STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
EXPLORING LAWNS AND GARDENS AS COMPLEX SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
CASE STUDY FOR AAC&U STIRS PROJECT
Loren B. Byrne, Associate Professor of Biology and Environmental Science, Roger Williams
University, Bristol, RI
STUDENT CASE
Part One: Preface
During this case study, you will explore lawns and gardens as complex systems to learn about
science, environmental issues, and evidence-based and ethical decision making. Before that,
first take some time to reflect about how lawns and/or gardens relate to your personal life.
Activity One: Preparatory Reflection Exercise
(Complete before reading the rest of this document)
Learning Objective: By completing this activity, you should be able to clearly articulate a
personal reflection (e.g., memory, emotional connection, or other relationship) about lawns
and/or gardens.
What do you think about and/or feel when you hear the phrase “lawn and garden?” Do you
associate it with your family or home? Your childhood chores? A suburban neighborhood that
you wish you could live in? Or something else entirely? Is your reaction positive, negative, or
indifferent?
There is no right or wrong answer—just be honest and thoughtful in your reflection. You can
choose to focus on a specific experience or a more general statement about lawns and/or
gardens—or a mix of the two. The key goal is to reflect in depth about some current
relationship you have to lawns and/or gardens and, using that reflection, develop clear thesis
and conclusion statements.
After developing a good thesis and conclusion that can be supported with explanatory
statements, write a short essay (~400–500 words) about your lawn/garden connection. You can
write this essay in any style you would like but be sure that your thesis and conclusion are
clearly identifiable to the reader. Also, be sure to use proper English grammar. You should be
prepared to share your reflections with your classmates and instructor.
Part Two: Introductory Thinking about Lawns and Gardens
Have you ever noticed that lawns and ornamental gardens (with flowers and shrubs) seem to
be everywhere in urban, suburban, and even rural environments? They surround buildings,
roads, and sidewalks, fill many nooks and crannies in our cities and neighborhoods, and cover
large areas in parks and cemeteries. To make them look “just right,” many people spend a lot of
time and money managing them, from simply mowing the vegetation and planting a few annual
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
flowers (e.g., marigolds, petunias) to more intensively irrigating, adding fertilizers and
pesticides, and designing extensive gardens with dozens of plant species. In total, upwards of
80 percent of Americans annually spend nearly $150 billion on lawn and garden management
(NGA 2004; Hall et al. 2006). As a result, there is more area of lawn in the United States than
any single food crop: over 128,000 square kilometers (Milesi et al. 2005)!
Lawns and gardens are so common that we often take them for granted, not thinking twice
about creating and maintaining them in a certain way. Rarely do people ask simple questions
about lawns and gardens, such as: Why are they so abundant and why do they look the same in
so many places? Why do some people obsess over having “perfect” lawns? What are the effects
of common management practices on the environment and on the health of humans and other
species? If there are effects, what steps can be taken to reduce the health and environmental
risks of lawn and garden care?
Investigating these questions allows one to learn a lot about humans, the environmen, and
human-environment relationships. These insights can also guide people’s decisions about
how—and WHY—we design and manage lawns and gardens the ways we do. If nothing else,
knowing something more about lawns and gardens can provide great conversation starters for
picnics and parties! As you engage in the investigation, a key question for you to think about is:
 Given what I know about the social and environmental aspects of lawns and gardens,
how would I manage them to reduce any environmental or health risks that I am
concerned about?
Activity Two: Current Knowledge Reflection Exercise
(Complete before reading the rest of this document)
Learning Objective: By completing this activity, you should be able to describe your current
knowledge about the environmental and sociological issues related to lawns and gardens.
Be prepared to discuss your responses to these questions with your classmates and instructor.
A. What do you already know about the ecology and sociology of lawns and gardens?
(If you’re unsure what is meant by “ecology” and “sociology,” ask your instructor for
additional guidance so you brainstorm relevant answers.) List as many words or
simple phrases as you can and/or explain key points.
B. What are the most common and socially accepted appearances (or aesthetics) of
lawns and gardens in your community and, if different, across the United States? In
other words, what should a stereotypical, “ideal” urban green space look like?
