What is “Language-Mode Switching” and why does it happen?
Graduation Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of
English Language and Literature
Notre Dame Seishin University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Bachelor of Arts
by
Akiho Yoshimoto
2014
Contents
Contents
1
Abstract
4
Chapter One: Some factors in the second language acquisition
1.1 Introduction
1.2 The definition of bilingualism/a bilingual
1.3 Introduction to code-switching
1.3.1 The definition of code-switching
1.3.2 Types of code-switching
1.3.3 Functions of code-switching
1.3.4 The reasons why bilingual people switch languages.
1.4 Individual differences
1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 The definition of a learning strategy
1.4.3 The definition of a communication strategy
1.5 Communicative competence
1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Language competence & language performance
1.5.3 Communicative competence
1.6 Research Questions
1
1.7 Summary
Chapter Two: The experiment
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The experiment
2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment
2.2.2 Method
2.2.2.1 Subjects
2.2.2.2 Test design
2.2.2.3 Procedure
2.2.3 Results
2.2.3.1 Introduction
2.3 Summary
Chapter Three: Discussion
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Summary of the results
3.3 Discussion of the results
3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 The results for Question 10 and 16
3.3.2.1 Reasons why they feel it easier – people who answered Yes or
Maybe Yes
2
3.3.2.2 Reasons why they feel it easier – people who answered Maybe
No or No
3.4 Research Questions
3.5 Implications
3.6 Limitations of the Experiments
3.7 Further research
3
Abstract
There are about 6,000 languages in the world today.
More people
speak two or more languages compared to people who speak only one language.
But sometimes while speaking some bilinguals change the language they use
mid-sentence for some reasons.
This thesis asks about the change of the
language, called code-switching and the reasons for it.
In Chapter One, we learnt about the definition of bilingualism/a bilingual,
code-switching, and individual differences such as learning strategies,
communication strategies, communicative competence and language
performance.
In each section, we saw them in detail.
were many kinds of bilinguals and code-switching.
For example, there
Also we saw the reasons
why people code-switch in this Chapter.
In Chapter Two, the results of the experiment taught us that
language-mode switching happens depending on the interlocutor or the situation,
and the length of learning the second language does not really matter to peoples’
confidence with the second language abilities especially in speaking. We also
found out that it depends on whether individuals are conscious or unconscious of
when they switch language-mode.
In Chapter Three, we discussed the experiment in detail, answered the
two research questions, thought over the problems or limitations of the
experiment for further research.
Regrettably, we could not find the clear
answer to one of the research questions.
4
However, we discovered that peoples’
speaking ability in the second language can be improved depending on the
interlocutor.
If people have an interlocutor who is comfortable and they have no
worries making mistakes to talk with, their speaking ability can be improved
efficiently.
5
Chapter One: Some factors in second language
acquisition
1.1 Introduction:
There are about 6,000 languages in the world today.
The majority of
the world’s population is bilingual or multilingual, with monolingual speakers in
the minority.
(Starks, Harlow, and Bell, 2005) When people know two or more
languages they often switch between the languages according to the context,
(for example, family, religion, education, employment and so on), the interlocutor,
the topic, and other factors. In this section we will talk about bilingualism and
the reasons why they use two languages.
Also we will look at about code-switchingwhichis one of the features of bilingual
communitiesandhappens particularly when learning a second language. We
will look at this later. First, let’s look at bilingual/bilingualism.
1.2 What is bilingualism/a bilingual?
There is no clear definition of bilingual or bilingualism yet but bilingualism is
complexand varies widely among individuals. Skutnabb-Kangas (1981) says that
there are almost as many definitions of bilingualism as there are scholars
investigating it, and the choice of definition is thus wholly dependent upon what it
is to be used for.
There are many definitions of bilingual/bilingualism.
6
Here are some
definitions.
-
Someone who speaks two languages.
People are bilingual when they achieve native-like fluency in each language.
(Crystal, 1987)
-
People who command two languages at anative-like level. (Bloomfield, 1935)
-
Speakers in the stage where they have started to acquire a second language.
(Diebold, 1964)
-
Bilingual individuals also vary in significant ways with respect to age of
acquisition, language proficiency attained, participation in a bilingual speech
community, and the particular languages involved.
Bilinguals refer to people able to use two languages.
Both languages don’t
need to be native level. It also means people who have various abilities,
possibilities and language level.Although we cannot just describe someone as
bilingual. We need to find out bilingual more about the person.Many bilingual
people have different skills in their two languages and use them for different
purposes. Therefore there are many kinds of bilinguals.
Many people believe bilinguals may use their languages equally, but as we
sawin the introduction, they often use it for particular contexts, for particular
7
purposes, and with particular people.
Here we will look at some kinds of
bilinguals.
Balanced bilinguals
Balanced bilinguals are people whose both languages are nearly native-like
level. They are fluent in both languages in various situations.
Dominant Bilinguals
