C3.8(ii) Gowns and gloves must be changed whenever there is evidence of soiling.
S3.9
Spills involving Specimens in pre- or post-amplification phases must be cleaned
up and decontaminated promptly.
S3.10 Laboratories must retain records documenting contamination events, comment
on the source of the contamination and measures taken to reduce the risk of
future similar contamination events.
4.
Specimen preparation and storage
(Refer to Standard 6A and Standard 7 in Requirements for Medical Pathology Services)
S4.1
The procedures used for nucleic acid isolation from the full range of Specimen
types used by the Laboratory must be validated and subject to quality control.
C4.1
S4.2
As RNA is less stable than DNA, and the level of gene expression may vary
markedly between different tissues and developmental stages, manipulation of
RNA requires specific consideration.
Nucleic acids must be stored and labelled in a way that minimises degradation,
contamination, misidentification and loss of identification of the Specimen.
Analytical
(Refer to Standard 2, Standard 3, Standard 4, Standard 6 and Standard 7 in Requirements for
Medical Pathology Services)
5.
Testing methodologies
Screening for unknown pathogenic variants
This section addresses methods that screen for the presence of variants in a specified locus without precisely
defining the nature of the variant. Screening methods are typically cheaper and quicker than direct sequencing of
the entire region of interest and have an accuracy for detecting variants that is less than that provided by
sequencing.
S5.1
The sensitivity of the screening assay for detecting pathogenic variants must be
assessed and be cited in reports.
S5.2
The genotype of a variant detected by a screening assay must be confirmed by a
second method such as sequencing or other genotyping assay.
S5.3
If the screening method has limited sensitivity for variants which are
homozygous or hemizygous, the Laboratory must assess the likelihood of
clinically relevant variants being missed and, if necessary, implement methods to
counter this.
Sequencing to detect unknown pathogenic variants
DNA sequencing provides nucleotide-by-nucleotide analysis of a region and is typically used to identify variants
that have not been defined prior to the analysis. A sequencing assay may encompass thousands of nucleotides.
The resulting complexity of the assay and its analysis raises particular issues in relation to analytical consistency
and accuracy, and the performance characteristics of analytical software. These issues will become more
pressing with improvements in sequencing methodologies.
S5.4
The region of interest that is to be sequenced must be clearly defined by the
Laboratory.
C5.4
S5.5
The quality of sequencing is typically low at the extreme ends of the fragment
being sequenced. To obtain high quality sequencing of a particular region of
interest e.g. an exon, it may be necessary to sequence 30 or more nucleotides
on each side of this region to ensure that the sequence quality in the region of
interest is sufficient.
The Laboratory must provide a quantitative assessment of sequence quality, and establish quality
score limits for acceptable sequence data.
C5.5
S5.6
Limitations in the quality of a sequence trace may be resolved by using
bi-directional sequencing. Bi-directional sequencing also allows prompt identification of
some sequencing artefacts.
The Laboratory must interpret the patient’s DNA sequence with reference to a standard DNA
sequence.
C5.6
The interpretation of a patient’s sequence must involve a systematic comparison of the patient
and reference sequences, preferably using computerised analysis as unassisted visual inspection
of sequence data is potentially unreliable (particularly for homozygous mutations). ††
Assays to detect known variants
This section addresses assays for variants that have been defined prior to the assay being performed e.g. assays
for common pathogenic variants and for family-specific variants. Such assays may be performed as a single or
multiplexed assay.
S5.7
All assays designed to detect known pathogenic variants must be verified using
positive and negative controls for each of the genotypes being assessed.
C5.7
S5.8
Multiplexed assays must be validated for cross reactivity
C5.8
S5.9
Where possible, positive and negative controls for each known pathogenic
variant should be included in each batch of the assay.
Each batch of the assay must include control Specimens suitable to detect
known or possible cross-reactivity.
If all the necessary controls cannot be run within a single batch of the assay, then
they must be tested in a regular manner appropriate for the assay.