Learning Objectives for the Rest of the Case
To facilitate and improve your learning, review the following objectives now and review them
as you complete the activities in Parts Three through Six. They should help you focus on and
think more critically about the central ideas of the case.
After completing this case study, you should be able to
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
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Describe how lawns and gardens are complex socio-ecological systems that contain
many interacting environmental and social variables;
Accurately summarize, interpret, and communicate results of peer-reviewed scientific
studies about lawns and gardens in the context of management decisions and risk
analysis;
List some of the primary environmental, social, and health risks arising from lawn and
garden management practices, and explain why each is a concern;
Discuss how scientific evidence can be used to inform lawn and garden management
decisions and the ethical considerations and implications of varied decisions (especially
in the context of risk analysis and reduction);
Synthesize information about lawn and garden socio-ecology to generate holistic views
of the predominant worldviews and paradigms for lawn and garden management;
Articulate a personal understanding of the nature and value of evidence-based problem
solving and reasoning in the context of lawn and garden socio-ecological systems; and
Express reflections about your evolving personal ideas about lawns and gardens.
Note: For the next few class sessions, bring your laptop or tablet with you so you can access
electronic resources relevant to this case.
Part Three: Diverse Views of Lawns and Gardens
Three A: A Neighborly Debate
The following scenario will help situate the activities of this lesson in a real-world—and
hopefully more interesting and personal—context. Although fictional, the information
presented is realistic and based on people’s experiences. Perhaps you will recognize someone
you know in the characters!
One early summer afternoon, as you’re sitting in your backyard reading, you hear loud voices.
Curious, you walk toward the shouting to see what’s going on. Your two neighbors are standing
at the edge of the street engaging in a fairly heated debate that you can’t help but overhear:
NEIGHBOR 1: It’s time to clean up your yard. It’s an embarrassment to the neighborhood.
NEIGHBOR 2: Are you kidding me? Yours is the embarrassment. The way you soak it in chemicals
is terrible because you’re increasing the risk that the rest of us—not to mention the
local stream—are going to get sick.
NEIGHBOR 1: You’re just a paranoid eco-freak. They wouldn’t sell these chemicals if they caused
problems. Instead, the chemicals make our yards look much nicer. This increases our
property values and helps everyone. But you. . . your yard. It’s so overgrown and ugly
that it brings down our property values. If you had any respect for the rest of us and
yourself, you’d take much better care of it. Hey, in fact, I’ll help you. I have some extra
fertilizer and insecticides you can have. And I’ll lend you my mower so you can cut down
that patch of weeds.
NEIGHBOR 2: Keep your poisons away from my thriving ecosystem! And those “weeds” are
valuable flowers, milkweed, bee balm, and asters, which are needed for food by the
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
butterflies and hummingbirds. But you wouldn’t know that since your yard is nearly
empty of any life—save that one species of grass that provides no food for anything. The
poisons you use to keep it that way are probably killing anything else that might wander
into your lawn. Your dog’s gonna develop cancer any day now because of it and then
you’ll be sorry.
NEIGHBOR 1: (Rolls his eyes) I doubt that. My father used lawn chemicals forever and nothing
happened. It’s more likely that you’re spreading Lyme disease and West Nile through
the whole neighborhood because of the nasty bugs in your yard. I should report you to
the health department.
NEIGHBOR 2: Go for it. There’s no evidence that ticks and mosquitoes are more abundant in my
yard than yours. In fact, the diversity of plants I grow surely helps keep numbers of good
bugs higher, which then eat the bad bugs. If you’d plant more diverse gardens in your
yard, you could help with that, too.
NEIGHBOR 1: Nope. Chemicals are the only way to be sure that the pests are killed.
NEIGHBOR 2: Well, and I’m not even sure why I’ll mention this ‘cause it won’t change your mind,
but the main problem you’re helping cause is climate change. That’s going to lead to
more bug and disease problems that you won’t be able to control.
NEIGHBOR 1: “Oh, yes of course, climate change. That’s the ‘greenies’ answer to everything. ‘You
can’t do that ‘cause it causes climate change.’ Puhleeease.
NEIGHBOR 2: Puhleeease is right. Please stop burning so many fossil fuels with your non-stop
mowing and leaf-blowing. Those have a huge carbon footprint. Not to mention the
greenhouse gases coming from the soil of your nitrogen-soaked lawns. If you only knew.