People whose have one language stronger than the other language are called
Dominant bilinguals.
Simultaneous Bilinguals
People who have learnt their two languages at the same time, usually in early
childhood are called simultaneous bilinguals.
Usually, simultaneous bilinguals
have a more ‘native-like’ accent in both languages.
Sequential/Consecutive Bilinguals
Sequential bilinguals have learnt one language after the other.
Sequential
bilinguals may have greater knowledge about one language than the other.
Double limited bilingual
The ability of both languages is not enoughas neither languages are native level.
Those people are called Double limited bilinguals.
8
Productive Bilinguals
Productive bilinguals can not only listen and read but also speak and write in
their second language.
Receptive Bilinguals
People who can understand and read their second language, but they cannot
speak or write are called receptive bilinguals.
When we say the single word “bilingual”, we should know that there are many
kinds of bilinguals.
The background of learning a language is one of the keys to
be one of above-mentioned bilinguals.
1.3 Introduction to code-switching
Most people who speak more than two languages, may have experienced
code-switching.
Those people might switch language especially when they are
talking with the other people who can speak both languages.
example of code-switching.
Here is an
For example, when I talk to Mr. Williams who is a
native speaker of English and speaks Japanese at about native level, we switch
languages many times and so does he.
Mr. Williams: Have you finished making Shiori for our gasshuku in Hiruzen?
Me
: No, ma da. I’m still ganbatteru.
Mr. Williams: Oh okay. Keep working on it but otsukaresama for today.
9
Why do people switch languages while creating discourse?
situations does code-switching happen?
when they switch language?
In what
Are people conscious or unconscious
How much experience do people need to switch
language? We will talk about these things in the next section.
1.3.1
What is code-switching?
It is common for bilinguals to switch between two languages.
Some
researchers have investigated code-switching and it is now established as a
world-widephenomenonas code-switching is one of the features of bilingual
communities.
However, code-switching has only begun to get serious scholarly
attention in the last few decades.
-
Here are some definitions of code-switching.
Code-switching is the practice of shifting the languages you use or the way you
express yourself in your conversations. (Thompson, 2013)
-
Code-switching, the use of two or more languages in discourse, is the norm in
many bilingual and multilingual communities.
-
People alternate between two languages smoothly and frequently at various
points, even within a sentence boundary. (Nishimura, 1997)
-
Code-switching refers to the mixing, by bilinguals (or multi-linguals), of two or
10
more languages in discourse, often with no change of interlocutor or topic.
Such mixing may take place at any level of linguistic structure, but its occurrence
within the confines of a single sentence, constituent or even word, has attracted
most linguistic attention. (Poplack, 2010)
-
The movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the
same sentence or discourse. (Fromkin. V., Hayes. N. & Rodman. R. (2003)
p.577)
-
Change of linguistic style depending on situation, interlocutor, setting, etc.
For
bilingual speakers, this may mean using both languages at the word, phrase,
clause, or sentence level. (Goldstein, 2000)
-
The use of more than one language in the course of a single communicative
episode. (Heller. M. (1999) p.1)
-
To use two or more languages in the same discourse. (Myers-Scotton& Jake
(1995))
There are various kinds of definitions of code-switching and each differs
depending on the researchers. From the above definitions, it could be said that
code-switching generally means to switch between two languages
mid-sentence.
11
1.3.2
Types of code-switching
Nishimura (1997) investigated the types of code-switching and functions
of code-switching. We will first look at types of code-switching and types of
code-switching.
(1) Situational code-switching (Bloom &Gumperz 1972)
Situational code-switching is sensitive to changes in contextual features.
The idea goes back to Weinreich (1953, p.73): an ideal bilingual switches from
one language to the other according to appropriate changes in the speech
situation (interlocutor, topic, etc.), but not in an unchanged speech situation, and
certainly not within a single sentence.
E.g. Telephone conversation with friends. (Italian is in Italic)
Akiho: How’s everything?
Christina: It’s great. Actually, our friend is visiting from Italy.
Akiho: What? Really? Silvia? I miss her!
Christina: Yes! She wants to talk to you.
Silvia: Ciao, Akiho!
Akiho: Ciao, Silvia! Mimanchi! Come stai?
(2) Metaphorical code-switching (Bloom &Gumperz)
Metaphorical code-switching is external features such as topics and interlocutors
do not account for all language switches.
Some researchers have found
switches between languages even when contextual features remain the same.
12
E.g. Akiho is talking about her experience in London. (English is in Italic)
“London niaruSt. Paul’s Cathedralniittatoki, otokonokankoukyakuga“She’s going
to fall off the building.” to watashiniitta.
She uses English when quoting the guy.
The switch from Japanese to English
expresses how the guy made fun of me and emphasizes the trauma of the
experience.
(3) Conversational code-switching (Gumperz 1982)
Metaphorical code-switching (Bloom &Gumperz 1972; Gumperz&
Hernandez-Chavez 1972) requires a distinction between an unmarked language
and a marked language.
One language is the norm in certain speech situations
(the unmarked language) but another language is also used in these situations
(the marked language).
Some researchers question the validity of this
distinction: Is it possible to distinguish between an unmarked language and a
marked language in all code-switching cases?
Sankoff (1972), studying
multilingualism in New Guinea, first raised this question. Gumperz (1982) later