C5.9
Common pathogenic variants should be tested in each batch of the assay.
S5.10 The sequence of PCR primer sites must be assessed for polymorphisms on a
regular basis as part of the ongoing monitoring of the assay.
S5.11 For assays of triplet repeat variants, the Laboratory must have defined a
reference interval and measurement uncertainty, and use controls appropriate
for each reference range in each batch.
††
Clinical Molecular Genetics Society (2009). Practice guidelines for Sanger Sequencing Analysis and
Interpretation., CMGS. Clinical Molecular Genetics Society Website
Quantitative assays
All molecular genetic assays are, to an extent, quantitative; quantifying the signal derived from an assay is an
essential component of quality control in any assay. Nonetheless, the result of many genetic assays is qualitative
i.e. a variant is present or absent.
Assays for germline variants are usually developed on the assumption that the genetic content of each of the cells
under examination will be the same.
This section deals with assays in which quantitation is an integral component of the outcome of the assay, i.e.
quantitative information is included in the test report. Such assays are designed for situations either involving
cells with differing genetic content in the Specimens (mosaicism) or in which it is necessary to quantify the
result to compare different Specimens with each other. This includes assays for determining gene dosage e.g.
MLPA; proportion of mutated cells in a Specimen e.g. quantitative PCR; and proportion of mutant genes in cells
e.g. assay for mitochondrial heteroplasmy.
S5.12 The quality of the nucleic acids to be used as the substrate for a quantitative
assay must be assessed and, if appropriate, reported.
S5.13 The Laboratory must have quality control processes to corroborate an abnormal
result before it can be reported as being clinically significant.
C5.13(i)
If it is not practicable to corroborate the result, it must be reported as
unconfirmed.
C5.13(ii)
The result may be corroborated by:
a) replication of the result using the same assay and a new dilution of the Specimen;
b) replication of the result using a different assay;
c) the Laboratory demonstrating proficiency in detecting the specific mutation in an
external quality assessment program;
d) the results of other clinical or Laboratory findings of the patient.
Microarrays
Microarrays interrogate potentially millions of loci. Arrays can be designed and analysed for a variety of
different purposes, including identifying copy number variants, genotyping and gene expression. The raw data is
necessarily processed using software to enable analysis and reporting. The degree of multiplexing is orders of
magnitude greater than for other assay formats, making test validation, replication between Laboratories, and
quality control particularly challenging. For these reasons, particular care should be taken regarding the quality,
reproducibility and interpretation of the assay.
S5.15 The quality of the Specimen being tested, intensity of labelling, and quality of
hybridisation, scanning, and analysis must be monitored.
S5.16 The Laboratory must determine the minimum number of consecutive probes that
define a specific type of abnormality that might be detected by the array.
C5.16
The average resolution (or comparable metric) of the microarray study
should be included in the report.
S5.17 For a variant to be reported as being clinically significant, both analytical and
interpretive aspects of the result must be addressed.
C5.17(i)
First, the analytical result must be corroborated e.g. by replication in an
independent assay of the patient Specimen; analysis of a Specimen from
a genetic relative; or consistency with clinical phenotype.
C5.17(ii)
Second, the clinical interpretation of the variant must be substantiated
by reference to appropriate literature, resources or family studies.
C5.17(iii)
If it is not practicable to confirm the analytical and interpretive aspects
of the result, the result must be reported as unconfirmed.
C5.17(iv)
Where appropriate, Laboratories should submit data about copy number
variants and their associated phenotypes to curated publicly accessible
repositories.
Analysis of limiting amounts of template nucleic acid
Most genetic tests involve the analysis of nucleic acids derived from many cells. The result reflects the majority
genotype in the population of cells, and artefacts derived from individual cells or molecules (including low levels of
contamination) are usually not evident. However, artefacts derived from a single cell can be relevant in analyses
which use very small amounts of template DNA or RNA e.g. in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, or Specimens
with limited DNA (e.g. urine or plasma) or assays for low levels of tissue mosaicism (e.g. minimal residual disease
& mitochondrial testing).