NEIGHBOR 1: Oh, I know enough to know that what I do in my little yard isn’t going to affect the
whole Earth’s climate. That’s just insane.
NEIGHBOR 2: You’re insane because you refuse to open your mind and think about the evidence.
NEIGHBOR 1: Well, if you’d open your eyes, you’d see how ugly your yard is and how the rest of
the neighborhood hates it because it’s too. . . too. . . well it’s just too different and
overgrown. There’s your evidence. It’s not a normal American lawn with normal shrubs
and flowers all lined up neat.
NEIGHBOR 2: Different is good. Different is better for biodiversity, the environment, and my
health—the whole neighborhood’s health. If you’d open you mind, you’d see how
you’ve been brainwashed by the lawn care industry and their ads. What you’re doing in
your yard is . . . it’s just WRONG and stubborn.
NEIGHBOR 1: If being wrong means maintaining a respectable, good-looking home then I don’t
want to be right. Speaking of which, I have to go now—I need to finish blowing the grass
clippings out of my driveway. Want to come over and help?
NEIGHBOR 2: No, thanks. I have to get back to my garden sanctuary so I can watch the birds.
Want to come do that when you’re done?
NEIGHBOR 1: Sounds too “hippie” for me, but I’ll see you on Sunday at the Smiths’ picnic, right?
NEIGHBOR 2: Of course, we’ll all be there. It should be a good time just like always.
With that, the two neighbors walked back to their own yards leaving you wondering what
started that debate! It seemed so personal at times, but at the end it seemed like they were
able to put their disagreements aside and move on—which is a good thing of course. But still,
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
who knew a conversation about lawns and gardens could become so heated? It got you
thinking. . . .
Poisons and stream health? Greenhouse gases and climate change? Milkweed and butterflies?
Lyme disease and the health department? How could so many different and seemingly
unrelated issues come up in relation to lawns and gardens? What do any of those have to do
with lawn and garden management? You looked back at the yard around your home. It’s not
quite as perfect at the chemical-loving neighbor’s but not as “wild” looking as the “hippie”
neighbor’s. It has some clover in the lawn and a few nice flowering plants in the gardens—
pretty ordinary overall. It receives some fertilizer and a bit of grub-control insecticide in the
spring and is mown about once a week. Is this enough to be causing anyone (or anything) any
harm? You haven’t seen any hummingbirds or many butterflies in it—or really many animals at
all, especially not the colorful songbirds and bunnies you have seen in your “hippie” neighbor’s
yard. Are there things you could change to attract more biodiversity to your yard?
The “hippie” neighbor referred to his yard as an ecosystem. What did he mean by that? Is YOUR
yard an ecosystem? What’s an ecosystem?
Activity Three A: Lawns and Gardens as Ecosystems
Scientists have many specialized names for the subjects they study. One critical ecological term
that everyone should know is ecosystem. Most likely you’ve heard this word before but check
yourself: what do you think an ecosystem is? How would you describe it to a kindergarten
student? Turn to a neighbor and compare your thoughts about the definition of an ecosystem.
Then see how your initial ideas compare to the following descriptions.
In general, an ecosystem is any unit of the environment (at any size, big or small) that contains
living organisms and non-living materials that interact. When studying ecosystems, scientists
think about how the living and non-living materials are transformed from one form into
another, including from living into non-living forms and vice versa. For example, in a forest
ecosystem plants convert non-living molecules (water, carbon dioxide, and others) into living
plant molecules (such as sugars in leaf cells) through the process of photosynthesis. In turn,
living plant tissues die (becoming non-living detritus) and their molecules are converted back
into carbon dioxide (by decomposer bacteria in the soil). In addition, transformations of living
matter into other forms of living matter occur when organisms consume others, as when leaves
are eaten by deer and insects that are each consumed by their predators. The feeding
relationships among organisms create an ecosystem’s complex food web. Although these
descriptions are simplified, photosynthesis, decomposition, and food-web connections help
create a “circle of life” that is characteristic of nearly all ecosystems. Studying the ways that
ecosystems “work” is complicated because of their many interacting parts and changing
environmental conditions. However, understanding ecosystems is important so humans can, for
example, better manage soil fertility for crops, prevent the growth of pest populations, and
prevent the extinction of species.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
When an ecologist identifies an ecosystem, imaginary boundaries are placed around it to create
a “unit of study.” (For example, imagine that a forest ecosystem, including some of the
atmosphere and soil, is defined by an imaginary bubble inflated around it.) The size of the
ecosystem and the placement of the boundaries are determined by the researcher’s questions
and the variables that will be examined. Another important aspect of ecosystems to consider is
the movement of materials across their boundaries. For example, in a small forest ecosystem
(say, one square kilometer), deer will often move in and out of that ecosystem. So will water
and gases. Scientists refer to such movements as “inputs and outputs” of the ecosystem.