developed the term “conversational code-switching” to refer to cases of two
languages used without this distinction.
(4) Rapid code-switching including many instances of intra-sentential
code-switching as in Poplack (1980).
(5) The markedness model (Myers-Scotton 1993a)
“Markedness” here means whether particular instance of language choice is
13
unmarked(expected) or marked(unexpected). When code-switching is
common, it is called “unmarked choice”.
On the other hand, places where
people code-switch in consideration for social, political or economical purposes,
it is called the“marked” choice, i.e. the one that is unusual or different.
Code-switching generally means to switch between two languages.
Furthermore, we can divide code-switching into some types. They may look
similar and complicated.
1.3.3
Functions of code-switching
Nishimuradefinedthree functions of code-switching.
(1) Symbolic functions
Studies dealing with the symbolic functions assume that the two
languages or varieties in a given community represent the two separate
groups and identities (Bloom &Gumperz 1972; Gumperz 1982; Heller
1988b; Myers-Scotton 1993a; Wooland 1988).
The two identities carry
their own, usually contrasting, values and attitudes.
(2) Instrumental functions
“Instrumental functions” refers to what bilingual speakers do when
they interact with each other using the two languages.
These functions
have no direct connection with the symbolic values of languages.
(3) Children’s code-switching
14
Bilingual children use code-switching just as bilingual adults do.
Bilingual children use both symbolic and instrumental functions.
Code-switching does not just refer to switching between two languages.
It has
functions, and bilingual children use both symbolic functions and instrumental
functions.
1.3.4
The reasons why bilingual people switch languages.
Bilinguals are known to switch between two languages for some reasons.
Code-switching has some purposes and it differs depend on the situation, the
interlocutors, age and it changes as we get older and have more experiences.
So, why do bilinguals switch languages?
Let’s look at some reasons.
(1) They want to say something in secret.
When bilingual people don’t want other people to know what they are talking
about, they switch languages that other people don’t understand.
E.g.: A conversation with a friend who speaks Japanese on the train in
London.
Akiho: Wow look at the guy over there!
Marion: Who? The guy standing there?
Akiho: Yeah! He’s so Ikemen.
Marion: Wow! He’s kakkoii!
15
(2) To make up for what they don’t know.
It is natural process in language learning that there are words they don’t
know yet.
Therefore, they substitute words from their first language to make
up for what they don’t know.
E.g.: A conversation with a friend.
Akiho: I feel sick.
Evan: You look pale. Are you alright?
Akiho: Yeah but I think I need some medicine. I hakisou…
Evan: Wait, wait, wait! I’ll get you some medicine immediately!
(3) It helps conveya thought.
They switch languages to express a concept that does not have a direct
translation or equivalent in other language. Here are some examples. Here
is an actual example. This is an example I experienced when I visited my
friends in America. They’re twins and both of them studied Japanese when
they were in high school. Their Japanese language levels are quite high.
Erik: Good morning, Akiho!
Me : Good morning, Erik!
Evan: Did you sleep well?
You sleep on futon in Japan and I was worried
that you might not be able to sleep well on a bed.
Me: I slept very well. I usually sleep on futon on tatami but sleeping on a
bed was actually comfortable.
Erik: That’s good! I liked sleeping on a futon when I was in Japan.
16
Here they understand the concept of futon and tatami, I don’t need to
explain anything about it.
Also, not translating those words into English, which
doesn’t have the concept of these words, Erik and Evan understand the meaning
properly.
Thus, code-switching has a connection with something more than the
features of the language (Hoffman, 1991). From those examples, we can see
that there are some important aspects or a power relationship in code-switching
such as relationship with friends.
It is the same case as we switch dialects or
the areas where we use them. In the next section, we will look at differences
among individuals.
1.4 Individual Differences
1.4.1Introduction
Generally, it is said that the language proficiency in the second language differs
among individuals.
Several factors influence language acquisition: at what age
they learn second language, their cognitive styles, motivation, attitude, character
and so on.
Ellis (1985) says situational factors - who, to whom, about what,
where, when, talking –have a remarkably great influence on progress with the
second language proficiency. We will look at those factors in this section.
First, let’s look at learning strategies.
1.4.2 What is a learning strategy?
Ultimately, language learners learn in their own way.
17
For example, some listen
to the language every day, others read a textbook again and again. Those
strategies related to the way people learn things and are called “learning
strategies”.
How and what kind of strategy language learners use differs
among individuals. There are various definitions about learning strategy
defined by researchers.
Oxford (R. Oxford) classifies learning strategies into
six.
(1) Memory Strategies
This is the strategy that advances learning by memorizing using various
methods.
Memory strategies are things such as pattern practice, pun and to
practice using word cards.
(2) Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive strategiespractice what learners have learnt by using actually, to write
down in a notebook, to underline the important items are.
Cognitive strategies
are things such as translating into the mother language and shadowing.
(3) Compensation Strategies
This is the strategy that language learners use to comprehend the language and
to make up for what they don’t know when they speak.
It could be