S5.18 The choice of method and validation of the assay using a limited amount of
template must reflect the range of template concentrations that could be
experienced. Threshold limits must be specified for both too little and too much
template. Validation of the assay must address the potential for contamination
and for preferential amplification of one allele.
S5.19 Procedures for determining the adequacy of a Specimen in terms of amount of
template and quality must be validated.
S5.20 When using serial amplification of DNA e.g. nested PCR, the reaction product
from one amplification must be manipulated in an area separate from the areas
used for single-stage PCR.
Prenatal testing
Prenatal diagnostic tests are set apart from other tests because of the risk to the fetus associated with Specimen
collection, the small Specimen size, the difficulty associated with repeat sampling, the requirement for a short
turn-around time, and the significance of decisions arising from the test. The analytical context of testing can
vary from testing for a pre-defined mutation or seeking to identify an uncharacterised mutation. The
interpretation of a pre-defined mutation is usually straightforward, but the interpretation of an uncharacterised
mutation may be difficult because of limited phenotypic information about the fetus and in data repositories.
S5.21 Where the prenatal testing involves the genotyping of a known familial variant,
the Laboratory must have genotyped the proband or other relevant family
member(s). If the Laboratory is not able to do this, it must be stated on the
report.
S5.22 Appropriate liaison with external Laboratories that refer prenatal Specimens
must be maintained.
C5.22
Cytogenetics Laboratories that undertake chromosome analysis on the
same prenatal Specimen should be requested to maintain a reserve culture
until the results of the nucleic acid prenatal analysis is known.
S5.23 Maternal cell contamination must be assessed in all prenatal tests.
C5.23(i)
The report must note the presence or absence of significant maternal cell
contamination in the analysis.
C5.23(ii)
Chorionic villus Specimens should be cleaned of contaminating maternal
tissue or blood prior to nucleic acid extraction. This should be performed
by experienced Laboratory personnel (usually by the receiving
cytogenetics Laboratory).
Interpretation
There may be a simple relationship between a genotype and its clinical relevance. Common variants may carry
clearly-defined consequences for the patient. However, there are many genetic variants for which the
relationship between genotype and clinical relevance is not straightforward. It may be necessary for the
Laboratory professional to provide a qualitative interpretation of the biological significance of the variant before
the requesting medical practitioner is able to determine the clinical relevance of the variant. For example, a
missense variant may require careful consideration of the consequences for protein function before the clinical
implications can be addressed.
For some assays, it may be necessary to perform complex calculations to determine the significance of the
analytical result. The outcome of such an analysis may be qualitative e.g. “the patient is a carrier”, or
quantitative e.g. “there is a 94% chance that the patient is a carrier”.
This section addresses some of the issues to be considered by the Laboratory professional in providing an
interpretation of the biological significance of a variant. ‡‡
S5.24
Laboratories must be able to incorporate statistical methods, including linkage and Bayesian
analyses (as appropriate), when determining the clinical significance of an analytical result.
Post-Analytical
6.
Reporting Standards
(Refer to Standard 6C in Requirements for Medical Pathology Service and to
Appendix C)
A nucleic acid report needs to include sufficient technical information to make it clear to the
expert reader, perhaps in years to come, what method had been used to identify nucleic acid
variants. On the other hand, the report must not obscure the key information for the nonexpert reader who needs to make medical decisions today.
‡‡
Clinical Molecular Genetics Society (2007) Practice guidelines for the Interpretation and Reporting of
Unclassified Variants (UVs) in Clinical Molecular Genetics.
http://www.cmgs.org/BPGs/pdfs%20current%20bpgs/UV%20GUIDELINES%20ratified.pdf)
S6.1
The report must explicitly state the clinical question being addressed by the investigation.
C6.1(i)
Relevant clinical details provided by the referring medical practitioner must be stated.
