CHCFC301A: Support the development of
children
Support the development of children
Contents
What is child development?
3
Principles of development
4
Why is it important to learn about child development?
5
Principles of development
7
Stages and domains of development
12
The whole child
17
Influences on development
18
Theories of development
What is a theory?
24
Child development theories
24
The value of research in exploring and developing theories of child
development
25
How do people come up with a theory?
26
Use of theories
26
Support the development of children
2
24
27
Use language at an appropriate level of complexity and
friendliness
27
Initiate communication with a child relevant to their interests and
capabilities
27
Demonstrate developmentally appropriate expectations of the
child’s behaviour
28
Use behaviour management strategies appropriate to the child’s
level of understanding
29
Foster the development of independence through type of
assistance provided
30
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What is child development?
Basically, the study of development is the study of change throughout the life
span. A more detailed definition is as follows:
Development is the study of the way people change, from the first moments of
conception right through the life span to old age and death.
From this definition we can see that development begins before birth.
Development begins from the moment conception occurs. The definition
emphasises that development is an ongoing process, right through life until the
moment of death. This definition also states that development is about a person
changing in some way.
You may already have a personal view about what children can do or cannot do at
different ages. You may have your own ideas about how children develop, what
influences this development, and what caregiving practices are appropriate in
different situations.
Activity 1a
Activity 1b
Activity 1c
Activity 1d
Activity 1e
Activity 1f
Activity 1g
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Principles of development
Types of developmental changes
Changes within development can be examined in two ways:


Quantitative change, which looks at measurable changes in a person’s
development. These changes can be measured by comparing an
individual’s development at different times of his or her life or by
comparing an individual’s development with other people at a similar age.
Examples of quantitative change would be height, weight or body
temperature.
Qualitative change, which reflects a new stage that is different, in quality,
from what was happening before. Examples would be going from crawling
to walking stage, or beginning to talk using words from a babbling stage.
These examples show a change in the quality of movement and the
quality of communication.
Quantitative changes
Some of the developmental changes that occur are a result of growth (increase in
size or decrease in size) and maturation of body tissues and organs.
Changes that can be measured are referred to as quantitative changes. Examples
of quantitative changes are increases in height and weight.
Activity 2
Qualitative changes
Other changes that occur during the development process are changes in how the
child functions. These changes include behavioural, emotional and cognitive
changes.
You can’t use a measuring instrument to measure changes in functioning.
Qualitative changes are changes in behaviour and understanding.
Here are specific examples of changes to the way a child functions:
Social changes
Notice changes in social behaviour at different ages. Three-year-olds interact and
socialise with their friends very differently to 12-year-olds; and 18-year-olds
interact and socialise very differently to 12-year-olds.
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Emotional changes
There are changes in the range of emotions a person feels and expresses. A 12month-old baby will express anger, loneliness and frustration all by crying. A 25year-old will express each of these feelings in different ways. As we grow older,
the ways we express different emotions change. (Note: Tiredness, hunger and
pain are not emotions, but can be triggers to emotional states.)
Activity 3
Activity 4
Milestones in development
You have probably heard the term milestone. The most significant developmental
changes during childhood are often called milestones. A milestone marks a
significant turning point in the process of development and provides the
foundation for further development. For example, independent walking is
considered a milestone, as walking is a step on the road to less dependence on
others and provides the foundation from which running, skipping and hopping will
develop.
For each scenario below, indicate whether it’s a qualitative or a quantitative
change.
Activity 5
Why is it important to learn about child
development?
Although development continues throughout the life span, your study in this
module focuses on development during childhood. Childhood covers the time
span of birth to 12 years.
Jot down all the reasons you can think of for learning about child development.
Now, see if your reasons are similar to these:
1
The more you learn about the developmental process, the better you are
able to understand why a child behaves in a certain way. An eight-monthold baby cries when left in the care of strangers. If you know that this is
typical behaviour for children of this age, you will not misinterpret the
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behaviour as being caused by something the caregiver has done. Rather,
you’d interpret it as a baby’s typical reaction at this age and offer comfort.
2
Appropriate caregiving strategies are based on child development
information. If you know that children learn by imitating or copying others,
you will not hit children. This is because, if you do, you know that children
have learnt hitting behaviour from you and will use it on others.
3
Learning about child development gives insights into your own
development. You’ll learn how you have developed certain attitudes
towards children and their behaviour and needs and how you have
developed certain responses when caring for them. If, during your
childhood, you didn’t have books read to you or if books were not valued in
your home, you might think that books are unimportant in a child’s life and
might not place much value on reading books to children. As you study child
development, you will come to realise the value of books and how a child’s
exposure to a range of books positively affects development in many areas.
4
Learning about child development enables you to identify important
influences on a child’s development and helps you understand that how
your care for children will influence their behaviour and development. I
am sure you know that three-year-olds love to ask questions. They will ask
questions about everything and anything. Your response to their questions
will influence how children feel about themselves. If you constantly respond
to questions in a negative way, children learn that they are seen as stupid
and unimportant, that curiosity is annoying and that they are not worthwhile
people. Examples of negative responses are: ‘Not now, I’m too busy’, ‘That’s
a silly question—why do you want to know that?’ and ‘Go away—I’m sick and
tired of your stupid questions’.