communication strategy, which we will look later, if it is in a communicative
situation. To use non-verbal language such as body language is also included
in compensation strategies.
18
(4) Meta-Cognitive Strategies
Meta-cognitive strategy is the strategy used further above cognitive strategies.
It means that various strategies which learners use to adjust to recognize their
cognitive process.
For example, meta-cognitive strategies are planning how
they learn, self-checking what they have learnt.
(5) Affective Strategies
This strategy is related to feelings and attitudes.
Affective strategiesendeavor
to make situations where learners can learn relaxed and without anxiety.
Affective strategies include strategies toencourage themselves and advance
learning by playing music they like, making jokes to relax.
(6) Social Strategies
This is the strategy that advances learning by interacting with other people.
The most basic thing is to ask questions.
Having their mistakes corrected,
making friends with people who speak the target language and communicate
with them, helping each other and practice such as group work, pair-practice are
also included in social strategies.
Learning strategies are techniques or devices that language learners use to
acquire knowledge, and specific behavior that they assume to make learning
easier, faster, more fun, more subjective, more effective and to receive new
situations quickly. (Oxford, 1994; 8-9)
19
1.4.3 What is a communication strategy?
You may have had a difficulty when you are speaking a foreign language.
For
example, you don’t know or you can’t remember the words or phrases you want
to say in the foreign language.
You use communication strategy to deal with
the problem. The behavior or attitudes in such situations are called
“communication strategy”.
The classification of communication strategies differ
depend on researchers, however, there are some kinds of communication
strategies. (Tarone 1977, Tarone 1980, Færch & Kasper 1983, Cook 1991)
(1) Avoidance: to avoid or ignore what the interlocutor says when they don’t
understand.
a. Avoidance
Not to use words or phrases they don’t know.
They avoid topics which sounds
difficult in advance.
b. Change of topics
Tochange the topic into something they can talk about.
E.g. A conversation with a friend
Joel: “A new law was accepted recently. What do you think about that?
Akiho: Well, speaking of law, you’re going to law school soon, right? Are you
excited? Have you finished packing?
c. Abandonment of communication
To give up telling what they want to say.
20
(2) Paraphrase: to use other phrases.
a. Parallel phrases
To substitute parallel words for words what they want to say.
E.g.: Japanese restaurant  restaurant
b. Coinage
To create new words.
E.g.: Japanese restaurantJapares
c. Euphemism/Explanation
To describe concepts or words indirectly or to explain in detail what they want to
tell.
E.g.: A restaurant which has Japanese food.
(3) Mother language use(conscious transfer): to borrow their mother tongue.
a. Code-switching
To use their mother tongue to make up for what they don’t know.
E.g.: I’m on kyuukeinow.
b. Literal translation
To translate a sentence literally into their mother tongue.
E.g.: They say “Noah to sugoshitajikangawatashiwoshiawasenishita.”Instead of
“Noah to sugoshitajikangashiawasedata.”
(4) Appeal for assistance: to appeal for assistance to the interlocutor .
a. Ask the interlocutor again.
To ask for help directly.
E.g.: “What does that mean?Can you say it again?”
21
b. Mime
To appeal for assistance using non-verbal means such as gestures or body
language.
E.g.: They use gestures or body languages to tell the message.
c. Repair
To ask the interlocutor to give a supplementary explanation about what they
don’t understand.
E.g.: In a conversation with a friend;
Rob: “It’s unrequited love.”
Akiho: “Un…unre… unrequited?”
There are various kinds of views how those communication strategies are
related to second language learning.
The positive view is that strategies that
language learners manage to use with words they have to achieve
communication such as paraphrases encourage acquisition.
On the other hand,
it is considered that if language learners can achieve communication just by
using limited words they have, it could be impossible to improve their second
language skills.
The reasons are that they don’t feel necessity to learn new
words or phrases, and they use communication strategies frequently to make up
for their lack of language competence.
22
1.5 Communicative competence
1.5.1 Introduction
In actual communication, we just cannot have language knowledge but we have
to use proper words or phrases depending on the interlocutor or scene.
For
example, when we ask a teacher for help, we should use polite words or phrases.
However, when we want our friends to cooperate, we don’t really be polite. It’s
more casual. Therefore, the concept of communicative competence has been
presented as a necessary competence when we use language. (Hymes, 1971)
What we call communicative competence includes competence related to the
appropriateness of language use such as when, to whom, how they tell, which is
called language competence.Before we talk about communicative competence,
let’s look at language competence and language performance stated by
Chomsky (1965, 1975, 1980).
1.5.2 Language competence & language performance
Language competence is language knowledge related to a mother language.
is in mother language speakers’ brains.
It
Chomsky thinks human can produce
an infinite number ofsentenceswhich they never heard of before due to language
competence.
In contrast, language performance means that a language is actually used in a
specific scene. This is how Chomsky divides language competence and
language performance.
The reason is that language performance includes
some expressions which are deviated from rules or slips of the tongue.
23
Also,
complicated factors are involved with language performance.
Therefore, we
cannot say that language competence is directly related to language
performance.
1.5.3 Communicative competence