C6.1(ii)
The clinical interpretation must be clearly identified in the report, and worded so as to
address the question.
The use of unambiguous quantifiers e.g. “90% of people with this variant
are affected” is preferable to “this variant is usually associated with
disease”.
Utilisation of positive statements e.g. “the triplet repeat number is within
the normal range” is preferable to “the triplet repeat number is not
expanded”.
The terms “positive” and “negative” can be confusing and are best avoided
e.g. “MLH1 expression is absent” is preferable to “the MLH1 assay is
positive”.
C6.1(iii)
The interpretation must, if appropriate, identify implications for genetic
relatives and include recommendations regarding genetic counselling.
C6.1(iv)
If a nucleic acid variant has been identified, the interpretation must reflect
the distinction between the patient having an abnormal genotype and the
patient being affected.
C6.1(v)
It is essential to reduce the potential for misinterpretation of the test result. For example,
the purpose of testing an affected person is different to testing an unaffected person, and
the identification of a pathogenic variant in diagnostic versus predictive testing carries
different clinical implications. The wording of this statement could reflect the
classification of human nucleic acid testing§§.
C6.1(vi)
Where the clinical details are illegible, absent, or ambiguous, the Laboratory should
attempt to clarify the details with the referring medical practitioner.
C6.1(vii)
In the case of simple reports e.g. assay for a common variant, there may
not be any need for further comment. If reporting an uncommon variant,
there should be further interpretation of its biological significance.

If this information has already been provided to the requesting medical practitioner
in a report about a genetic relative, reference could be made to that report (referring to
the Laboratory identifier, not patient name) rather than repeating the information.

However, if this report is being provided to a different medical practitioner, the
analysis should be provided again.
C6.1(viii)
The Laboratory report should remind the requesting medical practitioner of relevant
sampling recommendations. The wording could be along these lines:
“Genetic tests results may have significant medical implications for both
the patient and genetic relatives. Corroboration of this result by
§§
Refer to Appendix A
reference to other clinical or Laboratory information or by repeat testing
may be warranted” 4.
S6.2
If two independent Specimens were collected for the purpose of reducing the risk of an erroneous
result, the report must indicate if such precautions were taken.
S6.3
The report must unambiguously identify the gene/s or genetic locus/loci being assayed.
S6.4
C6.3(i)
It is recognised that synonyms are in common use, but they are not specific and there is
potential for confusion to both current and future readers of the report. Standard gene
names must be used, with synonyms or alternative names shown in brackets until
referrers become familiar with the correct terminology.
C6.3(ii)
Fusion genes should be shown as GENE1/GENE2, preferably in mechanistic order i.e.
5’ to 3’ in the fusion gene9.
C6.3(iii)
The standard gene nomenclature as described by the Human Genome Organisation
Gene Nomenclature Committee*** should be used.
The reference sequence used by the Laboratory must be specified.
C6.4
The report should comply with international standards e.g. using genomic
or gene sequence (cDNA) as recommended by the Human Genome
Variation Society†††.
NCBI Reference Sequences, if available, are recommended‡‡‡. The
Human Genome Organisation Gene Nomenclature Committee
nominates a recommended NCBI Reference Sequence for most genes
or loci with an approved name.
S6.5
The report must state, in simple terms, the method and the scope of the analysis performed e.g.
analysis of all exons by sequencing and dosage studies, or test for selected variants only.
S6.6
The system of variant nomenclature used in the report must be specified.
C6.6(i)
It is recognised that some common variants are widely cited using nonstandard nomenclature. This represents a hazard for consistent and
accurate reporting in the future. Variants should be reported using standard
nomenclature§§§, with synonyms or common names shown in brackets
until referrers become familiar with the correct terminology.
C6.6(ii)
The technical characteristics of the assay may be relevant for the interpretation of negative
studies and for subsequent audits and reviews by either the Laboratory or a medical
practitioner. When appropriate, the commercial kit, or specific primers and probes, should
be specified.
