Genetic Engineering – 2nd year IB Biology
1. 60 Hours of Lab work (Required) *About 1 Hour a Week – Sending reports
away to other countries, so grading will extremely strict. (Harsh on Labs
write up) *Only 2 or 3 Lab write-ups will be sent to the IB program.
2. Bogus Calculations on every Lab reports, which include calculating errors
(for every equipment) that will be used. Data processing
3. Group 4 project – Gather up all sciences that we are doing in IB to come up
with an experiment, if something that overlaps we can use.
4. Extended Essay – A very long essay to get an IB Diploma, Pick whatever you
like just not biology or psychology (It will be graded more harshly than other
courses) Pick something you think nobody else would pick
5. T.O.K – Theory of Knowledge – how do we know what we know? How do we
really know anything? 1/ 10,000th of everything that could be seen, we see
every single subject, well with philosophy lovers.
Chemistry of Life
- C.H.O.N – chemicals that make up life – Lego Blocks – versatile
- Bonding, Atoms -> Molecules
- Properties of molecules
- How the properties are used in life, Classes of Molecules
- How the chemicals interact with the environment, Environmental
Nitrogen – Stronger bonds hold things together more tightly, strong bonds such as
nitric acids. Properties include strong bonds making things harder to break;
properties used in life include liquid nitrogen to freeze things up quickly preventing
this from melting. There is a lot of nitrogen in the air around which helps with
fertilizing things.
Nitrogen – (5 Valence electron) is ubiquitous it’s everywhere around us. Nitrogen
has 5-valance electron meaning it’s highly reactive. Nitrogen is in a gas form. Once
an atom has like nitrogen has reacted it is really hard to separate. The more reactive
a substance is more stronger it is to break and separate.
Carbon – (4 valence electron) is versatile, which means it reacts with many things,
it’s the main property that’s makes it able to stick to anything.
Hydrogen – (1 Valence Electron) The most reactive substance in the universe. It will
blow your ass your worse then anything else. There is nothing smaller than a
hydrogen ion. Hydrogen is really just a proton and an electron. (Best for supplying
energy)
Oxygen – (6 valence electron) the atom is ubiquitous. Alcohol in small quantities in
life makes your heart healthier. Oxygen is both good and bad. The structure does not
give the property.
Potential Energy – Trapping energy, Body creates H+ but an Enzyme blocks it and
then lets it go as energy for stuff like work, sports, etc. (The things the potential
energy goes into are called “ATP”.) An Example is battery circuits using battery as a
connector in many electronics.
Hydrogen Ion – Small & Gas, very reactive, and ubiquitous, an atom by it’s own with
a negative charge
Covalent Bonds
Ionic Bonds
Hydrogen Bonding
Van der Walls
No Charge, strongest
type of bond, very hard
to break, sharing
One type of charge
positive or negative,
giving or taking
Exchanging with only
Hydrogen, getting as
close as you can to
another atom.
The electron passes
through the electron
wall into the atom
getting closer to the
proton. Geckos have
filaments, which allows
them to walk on walls.
Words to remember:
Functions, Property and
structure
Monomers – One of what you
use to build something because
the smaller the substance is the
better you can get
The properties of the atom when reacted together give new structures of properties
so that using the simple 4 atoms (C.H.O.N) we can build millions of proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates and nucleic acid. Different types of reactions make different types of
molecules.
S.P.F – Structure, Property, and Function are the basis of biology.
Isomers – is a comparative term, they are compounds of the same atoms but
difference shapes or bond structures. There are 2 types; if the bonds are different
then it’s a structural isomer. A geometric isomer is an isomer that has the same
bonds but a different shape. Enantiomers are a sub type of geometric isomer that is
a mirror image or a reflection.
In biology if something is on the same side it is called “cis”, if something are on the
opposite side they are called “trans”.
Molecules: proteins, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), nucleic acid
Hydroxyl Group
Proteins: Proteins are formed by amino acids. The properties consist of long chains
of bonding between atoms. Different types of proteins have different types of
functions such as preventing germs or help growing.
Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are for short-term energy storage.
Lipids: Lipids are for large amounts of energy storage. They also contain calories in
a small place. They are made of monomers, but not a monomer. Insulation and lipid
bilayer
Nucleic acids: Nucleic acids store and sends genetic information, which is why
parents look like their children.
Fats: All fats have the same basic structure, provides us with energy, every fats have
tails. There are 3 classes of fats
Osmosis: Going from a high concentration of water to a low concentration
Hypertonic: High levels of Solute, lower concentration of substance (so things like
salt can sugar dissolves in water). *Used in comparison
Isotonic: Hypo or Hyper concentration considering your body concentration
Hypotonic: Low levels of solute, high level of solvent
Concentration: The amount of the chemical over the space (volume). To test: mole =
6*10^23 One mole of molecule of Na Cl = 58.44 which 200ml = 11.688
Percentage weight change – (weight after – weight before)/ weight before
The percentage weight change is on average about 0.003
Always label the graphs, axis, and unit
Paragraph 1: C.H.O.N, description of all the atoms of CHON, a.k.a weight, reactivity,
valence electrons, state of matter, ubiquitous, etc. Importance of atoms to life. Link
to second paragraph.
Paragraph 2: Bonding, the 4 types of chemical bonds, explanations, how strong they
are, why they are used. Polarity – Ionic bonds. Hydrogen bonds – water – osmosis –
cohesions – surface tensions. Universal solvent – water – dissolves things – binding
makes it polar. To some degree water can be a solid – surface tension. High heat
capacity & an insulator. Lubricant allows the surface to move with less friction.