If you constantly respond to questions in a positive way, children learn they
are valued, that what they say is important and they feel good about
themselves. Examples of positive responses are: ‘That’s a really interesting
question’, ‘Let’s look up a book to find the answer to that one’, and ‘You
really ask some good questions!’.
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5
Learning about child development enables you to provide an environment
that has a positive influence on children’s development. Having knowledge
of child development enables you to organise activities that are appropriate
for the child’s developmental stage. For example, if you know 18-month-old
children are still developing control of their fingers and the small muscles in
their hands, you know that thick crayons and small, stubby, non-toxic textas
and large pieces of paper to draw on are more appropriate for this age than
ordinary coloured pencils and colouring-in books.
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If you have an understanding of typical development, you’ll be alert to
possible concerns about a child’s development. If you know that the
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typical three-year-old speaks in sentences and can be clearly understood by
adults and other children, you have a basis on which to feel concerned about
a three-year-old who is not talking at all or whose language can’t be
understood. Your developmental knowledge gives a firm foundation for your
concern—your concern will not be based on a ‘feeling’.
7
If you have knowledge of typical child development, you will have realistic
expectations of what children are capable of doing at certain ages. If you
know that two-year-olds have limited coordination skills, you’ll be realistic
about the kind of mess they make at meals. They’ll drop food on the floor.
They’ll have difficulty using a spoon or fork and often will resort to using their
hands. If you know that this is typical behaviour, you won’t expect the twoyear-old to be neat, remain clean and be able to cut their own food. You’ll be
able to accept that the child is still learning and will help the child develop
the appropriate skills over time.
Principles of development
When we talk about child development, it’s important that we understand the
basic principles that govern the developmental process.
Four basic principles of development have been identified:




Development is orderly, sequential and predictable.
There are individual differences in development.
Development is influenced by maturation and learning.
There are sensitive periods during the life span for the development of
some behaviours or skills.
Principle 1: Development is orderly, sequential and
predictable
Generally speaking, all human beings go through the same steps in development
as they grow. They also develop certain behaviours at about the same time in
their lives. This general pattern of development is called typical or average
development.
Let’s look at the skill of walking. Before children learn to walk, most of them go
through this predictable sequence of skills:




neck and head control
shoulder and arm control
sitting with support
sitting without support
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



crawling
able to pull self up using furniture or other aids
able to stand alone
able to walk alone.
As childcare workers, it is useful to know that development is orderly and that it
follows the same sequence for all children. We can make predictions about when
a behaviour will appear. We also need to support children to practise and extend
their existing skills so that they can progress to the next stage.
It is also useful to know that when a particular skill or behaviour does not develop
at an expected time then it may be an indication that the child may need special
help and we may have to seek the support of specialists in the community. For
example, a speech pathologist may be called on to help a child who is slow to
develop speech.
Principle 2: Individual differences
This first basic principle of development emphasises the sameness in children’s
development. The second principle emphasises the individual differences in
development. These two principles, at first glance, appear to contradict each
other. This is not so. The concept of individual differences refers to the way an
individual child’s development varies from typical or average development. Each
child is unique, special and different and each child’s development will be
individual.
Let’s go back to our example of the development of independent walking. The
norm or the typical or average age for the development of this skill is 14 months.
This does not mean that all children will begin to walk independently at 14
months. Some children will walk earlier than 14 months and some will walk later.
The range of normal development of independent walking is from nine months to
17 months.
The average age or age norm takes into account the wide variation in the ages at
which this skill develops in individual children. A child who walks at 11 months is
described as achieving the skill earlier than average. A child who walks at 18
months is described as achieving the skill later than average. Both children are
within the normal range of development for the skill of walking.
This pattern of individual differences within the general pattern of typical
development holds true for a whole range of different developmental behaviours.
So even though (as stated in the first principle) development is orderly, sequential
and predictable, we know that children develop particular skills at their own
individual rate.
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Those who have researched children’s development have established
developmental norms or age ranges that provide a guide as to the period when
certain skills and behaviours are likely to emerge. Table 2 illustrates this.
Developmental norms for the development of certain skills and behaviours in children
Skill or behaviour
Average or typical age
Range of normal
development
Sits unsupported
10 months
8–12 months
Picks up objects using finger
and thumb
9 months
7–10 months
Shows distress when left
with strangers
8 months
5–12 months
Toilet-trained during the day
2½ years
18 months–3½ years
Says first word
12 months
10–18 months
Drinks from a cup
12 months
10–15 months
Walks independently
14 months
9–17 months
Read the description of Polly’s development of these behaviours and skills and
then answer the questions.