Measuring them is an important part of understanding how ecosystems function and what
factors may be affecting them.
Are humans a part of ecosystems? For a long time, ecologists ignored humans and chose to
study “wild” nature and ecosystems not affected by humans. However, most scientists probably
now accept that human activities are too large and important to ignore; they impact nearly all
ecosystems around the world in direct and indirect ways. To ignore them would be to miss a
critical part of studying how ecosystems are working and changing. This is especially true in
urbanized environments where humans live and manage the ecosystem components. In
addition, because humans are living creatures, they certainly fit within the “living materials”
part of the definition of an ecosystem!
Using the information above and any other environmental knowledge you have, write answers
to the following questions and be prepared to explain your reasoning to your classmates and
instructor.
1. Can lawns and gardens be considered ecosystems? Explain your answer in a few
sentences.
2. List as many of the specific living and non-living components of lawn and garden
ecosystems as you can. (Hint: think above- and belowground.)
3. Draw a simplified, but accurate and sophisticated, diagram (including labels) of a
lawn and garden ecosystem. You may use boxes and/or images to illustrate the
components of the ecosystem. Use arrows between the components to show how
materials are transformed or move. Also use arrows to show the ecosystem’s major
inputs and outputs.
4. What would happen if the imaginary boundary around the lawn and garden
ecosystem became real and nothing besides light could move across it (like a sealed
greenhouse) and it was abandoned by its manager (i.e., no one took care of it
anymore)?
5. Does describing lawns and gardens as ecosystems change the way you view them?
Why or why not? If yes, what changes?
Three B: The Sociocultural Context of Lawn and Garden Management
Although all lawns and gardens have common characteristics, they differ in many ways from
place to place. For example, as suggested by the “neighborly debate” above, Neighbor 1 prefers
a well-manicured lawn with one grass species and no weeds. In contrast, Neighbor 2 likes a yard
with high biodiversity and a small lawn that looks “wilder” with dandelions. Scaling up to larger
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
geographical areas, people living in Boston, Atlanta, St. Louis, Seattle, Phoenix, and around the
world probably have different opinions and preferences for what their lawns and gardens
should look like. Why? What factors influence people to manage their lawns and gardens in
different ways? Examining this question requires consideration of the sociocultural context of
lawns and gardens.
The sociocultural context refers to all the variables associated with humans, their communities,
and cultures: age, gender, family size, ethnicity, hometown, religion, education level, political
affiliation, income, profession, and so on. Examining such variables is needed to answer
questions such as: What motivates, enables, and limits people’s decisions and actions? Why, in
the same situation, will one person make choice A but another will make choice B? How does
one’s society and culture affect an individual’s opinions and choices? These questions relate to
the study of social systems.
Social systems are similar to ecosystems in that they are composed of diverse, interacting parts
that influence each other to create the system’s patterns over space and time. As is true for
ecosystems, social systems can be studied at many scales (households to global), and they
change over time as people, materials, and information move in and out of them. Whereas
ecologists study the biodiversity of ecosystems, social scientists might examine the diversity of
ideas, behaviors, and cultures among social systems and, at larger scales, the diversity of
characteristics among different types of social systems (e.g., families, neighborhoods, cities,
ethnic groups, organizations).