The concept of communicative competence was first presented by Hymes
(1971). There arefour types of communicative competence and each one has
different competence. Let’s look at the table.
Table 1: The communicative competence (Hymes, 1972) (Canale& Swain, 1980;
Canale, 1983)
Grammatical
Linguistic knowledge of grammar, sentence structures,
competence
vocabulary, spelling of words, pronunciation and so on.
Sociolinguistic
The ability to use a language properly according to
competence
various kinds of situations.
Discourse
The ability to comprehend things like articles, pronouns,
competence
conjunctions how they are used in a conversation and use
them.
The ability to start/finish a conversation and to change a
subject.
Strategic
The ability to navigate communication smoothly.
competence
Those are communicative competence and people have different
24
abilities with each competence.Communicative competence can be one of the
reasons why some people good at English cannot speak English well.
1.6 Research Questions
Almost all bilinguals use code-switching instinctively and we have found out
that code-switching happens for some reasons.
Also, there are of course
differences among individuals such as language competence, their learning style,
learning strategies and things like that. The following are three research
questions
1. Are people conscious or unconscious when they switch language-mode?
2. Does it depend on the interlocutor and the situation?
1.7
Summary
We have seen bilinguals/bilingualism, difference among individuals, and
some other things related to them. Speaking has complicated process and one
of the most important skills in language learning.
between languages on purpose for some reason.
Sometimes people switch
In Chapter Two, the
questionnaire about language-mode switching will be presented. Also, we will
find out how language-mode switching happens.
25
Chapter Two: The experiment
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, we saw that there were some kinds of bilinguals and
how code-switching related to it.
Also, we found out that differences among
individuals affect language learning.
In this chapter, we will look at
language-mode switching in detail.
2.2 The experiment (questionnaire)
2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment
The aim of this questionnaire is to find out the relation between language
skills of individuals and language-mode switching, where/when/in what kind of
situation it happens.
2.2.2 Method
2.2.2.1Subjects
There were 21 random subjects who are learning a second language or
have learnt it. The subjects were students, immigrants, teachers, office
workers and so on.
They took the questionnaire regardless of gender, age,
backgrounds or nationalities.
Some of the subjects have studied abroad for a
short/long time.
2.2.2.2 Test design
26
The aim of the experiment was to find out if people were conscious or
unconscious when they switch language-mode and to check if it depends on the
interlocutor or the situation when people code-switch.
There were 17 questions
in total and all of them were thought by the author of this thesis. The first 9
questions were about language skills.
Those were about what they think about
their language abilities, how confident they are with the second language, how
much experience of the learning the second language they have and so on.
There was one question about their emotion in speaking second language which
is the 10th question. The other 6 questions were about language-mode
switching, which were about when/in what kind of situation code-switching
happens, if people have experience of code-switching and realize the moment
when it happens and things like that.
2.2.2.3 Procedure
The questionnaire was put on the Internet. The data was randomly
collected and was taken from people regardless of gender, age, backgrounds or
nationalities.
Anyone on the internet could take the questionnaire as long as
they knew the link.
Some of the subjects were students and some of them
were inhabitants in the second language speaking countries.
automatically analyzed by Google drive. It is in the appendix.
27
The data was
2.2.3 Results
(1) Introduction
First, let’s look at results of the questions about language skills. Then
we will find out what it is like and what the subjects think about their language
skills. Second, we will see the results of the questions about language-mode
switching, and then we will find out how and where it happens.
The results for
question 10 and 16 will be presented in Chapter Three.
Table 2: The length of learning second language
Almost half of the subjects have studied second language for 10-15 years, and
all of the subjects have studied a second language for at least a year.
28
Table 3: The data of self-appraisal of second language ability
1- Very low
5- very high
Even though about half of the subjects have studied a second language for
10-15 years, more than 50% ranked their second language skills as normal.
None of them ranked very high.
Table 4: The ranking of four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writingwhich the subjects are good at.
Rank those 4 skills with you’re good at.
29
The result shows that the subjects are good at listening and reading. On the
other hand, it seems that the subjects are not so confident with speaking and
writing, which are “productive skills”.
30
Table 5: The data for confidence with speaking ability in the second language.
None of the subjects are very confident with a second language, on the contrary,
one fourth of the subjects are not confident at all.
Table 6: Difficulties in communicating in the second language.
Can you communicate with people in the second language without any
difficulties?
1- Strongly No
5- Strongly Yes
The interesting thing is that one fourth of the subjects answered yes or strongly
yes to Question 9 in spite of the fact that they are not very confident in the
second language.
31
Table 7: Experience of language-mode switching.
Half of the subjects have experienced language-mode switching, whereas 30%
of them have not.
Table 8: The consciousness of language-mode switching.