By the time Polly was six months old, she was able to sit unsupported. At
this age, she would often sit on the floor and pick up very small objects
using her thumb and finger. Polly was a content and happy baby at home
with her mother but became very distressed and cried vigorously when
left with a babysitter she didn’t know.
By 15 months, Polly was a very independent little person. She was walking
everywhere and a close eye had to be kept on her whereabouts. By this
age, she would drink from her own cup and ask for a drink in her own cup
using her own particular word, ‘bo’—but we all knew what she wanted.
Before her second birthday, Polly was able to use the potty by herself
during the day but she still wore nappies at night.
Activity 6a
Activity 6b
Activity 6c
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Activity 6d
Activity 6e
Each child will have their own individual pattern of development, usually within
the normal range of development.
The importance of individual differences
The concept of individual differences emphasises that each child is unique and
each child develops at his or her own pace. This may be faster or slower than the
average.
It’s important to be tuned in to individual differences between children so that we
don’t expect the same developmental level from each child at exactly the same
age. As caregivers, we need to respond to each child as an individual.
Individual differences in development are the result of different influences in
children’s lives. This brings us to Principle 3.
Principle 3: Maturation, readiness and learning
The way a child develops is also influenced by maturation and learning.
Maturation refers to our genetic make-up. This provides a biological timetable
that controls the timing and patterns of change in our physical characteristics. A
person’s maturation timetable controls the timing of such developments as:




loss of first teeth
growth spurts
brain development
timing of puberty.
A person's maturation timetable controls the timing of such developments as loss of first teeth
Maturation occurs regardless of practice and training and brings the person into a
state of readiness. A state of readiness is a time when a person learns a behaviour
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or skill most efficiently and with the greatest ease. That is, the person is
maturationally ready to learn a particular skill.
If you have lived with a child waiting for the first loose tooth, you will know that
the first tooth will only become loose when the child’s body is ready.
Another example of readiness is that if we tried to teach a child about the
calendar at the age of four, it would probably take over one hundred hours.
However, if we waited until the child was seven years old, it would take about 15
minutes.
Learning is also an influence on development and this occurs as a result of
practice and experience. Maturation, readiness and learning work together as
children grow and develop and will each contribute to the timing of the
development of children’s particular skills and behaviours.
Learning to swim, for example, shows maturation, readiness and learning all
functioning together. It is only when a child can coordinate their arm, leg and
head movements, when they have some upper-body strength and can follow
instructions, that they can learn to make the correct swimming strokes to stay
afloat and move through the water.
The role of both maturation and learning must be considered when planning
activities for children. In fact, there are some periods of time during development
that seem to be an optimal or best time for children to learn. Research shows that
there are times during childhood development when the child is highly sensitive
to new learning. This brings us to Principle 4.
Principle 4: Sensitive periods for learning
The concept of sensitive periods simply means that some skills or behaviours
emerge more naturally at a particular time, given the right conditions.
For instance, studies have shown that the sensitive period for children to learn a
language is before the age of five years —given that they are in an environment
that supports language development. Another example would be that children
will develop attachments in their first year of life if they enjoy a positive one-toone relationship with a carer with whom they can also develop a sense of trust as
their needs are met.
However, if the environment does not encourage the development of the
particular skill or behaviour, it doesn’t mean that it won’t develop. It just means
that it will be more difficult and perhaps will take longer for that behaviour or skill
to develop once that sensitive period has passed.
A good example of the operation of sensitive periods is in the film Nell with Jodie
Foster in the role of the main character. Nell is a young woman who has spent her
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childhood in isolated circumstances and her language development has been
interrupted. You may have already seen this movie as it has been available on
video for some time. You might find it interesting to watch this movie knowing
what you know now about sensitive periods for the development of some skills
and behaviours.
Some researchers have gone so far as to state that there are critical periods for
some developmental changes to take place. Recently, a lot of research has been
done looking at the brain development of children. This research suggests that
experiences in the early years have a permanent effect on brain maturation and
growth. If experiences during early childhood are negative (eg malnutrition, lack
of cognitive stimulation), the damaging effects on the brain development are
permanent and cannot be reversed.
People who are researching the development of the brain during infancy have
found that the brains of infants who have strong, secure attachment relationships
develop differently to the brains of infants who experience high levels of stress
and anxiety. It has been found that, in the long term, infants who experience
strong attachments cope better with daily stresses as they move through
childhood.
Stages and domains of development
So far we have talked about development as one big area of study, To make the
study of child development easier, the information needs to be broken down.
There is so much information available relating to different aspects of
development that if you do not study this information in some organised way you
will become hopelessly confused. To make study easier, the subject of human
development is usually broken down into stages and areas of development.
Stages of development
One way to study patterns of development is to study one stage of development
at a time. A stage in development covers a specific time period during the life
span. Generally, when a child shifts from one stage to the next, there is thought to
be a change in how the child approaches tasks and how the child understands and
responds to events and things in his or her world.
The following table shows the main stages of development that occur over the
life span. The study of child development covers the first six stages.