***
www.genenames.org/
†††
HGVS Website
‡‡‡
NCBI Website.
§§§
The Human Genome Variation Society has established an international standardised nomenclature, 10 as
has the International Society for Cytogenetic Nomenclature for microarray results11.
C6.6(iii)
The report should include a comment or explanation of the genotype.
Information about family-specific or case-specific controls should be
included.
S6.7
In the case of prenatal testing, there must be a statement regarding the presence
or absence of significant maternal cell contamination and, if relevant, parental
genotypes.
S6.8
In the case of predictive testing, there must be a statement regarding the use of a
positive control for a family-specific variant.
S6.9
If a number of family members are tested at the same time, a separate report
must be issued for each person (irrespective of age).
C6.9
The genetic and clinical interpretation of a patient’s nucleic acid test may
depend on the results of tests on genetic relatives. Nonetheless, the identity of
relatives must not be revealed directly in the report. If necessary, the report
can identify the clinical service which holds pedigree data or results of the
entire family.
S6.10 In cases in which a couple’s results need to be considered together, reference
must be made to the other report (using the Laboratory identifier) but without
naming the other party.
C6.10
This confidentiality requirement may be waived if a couple provide
explicit consent at the time of testing for their tests to be reported and
stored together, and to be released at the request of either person.
Appendix A Classification of human genetic testing (Normative)
Levels of DNA testing
DNA testing is categorised into two levels of testing. These are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1
Levels of DNA testing
Type of DNA test for an inherited
genetic disorder
Level 1 DNA test
(standard)
Explanatory notes
Included here would be:
a) DNA testing for diagnostic purposes (e.g. the patient has clinical
indicators or a family history of an established inherited disorder,
and DNA testing is being used to confirm the disorder) or any other
DNA test that does not fall into Level 2.
b) Population-based screening programs.
Level 2 DNA test
(i.e. the test has the potential to lead
to complex clinical issues)
DNA testing for which specialised knowledge is needed for the DNA
test to be requested, and for which professional genetic counselling
should precede and accompany the test. Predictive or pre-symptomatic
DNA testing, for conditions for which there is no simple treatment would
usually be included in this grouping. Specific written consent and
counselling issues are associated with this grouping.
The distinction between Level 1 (standard DNA test) and Level 2 (DNA test with potential complex issues)
would usually be made by the doctor ordering the test, since that individual will be best placed to appreciate the
short-term and long-term implications of the test for the patient and other family members.
Counselling and consent
Issues regarding counselling and consent for genetic testing have been considered in the National Health and
Medical Research Council publication, Medical Genetic Testing: Information for health professionals.****
Clinical scientists/pathologists in charge of the Laboratory and their senior staff should be familiar with the
issues addressed in this publication so that meaningful discussion can take place between the Laboratory and the
requesting practitioner in cases where appropriate test classification of a request remains unresolved.
Classification of human genetic tests
The decision schema outlined below has been designed to help classify human genetics tests and to provide
guidance to the clinical scientist/pathologist in charge of the Laboratory. While it is primarily a Laboratory tool,
it will be of value to health professionals involved in human genetic testing.
Irrespective of the classification of a test, the requesting medical practitioner should ensure that the person or
legal guardian provides consent for the investigation. The majority of requests for genetic testing (e.g. for
diagnostic or medical screening purposes), will be Level 1. A test is classified as Level 2 (i.e. requiring
professional genetic counselling and consent) only if it fulfils one or more of the criteria shown below. These
criteria reflect the complexity of genetic or counselling issues commonly encountered. The criteria are not
comprehensive and, in cases of doubt, it may be prudent for the requesting clinician to manage the test process as
for a Level 2 genetic investigation.
Box 1
Schema for classifying human genetics tests
1.
Genetic test requests for somatic variants are classified as Level 1 (e.g. testing for the BCR/ABL fusion
gene in chronic myeloid leukaemia [Level 1])
2.