The diversity of social systems and humans is staggering; no two are alike! Because we each
have different life experiences, we each develop an individualized set of knowledge, opinions,
and attitudes—in other words, we each have a unique worldview. A worldview is like a
permanent pair of eyeglasses that every person wears; the lenses of our worldview glasses
influence how we see the world. Most of the time, we forget—or are completely unaware!—
that our outlook and interpretation of the world and our situations are colored by our
worldviews. Though it may be difficult to take off our worldview glasses to see the world
through someone else’s eyes, this can be helpful—if not essential—to understanding many
societal issues, including environmental ones. Of course, many factors other than the
worldview influence a person’s behaviors; those also need to be considered in any thorough
analysis.
Worldviews highlight each person’s individuality. In reality, however, everyone, and their
worldview, is part of and thus (strongly) influenced by social systems. In turn, individuals and
their worldviews affect the characteristics of social systems. This interaction between
individuals and social systems leads to the emergence of shared knowledge, beliefs, and
attitudes among groups of people. When a shared idea becomes “popular,” such that a large
number of people integrate it into their worldview, it may become a paradigm within the social
system. Ideas associated with religion, art, fashion, and economics that explain accepted truths
(values, morals) about what the world is, how it works or should be are often paradigms (for
example, “God punishes sinners” or “Economic growth is good”). When paradigms affect
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
people’s behaviors, social norms (i.e., normal, acceptable behaviors) are generated, such as
wearing clothes in public or eating a certain food for a holiday dinner.
Paradigms, like worldviews, can be taken for granted and unquestioned: “they are true
because. . .well they just are, and everyone accepts them!” In this way, paradigms become
entrenched in a society and may be very hard to change. Those who reject a paradigm or
question its legitimacy can be attacked (verbally or even physically) or ostracized from a group.
Of course worldviews and dominant paradigms can and do change within individuals and social
systems, respectively, but perhaps not without conflict (i.e., think of a person’s internal struggle
when presented with new information, the turmoil during social revolutions like civil rights
movements, and wars between societies with differing religious paradigms).
Activity Three B: Conflicting Perspectives on Lawns and Gardens
Turning back to the focus of our case study, we can ask: To what degree do different
worldviews and paradigms affect people’s different outlooks about and approaches to lawn and
garden management? What personal and social factors affect a person’s worldview and social
paradigms about lawns and gardens? In other words, what motivates people to manage their
lawns and gardens in certain ways and, just as importantly, to want others to do the same? To
explore these questions, consider the following list of people with (assumedly) different views
about “proper” and “desirable” lawn and garden management. Choose several that you think
would be interesting to “get into their head” and try to see lawns and gardens as they might
see them. To do this, respond to the following three prompts, perhaps working in groups as
guided by your instructor. Be prepared to summarize, discuss, and defend your thoughts with
other students and your professor.
1. Summarize a possible quote (in two or three sentences) that each person might provide
to a social scientist (or, if you prefer, newspaper reporter) who asks them this question,
What do you think is the most important consideration of proper lawn and garden
appearance and management?
2. For each person, brainstorm a list of possible factors that influenced the perspective
conveyed by the quote. In other words, speculate on how the person would answer this
follow up question from the social scientist or reporter: What makes you say that? (Or
why do you believe that?)
3. Using the responses you generated above, describe several possible generalized “lawn
and garden paradigms” that arise from shared views about the “best” appearance and
management of lawns and gardens within a group of people. For each paradigm,
describe the characteristics that would identify the boundaries of the group from which
that paradigm emerges (or the types of people that would accept that paradigm).
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Professional landscaper
Wealthy homeowner who worries
about “what the neighbors think”
Lazy homeowner who doesn’t care
“what the neighbors think”
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Manager of a public park with
sports fields and picnic areas
Official from a town’s water
company
Real estate agent
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
 Mother of two children who like to play
in the yard
 Owner of a local hardware and gardening
store
 Environmentalist
 Owner of a lawn chemical company
 Homeowner whose favorite hobby is
flower gardening
 Someone not listed here that you think
of
Activity Three C: What Is Your Lawn and Garden Worldview?
Hopefully the information and activities so far have helped you start thinking more critically
about lawns and gardens, including through the worldviews of environmental scientists (i.e.,
they are complex ecosystems) and social scientists (i.e., many sociocultural variables affect
people’s ideas about creating and managing them). In addition, exploring the concepts of
worldviews and paradigms have hopefully helped you start to make sense about how to
consider why people’s perceptions and management practices of lawns and gardens are so
diverse.