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Main stages of development over the life span (the childhood period is shaded)
Developmental stage
Approximate age
1 Prenatal
Conception to birth
2 Neonatal
Birth to 4–6 weeks
3 Infancy
4 weeks to 18 months
4 Toddlerhood
18–36 months
5 Preschool
3–6 years
6 Middle childhood
6–12 years
7 Adolescence
12–18 years
8 Young adulthood
18–40 years
9 Middle adulthood
40–65 years
10 Late adulthood
65+
The age ranges given in the second column beside each stage of development are
approximate and should be taken only as a guide as to when a person is most
likely to be in a particular stage. It is also useful to know that the term age, when
studying child development, can have three very different meanings.



When we talk about chronological age, we are referring to a child’s age
from the date of birth.
When we discuss maturational age, we mean the age according to the
maturation of the child’s body and organs.
The developmental age of the child is determined by comparing the
child’s developmental level with typical or average development.
The developmental domains
When we talk about child development in each of the stages, we use the term
developmental domains. (In some textbooks you may see the term developmental
areas.) There are three domains we refer to when studying child development:



the physical domain
the cognitive domain
the social-emotional domain.
The physical domain involves the growth and change in a person’s body and body
functions. In this domain, we look at physiological and motor (movement)
development as well as the influence of health, illness and nutrition.
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The physical domain: locomotor movement —swinging on a rope
The cognitive domain refers to the growth and change of a person’s ability to
process information, solve problems and gain knowledge. In this developmental
domain we consider the study of brain development, memory, learning, thinking,
language and creativity.
The cognitive domain. When telling a story about her toy, this child needs the cognitive skills of
thinking, language and creativity.
The social-emotional domain involves the growth and change of our interactions
with others, and our feelings. Included in this domain is the study of relationships,
emotions, personality and moral development.
The social-emotional domain. Playing at being a doctor, this little boy is also developing
emotionally and socially.
While it is convenient to discuss these domains separately, it is important to
realise that they do overlap. One domain can influence the other.
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The three developmental domains overlap
For example, a six-year-old whose energy is low may not be able to keep up with
other six-year-olds in physical games in the playground. This could affect his
ability to make friends at school. In this case, the child’s physical development will
influence social and emotional development.
See if you can identify the overlap in development in the following areas.
William, aged four, does not yet speak clearly and appears to have difficulty
following instructions. What developmental areas do you think could be affected?
William’s language development could affect the way he plays and interacts with
other children, so it will affect his social development. It might also influence the
feedback he gets from others such as carers and children and this could cause him
to have low self-esteem, thus affecting his emotional development. William’s
language development may not allow him to experience success when talking
through problems so his cognitive development could be affected. Therefore we
can see that William’s language development could affect the social-emotional
domain and the cognitive domain.
This might be a good time to look at some of the terms that we use when focusing
on particular domains. The following should clarify some of the most frequently
used words that we associate with those domains.
Domain of development: Physical
Gross motor skills
The development and control of the large muscles in activities
such as running, jumping, bouncing, etc.
Fine motor skills
The development and control over small muscles of the hands
and fingers so tasks such as drawing, writing and threading
can be achieved.
Coordination
The ability to guide and match the movements of the hand or
foot with what is seen. These skills are necessary for soccer,
netball or tennis.
Balance
Messages from inside the body help children become aware
of the position of their bodies in space and the ways they
must use their muscles to control and balance themselves.
This is also known as kinaesthetic awareness. Gymnastic skills
are a good example of kinaesthetic skills in action.
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Domain of development: Cognitive
Cognitive skills
Cognitive skills relate to the child’s ability to remember and
process information to reason and solve problems. As our
mental abilities develop, our understanding of the world
changes.
Moral values
Children learn a set of values by which they judge a behaviour
(either their own or another person’s) as right or wrong.
Children develop a conscience and guilt feelings about doing
something they know is wrong. This is closely linked to
cognitive development.
Imagination
This is about having ideas and thinking about ways of doing
things.
Creativity
Allows us to put those ideas into a new framework which
reflects originality, experimentation, imagination and
exploration.
Aesthetics
Relates to an appreciation of the beautiful things in the world
such as nature and the arts.
Language skills
The development of a complex communication that enables
interaction between people. We categorise language skills
into expressive language and receptive language.
Expressive language relates to expressing ideas, needs and
feelings through talking and writing.
Receptive language involves the ability to understand and
interpret what others have said or written.
Domain of development: Social-emotional
Social development
Relates to the skills we develop to relate to others. Also
relates to our learning of the acceptable behaviours,
attitudes, beliefs and values of the particular group and
society in which we live.
Emotional
development
Relates to our ability to know and express our feelings. Our
ability to do this will relate to our self-concept and selfesteem.
Self-concept
Relates to the picture we have of ourselves in terms of our
abilities and qualities. A person’s self-concept is either
essentially positive or negative.
Now that you have studied these areas of development and the behaviours that
are associated with them, it’s a good time to try the following activity.