Genetic test requests for heritable variants, including diagnostic testing and medical screening
programs, are classified as Level 1 testing unless a request fulfils one or more of the following
criteria:
2.1. Guidelines developed by the National Health and Medical Research Council or a national
medical specialty college recommend pre-test genetic counselling and written consent (e.g.
testing for a familial BRCA1 mutation in a woman with breast cancer who is at high risk of
having familial breast and ovarian cancer [Level 2])
2.2. The Specimen being tested is from a clinically affected child being tested for a disorder that
typically presents in adulthood (e.g. testing for the Huntington disease mutation in a child with
a neurodegenerative disorder [Level 2])
2.3. The Specimen being tested is from an apparently unaffected child or fetus (e.g. prenatal
testing for a mutation already defined in the family [Level 2]; carrier testing for Duchenne
muscular dystrophy during childhood [Level 2])
2.4. The Specimen for testing is from a clinically unaffected adult and the test is predictive of a
disease for which interventions are of limited efficacy or carry substantial risks or costs (e.g.
pre-symptomatic testing for myotonic dystrophy [Level 2]).
****
NHMRC Websitel
Examples




A woman with an abnormal antenatal biochemical screening result for fetal Down syndrome has an
amniocentesis for fetal chromosome studies (test being done as part of a medical screening program
[Level 1]; separate consent would be required for the invasive procedure). The fetus has an unbalanced
chromosome translocation, and parental Specimens are forwarded for chromosome studies to determine if
either carries a balanced translocation (the testing of healthy subjects with results not being predictive of
disease in the subject [Level 1]). The paternal karyotype reveals a balanced translocation. The couple seek
prenatal testing in the next pregnancy (test is being done in a specific clinical context, and, other than a high
prior risk of an unbalanced karyotype, there is no evidence that the fetus is affected [Level 2 — consistent
with 2.3]).
A couple seeks preconceptional testing for cystic fibrosis genetic carrier status (test is not predictive of
disease in subject [Level 1]). Both are found to be carriers and prenatal testing is arranged at 12 weeks
gestation (there is no evidence that the fetus is affected [Level 2 — consistent with 2.3]).
A child at 25% risk of inheriting the Huntington disease mutation presents with depressive symptoms and a
facial tic at 14 years of age. The medical practitioner requests a genetic test for Huntington disease (atypical
clinical presentation of childhood Huntington disease [Level 2 — consistent with 2.2]). If the child had
presented with typical features of juvenile-onset Huntington disease (developmental regression and
increasing stiffness/rigidity), then the test could be regarded as a diagnostic investigation [Level 1] but the
complexity of issues arising from an abnormal test result, including the possibility of revealing the genetic
status of a parent, suggest that Level 2 (consistent with 2.2) is more appropriate.
A boy with intellectual disability has a genetic test for the fragile X syndrome, a common cause of X-linked
mental retardation (diagnostic testing in an affected subject [Level 1]). Once the diagnosis was confirmed,
his 18-year-old sister wishes to have her genetic carrier status defined. If she has no evidence of intellectual
disability, then the subject is unaffected and the test result is predictive of disease (premature menopause in
fragile X carriers) for which treatment is of limited efficacy (correcting symptoms, not fertility) i.e. Level 2
(consistent with 2.4). On the other hand, if she has mild intellectual disability, then the test could be
classified as Level 1 (subject is affected) but the test also carries the same carrier implications as for an
unaffected woman (premature menopause) and should be regarded as Level 2 (consistent with 2.4).
Appendix B Send-away tests (Normative)
If a Specimen is sent to another Laboratory for analysis, the scientist/pathologist in charge of
the Laboratory must be able to provide justification for the choice of testing Laboratory as
specified in AS ISO 15189. In general, the types of testing Laboratory include (in decreasing
order of preference):
1. Laboratories accredited to AS ISO 15189 and NPAAC Requirements.
2. Laboratories accredited to AS ISO 15189 or ISO/IEC 17025 by an accreditation body.
3. Internationally recognised research Laboratories.
The referring Laboratory should ensure that the Specimen collection requirements outlined in Section 2 have
been met, and inform the receiving Laboratory if they have not been met.