About 30% of the subjects realize both times, and other 30% of the subjects
don’t realize the moment neither times when their language-mode changes.
32
Table 9: The situations that language-mode switching happens.
The results show that even though we don’t go to the country where the second
language is spoken, language-mode switching happens. The frequency is
almost the same as the situation that language-mode switching happens in the
second language speaking country.
Also, it seems that language-mode
switching rarely happens in the second language class.
Table 10: The moment when language-mode switching happens
33
It seems that language-mode switching tends to happen when the subjects are
emotionally active in a positive way.
It could be captured as follows. When
the subjects want to tell something but don’t know the way or don’t have enough
language, they try very hard to find the way to tell the message.
Consequently,
language-mode switching frequently tends to happen.
2.3 Summary
We saw that more than 80% of the subjects are not confident with their
second language skills, particularly in speaking.
However, more than one
fourth of the subjects answered that they could communicate with people in the
second language without any difficulties.
Also, we found out that the number of
the subjects who are conscious or unconscious of language-mode switching is
the same.
In Chapter Three, we will talk about the results for the question 5
and 16. Also, we will have further expand discussions about relevance of the
situations, the interlocutors and language-mode switching.
34
Chapter Three: Discussion
3.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, we looked at bilinguals, bilingualism, code-switching
and the differences among individuals. Code-switching is a highly
sophisticated linguistic tool and there is nearly always a reason for
code-switching.Chapter Two shows the subjects don’t think their second
language skills are very high regardless of the length of learning the second
language.
In this chapter, we will talk about the results for Questions 10 and 16,
then the responses to research questions will be discussed.
3.2 Summary of the results
Twenty-one subjects took the questionnaire. Even though about half of
the subjects have studied the second language for 10-15 years, more than 50%
of them think their second language skill is normal. Furthermore, none of the
subjects are confident with their speaking ability in the second language.
Half
of the subjects have experienced language-mode switching, and it seems that
language-mode switching tends to happen when the subjects want to express
feelings which are positive.
35
3.3 Discussion of the results
3.3.1 Introduction
The results of Questions 10 and 16, which are about their emotions
when speaking the second language and the interlocutor, are discussed here.
The data for Question 10 and 16 are also presented in this section.
3.3.2 The results for Questions 10 and 16
More than 50% of the subjects answered Yes or Maybe Yes to Question 10.
It
means that more than half of the subjects feel it is easier to use the second
language when they talk to people whose first language is not their second
language compared to people whose first language is their second language.
On the other hand, about one fourth of the subjects answered Maybe No or No.
Also, more than 60% of the subjects answered that language-mode switching
happens depends on who they are talking to.
36
Let’s look at the reasons.
3.3.2.1 Reasons why they feel it easier – who answered Yes or
Maybe Yes
Five subjects gave shyness or nervousness as reason. Here are the
reasons.
-
I feel kind of embarrassed and too shy to speak Japanese to Japanese people if
I know they can speak English to me. If it’s someone whose native language
isn’t Japanese than I have no worries at all. (L1: English, L2: Japanese)
-
If the interlocutor doesn’t speak my second language, it could be difficult for the
person if theyrealize how low my second language level is. (L1: Japanese, L2:
English)
-
When I talk to foreign people, I become nervous.
(L1: Japanese, L2: English)
-
I feel less embarrassed and less worried to make a mistake because I know that
this isn’t their first language either and they are probably studying it and will be
able to sympathize if I make mistakes.
-
(L1: English, L2: Japanese)
As fellow foreign learners of the language, they are not going to speak it
perfectly either, so I feel less self-conscious. (L1: English, L2: Japanese)
3.3.2.2 Reasons why they feel it easier – who answered Maybe No
or No
Some of the subjects who answered Maybe No or No gave reasons
related to accents, understanding or their second language skills. Let’s look at
the reasons.
37
-
It is not easy to catch what the interlocutor says because the person has his/her
mother language accents.
-
(L1: Japanese, L2: English)
If the interlocutor’s mother language is English, I expect the person to
understand what I want to say just by telling a few words.
On the other hand, if
the interlocutor’s mother language is not English, it can be difficult to
communicate properly as long as I don’t use clear words or phrases. (L1:
Japanese, L2: English)
-
It is not easy to catch what the interlocutor says because the English that the
person speak interfered with his/her mother language.
(L1: Japanese, L2:
English)
-
Even if the interlocutor’s mother language is not English, I still don’t feel
confident with my English skills. (L1: Japanese, L2: English)
As we have seen above, the subjects who answered Yes or Maybe Yes tend to
feel embarrassed or worry about making mistakes in speaking the second
language.
On the other hand, the subjects who answered Maybe No or No
think communication can be easier and happen more smoothly if the
interlocutor’s mother language is their second language since the interlocutor
knows the language perfectly.
38
3.4 Research questions
The research questions in Chapter One are answered here. We had
two research questions;
1. Are people conscious or unconscious when they switch language-mode?