Activity 7
No doubt you found that this task was more challenging than you first anticipated.
The domains do overlap and sometimes the things children do require
development in more than one domain.
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The whole child
You have just learnt that child development is most easily studied as a series of
stages—with different domains or areas of development looked at in each stage.
As stated previously, it is easier to study development in small bits. However, it is
important to keep in mind the holistic nature of development.
The holistic nature of development emphasises that no single area of
development occurs in isolation. For example, a child who has a positive selfconcept and high self-esteem is more likely to interact with others and so gets
practice at using social skills.
Each area influences other areas of development. Children’s development needs
to be looked at as a whole. When you care for a child, you must care for the whole
child, not just for one aspect of the child’s development. As you will learn, quality
care nurtures and enhances the development of the whole child.
Influences and interrelations with other developmental
areas
All the developmental areas - physical, social-emotional, language and cognitive,
inter-relate and impact on each other. Vygotsky saw a strong link between
cognitive development and the development of language. Certainly language is an
important tool in learning. It is difficult to imagine how we would learn without
the ability to ask questions, discuss ideas with others, compare outcomes, debate
attitudes and positions, or talk our way through problems with inner speech.
Physical development allows us to further explore the world around us. Note the
importance Piaget gives to sensorimotor exploration for young children, and
observe how much more complex our ability to explore and discover becomes as
gross and fine motor skills are refined. Physical development allows us to play,
and cognitive theorists see play as an important tool for children's learning.
Problem solving goes hand-in-hand with the development of social skills. All social
interaction involves solving complex problems. Infants must solve the problem of
gaining the attention of adults around them and ensuring their needs are
attended to. Toddlers must solve the problem of sharing space with others
without conflict, preschoolers and school age children must begin to solve the
problems associated with friendships, fairness, and finding a place in the world.
This is all part of social problem solving.
Theory of Mind is a theory that refers to a child's understanding of the mental
states and processes underlying people's behaviour. This understanding indicates
an early stage of metacognition, or understanding how you think, which we will
discuss later in this topic. Children as young as 3 or 4 can understand that you
cannot predict what others will do just from observing the situation, but you must
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take into account the other person's desires and beliefs. Young children develop
theories about the ideas, beliefs and desires of others, and how these will impact
on their behaviours. Research from this theory shows that preschoolers can
problem solve and predict outcomes using their social awareness of others.
Brain research
A child's emotional well being will also directly impact on that child's ability to
learn. Recent research on brain development has shown that the brain is sensitive
to stresses and traumas, particularly in the first few years. Negative experiences
such as trauma or abuse can result in tendencies to anxiety, depression and the
inability to form healthy attachments later in life. Ongoing negative childhood
experiences can result in poor processing and problem solving abilities. These
outcomes are the result of chemical responses to stress in young children, which
alters their ability to deal with later stresses.
Activity 8
Influences on development
Nature versus nurture
What makes children turn out the way they do? This question is often asked by
parents, childcare workers, teachers, the media, researchers and people who
have an interest in children.
How often have your heard comments like, ‘Oh, he has his grandfather’s sense of
humour’ or ‘She is so independent for her age You know that’s because her
parents are working and she has been attending child care.’
It’s generally thought that a child’s development is shaped by two main
influences:


nature (what has been inherited)
nurture (the environmental influences).
Remember, earlier in this unit you learnt about Principle 3 which is about the
influence of maturation, readiness and learning on the development process.
In a way, we got a little ahead of ourselves because these specific influences are
one aspect of the two broad influences on development: heredity and
environment. A child’s maturational timetable and readiness is controlled by their
heredity. Learning is an environmental influence on the developmental process.
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Heredity’s (nature’s) influence on development
Heredity is considered to be the biological package of information that comes to
us from our parents. This information is held in units called genes. In human
beings, these genes make up the biological threads called chromosomes.
A baby inherits characteristics from both parents. These characteristics are
transmitted by specific genes which are located on specific chromosomes. At the
moment of conception, these genes are passed from the mother and the father to
the baby.
The genes are located on chromosomes in each living cell of the body. Humans
have 46 chromosomes. Of these, 23 are inherited from the father (contained in
the sperm) and 23 come from the mother (contained in the ovum). At the
moment of fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm, the baby’s genetic blueprint is
established. Many of a child’s characteristics are determined at that time.
Heredity contributes to development because we inherit different characteristics
and abilities from our parents. Each person has a unique set of genes (except
identical twins) and therefore each person is unique. Genetic information is
passed from generation to generation. For example, a child is born with red hair.
Neither parent has red hair. Looking back at earlier generations, you find that the
father’s great grandmother had red hair.
Some characteristics that are determined by heredity are:
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gender—male or female
rate of maturation
eye colour
hair colour and type of hair
baldness or hair loss
potential height
body structure and frame
the presence of freckles
skin colour
temperament.
Some abilities that appear to be influenced by our heredity are:
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intellectual potential
sporting potential
musical potential
creative talent (eg, talent in drawing).