Transparent – vision with eyes. Unique when dense at 4 degrees Celsius. Vander
Walls are the very weak bond with a polar attraction. Insulator, HSHC, 0 vs. 100
degrees, universal solvent, liquid, cohesion, surface tension, evaporative cooling.
Properties of water.
Paragraph 3: Macromolecules – 4 classes, monomers, S.P.F,
Macromolecules
Monomers
Bonds
Functions
Carbohydrates
(Polysaccharide)
Saccharides
1-4 Glycoside Lineage Carbohydrates in
general provide and
store energy in
animals, plants and
bacteria.
Proteins
(Polypeptide)
Amino Acids
(20 types)
Peptide
Most Important, for
building or growth,
and repair. *Enzymes
Provide energy
Nucleic Acid
(DNA & RNA)
Nucleotides
(A, T, C, G, U)
3 – 5 prime bonding
Coding for proteins,
adding atoms so we
don’t die
Carbohydrates:
Starch – Alpha Glucose they are also geometric isomers. They provide most energy
to this in the planet; every culture based their food on starch.
Cellulose - Beta Glucose are geometric isomers. Humans cannot digest cellulose.
Plants use it for their structure like cell walls.
Protein:
Enzymes – Controls the rate of decaying in anything and everything
Nucleic Acid:
D.N.A – Adds Deoxy to help live longer and slow the rate
Water & its properties
S.P.F
Hydroxyls – (OH-), It makes
the thing basic & polar making
it hydrophilic
Carbonyl – R-C=0-R or H,
Ketones or Aldehyde, Carboxyl
(R-C=OH)
Makes things basic
Makes it acidic and polar
(Carboxyl)
Amine – NH2, makes things
Makes water 23AA = 22water
basic e.g. glycine amino acids
molecules
is Amine + Carboxyl
Sulfhydryl – SH, SH – SH =
Disulfide bridge cross linking
stuff such as hair
Phosphate - PO4 = makes
energy, and makes it polar by
being negative
Methyl Group – CH2, biological
marker, the more methylated
a gene is the less expressed it
is. Methylate and DE methylate
to control expression
Dehydration/ condensation – remove H2O out of 2 monomers to make them bond.
Catabolic – Depolymerize take/ break down (hydrolysis)
Anabolic – Polymerize make (condensate)
Enzymes are biological catalysts that have an active sight that fits a specific
substrate.
The structure and therefore function of an enzyme are controlled by the
environment, can denature and renature these active sight.
Amylase – Breaks down Starch
Nucleus, Ribosomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosome, Vacuole,
Acrosome, Mitochondria, Chlorophyll,
1. Nucleus - Information to run the brain, contains chromosomes
2. Ribosome – where proteins are made from RNA
3. Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth and rough) – surface for chemical activity, rough
translates proteins, smooth express lipids
4. Golgi complex – stores and releases chemicals
5. Mitochondria – powers the cell from oxidation and glucose
6. Lysosome – digests things inside the cell
7. Vesicle – mineral transport
8. Vacuole – contains water and dissolved minerals, transport
9. Chloroplast – where plants create “food”
10. Acrosome – surroundings of a sperm cell
11. Glycosome – carries out glycolysis
1.Enzyme Extraction (Blend the potato)
Protein Structure (4 Levels)
Primary:
Amino acids are
stuck by peptide
bonds. Ribosomes,
created by
hydrolysis
Secondary:
Hydrophobic &
Hydrophilic
pushed into
different areas,
which bends the
shape. Beta plated
sheets when the
acids are in
groups. Alpha
helix when not in
groups.
Thierry:
Ionic reactions,
Vander walls,
Disulfide Bridges,
Hydrogen. Same
as secondary for
hydrophobic and
hydrophilic
Quaternary:
2 of Tertiary and
sticking them
together
Chaperonin: A type a protein helps bend and changes the shape
Universal Solvent,
liquid,
polar,
cohesion,
high specific heat cap,
insulator,
evaporative cooling
freeze 0 - boil 100
Paragraph 4: Enzymes
Catalysis is a change in activation energy of anything, but doesn’t change the
chemical itself.
Substrate – Any chemical that is being reacted on
Substrate Specificity – One substrate for one enzyme
Collisions – One substrate for one enzyme at a time
The active sight - must be in the correct 3 dimensional shapes, giving functions
Denature – What happens moving outside the optimum
The changes in temperature and pH could change the “fit”.
Renature – Changing a protein back into the induced fit. (It will always be the same
shape as long as the primary bonds are not broken) * cannot just control enzyme
with pH and Temperature because it is a crude way,
Other Enzymes Control (More control of enzymes):
Cofactors: Any chemical that needs to be present for the enzyme to do its job, some
enzymes need it to work. Any chemical that works with the enzyme by binding to it
and make it the right shape (Activator) *If it’s a protein it’s called a coenzyme
Cofactors:
Activators: Makes the enzymes to its jobs
Inhibitor: Stops the Enzymes to do its jobs
There are 2 ways Active sight or Allosteric, Active sight will bind onto the front, but
Allosteric binds to a different place.
An inhibitor that binds an active sight inhibitor can be called a competitive inhibitor;
an allosteric inhibitor can be called a non-competitive inhibitor.
Feedback – Where the results tells about the actions. There are Positive and
negative feedbacks. Positive feedbacks make more of it to reach a goal. (Anabolic)
Negative feedback makes less of the enzymes because it will exceed the limit.
(Catabolic) *The product of reactions affects the first reactions.
Paragraph 5
Human’s Organization is disorganization for the universe. Human bodies are
disorganization.