According to the results of the questionnaire, more than half of the subjects are
conscious when they switch language-mode. Subject 1 who speaks English as
his mother language, and French, Spanish and Japanese at native-like level
says he is especially conscious of language-mode changes when he switches
from one non-native language to another non-native language.
Subject 2
whose mother language is English and second language is Japanese says that
he tends to answer in Japanese without thinking if he gets asked a question in
Japanese. Subject 3 whose first language is Japanese and second language is
English says he realizes the moment when language-mode switches from
Japanese to English when he gets spoken to in English.
The interesting thing
is that Subject 2 doesn’t realize the moment when language-mode switches but
Subject 3 does.
Subject 4 says he doesn’t realize language-mode switching
when the communication is happening quickly.
Therefore, we can say that
there is no clear answer to the question. Some people are conscious and
others are unconscious when they switch language-mode.
individuals.
2. Does it depend on the interlocutor or the situation?
39
It depends on
Since more than 60% of the subjects answered that it depends on who they are
talking to, we can nearly say that it depends on the interlocutor.
Some subjects
tend to feel less shy when the interlocutor’s language is not their second
language.
Further questions were asked personally to some subjects after they
took the questionnaire. If they are in the second language speaking country,
they know they have to speak the second language to survive and use it.
However, if they know they don’t have to use the second language, such as the
situation when the interlocutor understands their mother language, they don’t
dare to use the second language.
It is because they don’t have to worry about
making mistakes or feel embarrassed. Therefore, it almost all the time
depends on the interlocutor and the situation.
3.5 implications
According to the results of questionnaire, the subjects’speaking skill can
be improved depending on the interlocutor. It means that if people speak with
the interlocutor who is comfortable and they have no worries making mistakes to
talk with, their speaking ability can be improved efficiently.
Also, if people know
the key to when language-mode switching occurs, it can be easier to speak in
the second language since they know how to switch their language-mode.
40
3.6 Limitations of the Experiments
We have found out that language-mode switching happens depending
on the interlocutor.
However, expand questions, for example the reason and
what kind of interlocutor he/she is should have been also asked so that we would
be able to know why it depends on who the subjects talking to. Also, there
were 21 subjects, which is a small number. We could have asked many more
people to get much more interesting results from individuals.
3.7 Further research
As further research, we can find out some more detailed answers related
to the interlocutor or language-mode switching.
For example, “Does it depend
on the interlocutor’s character?” or “How long does the switch last once your
language-mode has switched?”.
Also, it would be good to divide the subjects
depending on how much experience of the second language they have and take
the questionnaire. We might get different results and investigate further.
3.8 Conclusion
We found out that people tend to feel less shy or embarrassed in
speaking the second language depends on the interlocutor and how long they
have studied the second language doesn’t really matter with confidence in the
second language.
Even though people have studied the second language for a
long time, they still tend to feel shy or lack confidence.
Also, it depends on
individuals whether they are conscious or unconscious when language-mode
41
switches.
Therefore, talking to the interlocutor whom they feel comfortable or
they don’t need to worry about making mistakes can help them improve their
speaking ability and be confident with it.
42
References
Crystal, David. 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge
University Press
コリン・ベーカー著
岡秀夫訳・編 (1999). 『バイリンガル教育と第二言語習
得』東京：大修館書店
小池生夫, 寺内正典, 木下耕児, 成田真澄 (2004). 『第二言語習得研究の現在:
これからの外国語教育への視点』東京：くろしお出版
Nishimura, Miwa. 1997. Japanese/English code-switching: syntax and
pragmatics. New York. Peter Lang Publishing
迫田久美子 (2002) 『日本語教育に生かす第二言語習得研究』東京：アルク
Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. 1981. Bilingualism or not, The Education of Minorities.
Clevedon. Language Matters
Wei, Li, ed. 2010. Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Critical Concepts in
Linguistics. New York. Routledge
43
Websites
Why do bilinguals ‘switch’ languages?. TKI. Ministry of Education. LEAP. 1 May.
2013
http://leap.tki.org.nz/Why-do-bilinguals-switch-languages
Hakuta, K. Bilingualism. Science Direct. Encyclopedia of Neuroscience. 2009:
173-178 Academic Press. 9 May. 2013
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080450469018775
Thompson, Matt. 2013. Five Reasons Why People Code-Switch. npr. 1 May.
2013
http://www.npr.org/blogs/codeswitch/2013/04/13/177126294/five-reasons-why-p
eople-code-switch
44
Appendix
Language mode questionnaire
Your name ― 名前
What is your first (mother) language? ― 母語は何ですか？ *
How long have you studied the second language? ― どのくらい第二言語を学習して
いますか？ *
What do you think of your second language skills? ― 自分の第二言語能力について
どう思いますか？ *
1
2
3
4
5
Very low （とても低い）
Very high （とても高い）
Rank those 4 skills with you're good at. ― 次の４技能を得意な順に並べてください
。 *Listening, Reading, Writing, Speaking ― 聞くこと, 読むこと, 書くこと, 話すこと
45
Rank 2 (2nd
Rank 3 (3rd
Rank 4 (least
best)
best)
best)
Rank 1 (best)
Listening
Reading
Speaking
Writing
How confident are you with your speaking ability in the second language? ― 第二言
語においてのスピーキング能力にどのくらい自信がありますか？ *
1
2
3
4
Not confident at all （全く自信が
5
Very confident （とても自信が
ない）
ある）
Have you studied abroad? (working holiday is included) ― 留学経験はありますか？（
ワーキング・ホリデイも含む） *If your answer is YES, please go to the next question. ―
答えが「はい」であれば次の質問へ進んでください。