The environment’s (nurture’s) influence on development
The environment encompasses all aspects of a child’s world that have either a
direct or indirect effect on that child—through all the experiences, relationships,
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interactions and learning in the child’s life, including the family, school,
community and the culture of the society the child is growing up in.
Different children have different environmental experiences. The impact of
environmental influences is not the same for all children. Because each child is an
individual, the type of impact that a particular environmental influence will have is
individual for each child. Each child lives in a physical environment and social
environment.
The physical environment
The physical environment includes such things as the mother’s health during
pregnancy and after birth as well as food, housing, clothes and health care.
Children need to be healthy and looked after physically. This is the basis for all
development. Children who are hungry, cold, tired, sick or in physical discomfort
must have these needs met first.
Here is a summary of some of the key influences from the physical environment:
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health
amount and type of nutrition
housing and shelter
whether the family lives in a rural or urban setting
financial resources.
The social environment
Each child grows and develops in a complex social environment with a range of
people. The child is part of a family and the family is part of a social group and a
particular cultural group that lives in a specific society. That society is divided into
different social classes, and so on. All these different components of the social
environment interact with each other to affect the development of an individual
child.
Here is a summary of some of the key influences from the social environment:
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family
teachers and carers
culture
friends
media
religion
education.
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The nature-nurture controversy
It is accepted that both heredity and the environment influence the
developmental process; the tricky thing is to know which characteristics are due
to heredity and which are due to the environment. People researching in the area
of child development argue about how much of each child’s development is due
to the influence of heredity and how much is due to the influence of the
environment. This is known as the nature-nurture controversy.
I am sure that at some time you have wondered whether some behaviour or
characteristic was the result of a child being born that way or whether it
developed as result of some influence in their lives. Most researchers agree that
development is the result of both nature (heredity) and nurture (the
environment). However, exactly how much is nature and how much is nurture?
This continues to be debated.
Our development is influenced by many factors. These factors are going to help
determine when you achieve certain milestones and also to some extent your
proficiency at these skills and behaviours.
Genetic timetabling
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The development of skills will occur at a predetermined time.
Our bodies contain trillions of cells. Each cell contains chromosomes
which hold all our genetic information.
Chromosomes will determine your eye colour, when you walk, your
gender and so on.
The actual substance that determines these things is DNA.
Within the DNA you will find genes. The genes are a segment of DNA on
the chromosome.
Because your genes are inherited from your parents you will often find
that you have many characteristics in common with your parents and
siblings.
Environmental influences
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Teratogens are those chemical and other external compounds that can
affect the developing foetus and child, for example alcohol and other
drugs, pollution, medication, mercury and other elements, radiation and
so on.
Opportunities given to the child to explore their environment are
influential.
Caregiving strategies used with the child also affect their development.
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Culture and ethnicity
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The cultural contexts that families are operating within will affect all
aspects of a child's upbringing including growth, attitudes, beliefs and skill
development.
Emotions are dealt with by different cultures in many different ways.
Hyson (1990) outlines how Javanese culture encourages reserved, distant
relationships between family members. Intense expressions of feelings
are discouraged. Korean culture also discourages open displays of
emotions.
Families will model appropriate emotional behaviours and then reinforce
the appropriate methods to children.
Children from cultural backgrounds different to their carers will face
difficulties. If carers do not understand how emotions are dealt with in the
different cultures that they are working with, misunderstandings and
distress will arise (Hyson 1990).
Family and socio-economic status
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Children who have the opportunity to attend high-quality programs and to
access resources to further develop skills, such as playing sport, have an
advantage in the development of their skills.
Socio-economic status (SES) has a direct impact on the way parents talk to
and discipline their children. Parents in higher SES groups tend to talk to
and stimulate their infants more, while the lower SES parents tend to be
more authoritative in their interactions (Berk 1999).
The quality of the caregiving and interactions within the family has the
greatest impact.
Birth order impacts development. The oldest child, while tending to be
capable and resourceful, has better language skills and often a higher IQ
than their siblings but can also be conforming and less socially skilled.
Younger siblings tend to be liked more.
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Parenting styles
Three types of parenting styles have been identified by Diana Baumrind (Berk
1996). The table below summarises the parent behaviours and the outcomes or
behaviours of children.
Parenting style
Parent behaviours
Children’s outcomes
Authoritative
Expect appropriate maturity
from children
Children develop well
Set limits consistently
Are affectionate
Children are allowed to
express their point of view
Children participate in
family decisions
Authoritarian
Unresponsive and rejecting
when children do not obey
Children are not negotiated
with
Children are punished for
being disobedient
Happy
Lively
Attempt and master new
tasks
Self-controlled
Friendly and cooperative
Anxious
Withdrawn
Unhappy
React with hostility
Quick to anger
Openly defiant
Dependant
Permissive
Very accepting of children
Little or no discipline or
limits set
Difficulty controlling
impulses
Demanding of adults
Lack of persistence
Adapted from Berk (1996)
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Theories of development
Child development is part of a relatively new area of scientific study called
psychology. Psychology only had its beginnings during the late part of the
nineteenth century and is now a respected area of research and study in
universities. In particular, there has been great interest in research and study in
the branch of psychology called child development. Consequently, a great many
theories have been put forward to explain why and how children develop.