In context of what you have explored so far, take a moment to reflect again on your own views
of lawn and gardens. What do you think are the most attractive types (or aspects) of lawns and
gardens? What do think are the most important considerations when deciding how to manage
them? What personal or social factors have influenced your own lawn and garden worldview?
Is your view influenced by any social paradigms (specifically about lawns and gardens or
others)?
Follow the directions from your instructor about how to prepare and share your reflections.
Part Four: Socio-Ecological Research about Lawns and Gardens
A growing amount of scientific research is revealing interesting information about the
ecological and sociocultural dimensions of lawns and gardens. However, if we only consider the
environmental and sociocultural characteristics separately from each other, our understanding
of these ecosystems will remain limited. This is because, in reality, lawns and gardens are
complex socio-ecological systems in which the sociocultural and environmental variables are
interrelated and strongly influence each other. Identifying and more closely examining these
interrelationships from a holistic socio-ecological viewpoint allows us to see the patterns and
dynamics of lawns and gardens in more meaningful ways.
Now that you have a stronger conceptual background for examining the environmental,
sociocultural, and integrated socio-ecological dimensions of lawns and gardens, you should be
better able to read, explain, interpret, and synthesize scientific studies about them. This section
of the case study will introduce you to some of this scientific research and guide you toward
deepening your skills for critically thinking about socio-ecological systems. In addition, as you
explore these studies, continue to reflect on your evolving personal views by answering this
question:
 Does the evidence from this research affect any aspects of my lawn and ecology
worldview?
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
Activity Four A: Non-target Effects of Pesticides
Controlling pests is a common management norm in lawns and gardens. This is because
herbivorous pests reduce the health and, thus, aesthetic quality of turfgrasses and garden
plants that managers work hard to maintain. Naturally, most people’s lawn and garden
worldview dictates that a decline in the appearance of the plants is undesirable and requires
corrective action. Often this causes people to apply pesticides to kill the undesirable organisms.
Many pesticides are designed and applied to kill specific organisms: herbicides to kill plants,
insecticides to kill insects, rodenticides for rodents, etc. However, these chemicals can also
harm non-target organisms—that is, the non-pest organisms that are not meant to be
affected—by killing them or affecting their health and behavior (i.e., lethal and non-lethal
effects, respectively). In some cases, affected organisms may be beneficial in the lawn and
garden ecosystem, such as predatory arthropods that eat pests (e.g., “good bugs” like beetles
and spiders).
This situation has inspired research that seeks to answer a basic ecological research question:
How do applications of pesticides affect non-target organisms in the ecosystem? A key followup question is: Do any changes in the non-target organisms’ populations have other ecological
consequences, such as changes in food webs? If they do, the application of pesticides may have
unintended risks. For example, it can be hypothesized that pesticides reduce the abundance or
feeding abilities of beneficial predators. If this hypothesis is true, we can predict that pests may
survive and reproduce better over time because the number of predators has been reduced. In
this way, pesticide applications can actually cause an increase (or outbreak) in the pest
populations. Understanding such risks may influence one’s lawn and garden management
decisions.
The hypothesis above about non-target effects of insecticide applications has been tested in a
few key studies. Examples of their results are presented in Figures 1 and 2. Review these
carefully and answer the following questions.
Questions
1. What patterns are shown in these graphs? (Be precise and use units in your answer
as appropriate.)
2. In the context of food webs, how do the general patterns shown in Figure 1 relate to
those in Figure 2? What conclusions can be made when they are considered
together? Specifically, how do they relate to the hypothesis presented above?
Bonus: How might the phrase “correlation does not equal causation” apply to
these data? Suggest a follow-up study that could be done to strengthen the
conclusions.
3. If these patterns are generalized to most lawn and garden situations and other
organisms, what interpretation can be made about the risks of using pesticides in
lawn and garden ecosystems?
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4. Extend these results into a viewpoint of lawns and gardens as integrated socialecological systems. What are linkages between these results and sociocultural
variables that should be considered for a more holistic understanding?