Yes （はい）

No （いいえ）
46
If you add all the time overseas together, how long was it? ― 今までの海外にいた期
間を合計すると、それはどのくらいの期間ですか？（旅行期間・留学期間等を合わせ
て）
Can you communicate with people in the second language without any difficulties? ―
何の困難もなく、第二言語で、人とコミュニケーションをとれますか？ *
1
2
3
Strongly No （強く否定）
4
5
Strongly Yes （強く肯定）
In speaking, do you feel it is easier to use the second language when you talk to people
whose first language is not your second language compared to people whose first
language is your second language? ― 人と第二言語で話す際、話し相手の母語が自
分の学習している第二言語ではない時、第二言語を使用することがより容易に感じま
すか？ *Example; Your first language is Japanese and the second language is English.
You talk to people in English whose first language is French. In this situation, do you
feel it is easier to use the second language? ― 例：あなたの母語は日本語で、英語を
第二言語として学習しているとします。あなたはフランス語を母語とする人々と英語で
話をします。この時、英語を母語とする人々と話をする時と比べて、第二言語を使用す
ることがより容易に感じますか。

Yes （はい）

Maybe Yes （たぶん、はい）
47

I don't know. （わからない）

Maybe No （たぶん、いいえ）

No （いいえ）

I don't care. （気にしない・気にならない）

Other:
Why is that? *
Has Language-Mode Switching ever happened to you? ― Language-Mode Switching
が今までに起こったことはありますか？ *If your answer is YES, please answer the
following questions. If your answer is NOT Yes, the questionnaire is finished here. ―
質問の答えが「はい」であれば先の質問へ進んでください。答えが「いいえ」あるいは
「わからない」であれば、ここで質問は終了です。ありがとうございました。

Yes （はい）

No （いいえ）

I don't know. （わからない）

Other:
Did you ever realize the moment when your language-mode changes? ― 言語モード
が変わる瞬間に気づいたことがありますか？For example, you study English as a
48
second language and go to Australia on vacation. Then you realize that you speak
English fluently at some point, which means your language-mode changes from your
first language mode to the second language mode. Do you realize the moment when it
changes? ― 例：あなたは英語を第二言語として学習しているとします。ある時、休暇
でオーストラリアに行くことになりました。滞在中、すらすらと英語を話している自分に気
づきました。言語モードが母語モードから第二言語モードへ変わっていたのです。そ
の変わる瞬間に、今まで気づいたことがありますか？

Yes - when it switches from your first language to the second language. （母語モ
ードから第二言語モードに変わるときは気づく）

Yes - when it switches off from the second language to your first language. （第
二言語モードから母語モードに変わるときは気づく）

I realize both times. （どちらとも気づく）

I don't realize neither times. （どちらとも気づかない）

Other:
Where does Language-Mode Switching happen? ― Language-Mode Switching はどこ
で起こりますか？

In the second language class. （第二言語を学習する授業中）

When I go to the country where the second language is spoken. （学習している
第二言語が話されている国に行ったとき）
49
When I talk to your friends in the second language. （友人と第二言語で話すとき

）

Other:
When does Language-Mode Switching happen? ― Language-Mode Switching はいつ
起こりますか？

When I don't have enough language. （十分に言語を備えていないとき）

When I want to express a concept that does not have a direct translation or
equivalent in other language. （概念を表現するのに、他の言語では直訳や価値を表
現できないとき）

When I want to say something in secret. （何かを秘密に伝えたいとき）

When I'm excited. （興奮しているとき）

When I'm happy （幸せなとき）

When I'm sad. （悲しいとき）

When I'm angry. （怒っているとき）

Other:
Does it depend on who you are talking to? ― 話し相手によって決まりますか？

Yes （はい）

No （いいえ）
50

I don't know. （わからない）

Other:
Is there anything else you wish to tell me about your Language-Mode Switching
experience? ― Language-Mode Switching について何か意見・伝えたいことなどあり
ましたら、よろしくお願いします。
51