You may think that what happens in research in universities does not really
concern us in our everyday life. It is surprising how much of our thinking and ideas
about children’s behaviour is influenced by the research that has been done and
the theories that have been developed.
What is a theory?
The Macquarie Dictionary (3rd edition, 1997) defines theory as ‘…a proposed
explanation whose status is still conjectural, in contrast to well-established
propositions that are regarded as reporting matters of actual fact’.
A good theory suggests ideas that need to be researched and a theory will be
modified as new information is gathered from the research.
Child development theories
Many theories have been suggested to explain children’s behaviour and
development. Different theories focus on different aspects of development and
behaviour.
Some theories emphasise the importance of the environment and some theories
emphasise the importance of heredity. Some theories focus on a particular area of
development (eg cognitive or personality development) and other theories focus
on processes in development and are relevant to all areas of development.
Theories are also influenced by the life experiences of the theorists.
For example, the child psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1935) grew up in the
communist Soviet Union. Communism is based on the principle of an equal share
for all. Vygotsky also came from a large family and his interest in child
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development came from his efforts to help children with disabilities fulfil their
potential. His theory about cognitive development emphasises social relationships
and interaction in the community in which the child lives. Vygotsky’s life
experiences had a great influence on the theory he developed.
Now let’s have a look at the background of another theorist, the psychologist Jean
Piaget (1896–1980), who was also interested in cognitive development. Piaget
grew up in Europe. He was an only child and grew up in a household that
emphasised scientific study and academic pursuits.
He first studied in the area of the natural sciences. His main source of information
about children’s behaviour was his own three children. His theory about cognitive
development emphasises the child as an individual and learning through discovery
and experimentation. So, just like Vygotsky, Piaget’s life experiences had a great
influence on the type of theory he developed.
The theories of both Vygotsky and Piaget are well respected and offer ideas that
are useful in explaining the processes in cognitive development.
There is no such thing as a right or wrong theory about child development, there
are just different theories. You might reject a theory because it does not appeal to
you as an explanation for children’s behaviour and development. As you read
about another theory, you will nod your head and say to yourself, ‘this makes
sense’. Some theories will appeal to you and perhaps be a big influence on the
way you interact with and care for children. Other theories will not. It is a bit like a
person’s preferences for food or clothes. You will prefer some foods or styles of
clothes over others but that does not mean that another person’s ideas about
these things is wrong. There are no wrong theories about child development, just
different theories.
However, some theories have stood up well over time, and some have been
validated by research. These theories could be seen as more valid than other
theories.
The value of research in working with
theories of child development
There are a lot of child development theories around. As a person working with
children, child development theories will help to provide you with:
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reasons for children’s behaviour (eg research has shown that there may
be a link between child aggression and violence on TV)
practical ways of responding to children’s behaviour (eg research has
suggested a number of strategies to lessen children’s aggressive
behaviour)
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an idea of what sort of behaviour children will develop in the future (eg,
research suggests that if a child is unable to develop a sense of trust with
a primary caregiver because their needs are not consistently met, it may
be difficult for that child to develop trusting relationships later in life)
strategies to use to support children’s development (eg research has
suggested ways to encourage children to develop negotiating behaviours
such as ‘use your words to tell so and so that you are upset’ from a young
age).
Of course, what you learn about each of the above will depend on the theory or
theories that you study and then what you decide to accept or reject.
Note: Child development theories also provide direction for the lawmakers in our
society; for example, research into the effect of physical punishment on children
was partially responsible for the use of the cane being banned and made illegal in
NSW public schools.
How do people come up with a theory?
Have you ever said something like:
‘I bet Sadie behaves that way because…’, or
‘I think the reason Josie does that is because…’, or
‘My theory is that children…’?
These are the kind of statements that lead to the development of a new theory.
You put forward an idea or a set of ideas to explain something that you may have
observed. Researchers in the child development area gather evidence to support
or not support the ideas that have been suggested.
Use of theories
There are a number of different child development theorists around. All have very
valid views that we need to consider. Many children's services' professionals
believe in taking an eclectic approach to caring for children. This means knowing
the theories, understanding the essence of each and using parts of the theory
appropriately depending on the child and the situation.
Theories must primarily be useful to you. They are a tool to help you interpret,
predict and work with what you observe, but are of no use without your
observations and knowledge of each child's behaviours, abilities, and personality.
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Support the development of children
Use language at an appropriate level of
complexity and friendliness
Children gain their understanding of the social world and their place in it from
what they experience. If adults respond to a child frequently with warm, caring
and respectful interactions, the child will build an image of themself as someone
who is cared about, who has worthwhile ideas and who is interesting to others.