The referring Laboratory must ensure that the integrity of the Specimen, including packaging
and labelling, is sufficient to allow the testing Laboratory to meet the Standards outlined in
this document. The Laboratory should consider sending unextracted Specimens to minimise
contamination if storage of DNA is not requested or likely to be required, and if Specimen
integrity is not compromised by transportation.
If the result from testing provided by an unaccredited Laboratory will be used for clinical decision making, the
analytical result should be confirmed in a Laboratory accredited to NPAAC Requirements.
If a Specimen has been forwarded to another Laboratory for analysis, the referring Laboratory remains
responsible for ensuring that the test result is provided to the requesting medical practitioner. The transcription of
complex nucleic acid test results by referring Laboratories is discouraged, and a copy of the original report from
the testing Laboratory should be provided to the requesting medical practitioner.
If the accreditation status of the testing Laboratory differs from that of the referring Laboratory, this must be
stated in the report.
Appendix C
Report Format (Informative)
This section contains commentary only on formatting of reports which users may find helpful.
Careful presentation of data can enhance understanding and accuracy in interpretation. The key formatting
features relevant to the presentation of reports on paper or a computer screen can be summarised as follows.
Provide consistent and informative headings
Headings should be meaningful for the reader, recognizing that the reader may not be an expert in the subject
matter.
Limit the information under each heading
The key information necessary for decision-making should be viewable on a single page or screen. This may
require some prioritisation, with key fields being included on the first page and supplementary information being
provided on a subsequent page.
Provide visual clues to the structure of the report
Reports should be structured so that there are fixed positions for fields, particularly for universal items such as
patient identifiers and conclusions. For some fields, there may be a limited range of values that could be used,
thereby making it possible to limit variation in report layout and facilitating consistent comprehension by
medical practitioners. Structured reports can also facilitate the auditing of testing by one or more Laboratories.
Set the context
The context of a medical investigation i.e. indication and timing in relation to other events, determines the
interpretation, hence the distinction between diagnostic and non-diagnostic (e.g. epidemiology) testing,
Meet the needs of other readers
The report should not include jargon in key fields which may be utilised by a non-expert for decision-making.
Some abbreviations, which are recognised as universal, may be acceptable e.g. DNA and RNA, but other less
universal abbreviations can be misleading. Jargon can also include non-technical phrases such, as "characteristic
of", "indicative of", and "highly suggestive of" which can imply different degrees of diagnostic certainty to
different groups of requestors. The report should provide readers with an explicit interpretation rather than
requiring them to make their own interpretations. This might include an explicit statement regarding the
uncertainty of the clinical significance of a particular variant.
Use simple formatting
Elaborate formatting can make the reader's task more difficult. The key principles are as follows:
Keep the variety of fonts (including text colour) to a minimum.
The ideal character size (using the letter “x” as the standard) is 2-6 mm.
Maintain a clear space between lines.
Use size and weight (boldness) to indicate emphasis rather than using a different font
Italicised and capitalised text is read more slowly.
Underlining may obscure punctuation and parts of some letters (such as the tail of “g” or “y”)
In an itemised report, text that is left-aligned is easier to read than centred or justified text
A line length of approximately 10 words is easier to read than shorter or longer lines.
Separate long numbers (including record numbers) into readable and meaningful groups using spaces,
hyphens, or commas e.g. “Record #234-567-8” is preferable to “Record #2345678”.
If possible, keep the report length to a single page.
Note: There may be other reporting structures that are available for use for specific disciplines.
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Further information
Other NPAAC documents are available from:
The Secretary
NPAAC Secretariat
Department of Health
GPO Box 9848 (MDP 951)
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Phone:
Fax:
Email:
Website:
+61 2 6289 4017
+61 2 6289 4028
NPAAC Email Address
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