What kind of behaviours should we use in our interactions with children that
show them that we care about them and are interested in what they
communicate?
As a sound foundation, we need to make sure of our motivation. Children are very
quick to recognise when they are being patronised or when communication is not
genuine. In everything you do and say, you need to show children that you enjoy
being in their company and are interested in their communications. Making time
to listen and respond to each child is more important than almost any other
aspect of our work with children.
Some of the ways you can ensure that your interactions with children are
frequent, caring and respectful are outlined below.
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spend time with each child
communicate interest and respect
follow up on interactions
respect children's privacy.
Initiate communication with a child
relevant to their interests and
capabilities
When communicating with children you should:
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Listen carefully to what children are saying.
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Check that you understand what the child means.
Use words and sentences that the child can understand.
Be interested in what children are saying, by accepting their ideas,
interests and feelings.
Talk to them about what you know interests them — a child may have a
special interest in dinosaurs so bring that into the conversation.
Model the behaviours you want to encourage.
Think about both verbal and non-verbal communication.
Will the communication be enjoyable?
Is the communication honest?
As carers we sometimes think it is our role to direct children’s activity and
conversations so that they have an ‘educational’ purpose. Sometimes we tend to
ask questions that do not have any significance or interest for children.
Unfortunately neither of these approaches encourage children to continue
conversations or explore new ideas themselves.
Demonstrate developmentally
appropriate expectations of the child’s
behaviour
We have looked at what children can usually do at a particular age—the
expectations you have of your child should be realistic.
Would you expect a toddler to share their bike?
Children do not have the cognitive ability to understand the concept of sharing.
They want what they want and they usually have difficulty waiting for anything.
We can introduce the
Would you expect a three year old to understand that you might feel differently
to them?
Children remain in an egocentric state until around four years old, according to
Piaget. The concept of thinking beyond their own feelings may sometimes be
evident but highly unlikely and you could certainly not expect this to happen.
Would you expect a six year old to complete a complex mathematical problem?
The majority of six-year-old children are beginning to grasp the concepts of
numeracy and may well understand how to add the number of objects and even
be able to take numbers away from others. However, you should never expect
them to complete complex problems.
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Would you expect an eleven year old to listen to you and take no notice of their
friends?
The social development of children as they approach puberty is significant and
their friendships become a very powerful influence in their life. While the values
and morals of the family and other influential people will be there for the
children, you could never expect them to listen to you exclusively.
Realistic expectations
It is by looking at the stage a child is at that you will get an idea of whether or not
their behaviour is typical, which will affect how you deal with their behaviour. An
example might be how differently you would deal with a toddler biting another
child to a five year old biting another child.
There is often an expectation that children will learn to share very early in their
life but is it realistic? How will those two-year-olds feel as they sit in the sandpit
with you and you tell them they have to share the shovels and buckets? Do adults,
in fact, demonstrate an appropriate role model?
Use behaviour management strategies
appropriate to the child’s level of
understanding
Behaviour guidance
Children need good positive behaviour guidance. It will help them learn in time to
control their own behaviour. It’s the behaviour that is unacceptable, not the child.
Reassure the child that they are still loved. Look at the causes and circumstances
surrounding the behaviour.
Praise. Praise and reward acceptable behaviour.
Be judicious about punishment. If you feel it is necessary to use punishment (but
never physical punishment), use it wisely and fairly—and as little as possible.
Positive behaviour is not based on fear and threats. If, for some reason, you’re in
a bad mood on a particular day, don’t let that influence what you say or do.
Communicate positively. Do not tell the child what not to do. Tell them what to
do, instead. For example, say ‘Walk inside’, not ‘Don’t run inside’.
Explain clearly. Explain why a behaviour is unacceptable, making sure you explain
at the child’s level of understanding.
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Adjust the environment. Look at the environment to see what changes can be
made to avoid certain behaviours constantly occurring. For example, if there are
always fights breaking out in the block corner, you might relocate the blocks. If
there are frequent arguments about puzzles, then you may need to buy more
puzzles.
Be consistent. Children will not learn what is acceptable behaviour if a certain
behaviour is laughed at one day and then punished the next.
Punishment
Punishment is only one aspect of positive behaviour guidance. Punishment refers
to children experiencing an unpleasant consequence for a particular behaviour—
for example, not being allowed to play with a particular toy for a short period of
time. Physical punishment should never be used.
If there is a caring relationship between the child and the caregiver, a reprimand
or a temporary loss of a privilege will be enough. This should be combined with
rewards and privileges for good behaviour.
Foster the development of
independence through type of
assistance provided
We have learnt that toddlers need to feel independent. They need to have
support, encouragement, achievable tasks and time to do things for themselves.
They need to have their attempts at independence recognised and valued if they
are to develop a sense of autonomy and positive self-esteem.
We can promote toddlers’ striving for autonomy by providing an environment and
materials that allow as much independence as possible. We do, however, need to
set reasonable limits on behaviour and be consistent in managing and maintaining
limits. The limits should be put in place to protect the child.
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