Activity Four B: Jigsaw: Ecological Research about Lawns and Gardens
In this activity, you will be asked to review a peer-reviewed article that presents research about
a lawn and/or garden ecological topic. As you review it, prepare to share what you learn with
your classmates by taking notes on the main research question, the primary results, conclusions
drawn from those results, and the implications of the results and conclusions for management
decisions.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
You will be asked to share what you learn with students who have read other papers, and they
will share their findings with you. In this way, you will be able to learn about more research and
collaboratively work to integrate the findings from many studies together (this is called a jigsaw
activity). Among the topics that you might learn about in this section are:
 Greenhouse gas emissions due to lawn management
 Effects of land cover on ecosystem properties
 Nitrogen biogeochemical cycling and movement in lawns and gardens
 Conservation biological control by planting flowers
 Effects of native plants on wildlife
 Landscape-level plant diversity and pollinators
 Pesticides in water run-off and stream pollution
 Lawn care life cycle analysis
After you review the research in your group, work together to complete one of the following
tasks. The goal is to clearly communicate the general results of the research to a non-scientific
audience and explain how they relate to sociocultural variables (i.e., using a socio-ecological
system perspective). In addition, make sure to clearly convey any risks and/or positive aspects
of lawn and garden management activities that are suggested by the research.
1. Write a synthetic summary of the research in the form of a memo to a local town
council to help them make decisions about the management of the town’s green
spaces.
2. Prepare a set of “lawn and garden management recommendations” for your
campus’ landscaping crew. Briefly explain the reasons supporting each
recommendation. Include introductory and concluding paragraphs to frame them.
3. Create a lesson plan for a high school science class that will teach students about
lawn and garden ecology using information from the reviewed studies.
4. Another idea that your group develops to summarize and integrate the reviewed
research. Check this with your instructor and obtain approval before proceeding.
Activity Four C: Sociocultural Dimensions of Lawns and Gardens
Some people are obsessive about their yard care; others don’t care at all. As highlighted in
Section Three B above, lots of variation, and even contradictions, exist in people’s landscaping
concerns, motivations, and behaviors. In their work, Blaine et al. (2012, 259) came to recognize
that many yard managers “are simultaneously concerned about chemicals but driven to use
them; they seek individual safety but pursue community benefits; they are concerned about
costs, but also about personal commitments of time and labor. Lawn consumers are, in short,
ambiguous figures.
Despite such variation and apparent ambiguity, it may be possible to identify important
patterns and themes that help us make sense of the complex sociocultural dimensions of lawn
and garden management. Examining research on this topic can help us develop a more holistic
understanding of what factors generate ecological patterns in urban landscapes—and in turn,
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
how people might be guided to alter their landscaping behaviors to reduce environmental and
health risks.
Results from such research are presented in Figure 3 and Table 1. Examine these to answer the
following questions (following guidelines provided by your instructor).
1. Figure 3 suggests a pattern between two variables but doesn’t explain why the pattern
exists. First, explain what the pattern is. Then, state a hypothesis to explain what factors
might produce the relationship shown.
2. Based on the information in Table 1, briefly explain (in list form) what sociocultural
variables affect people’s lawn and garden management decisions (i.e., beliefs,
motivations) and why they affect the decisions. Then, rank them from highest to least
influential based on your best predictions for what is likely to affect the management
decisions of an “average” suburban homeowner.
3. Optional extension: Choose one or two of the sociocultural variables identified from
Table 1. Explain how each variable “fits into” social systems. In other words, what other
variables influence it? What worldviews or paradigms is it associated with? How might it
change over time and differ from place to place? In turn, how does this variable help
create variation in lawns and gardens across urban landscapes?
Hope, D., C. Gries, W. Zhu, W. F. Fagan, C. L. Redman, N. B. Grimm, A. L. Nelson, C. Martin, and A. Kinzig. 2003. “Socioeconomics
Drive Urban Plant Diversity.” PNAS 100: 8788–92. Copyright (2003) National Academy of Sciences, USA.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
Table 1. Quotes summarizing results from studies about sociocultural dimensions of lawn and garden management.
People who diversified their yards with more plants "(described) feelings of pride, satisfaction, pleasure, enjoyment and
emphasizing the therapeutic value of doing yard work and gardening." (Harris et al. 2013, p. 353)
Some people expressed "anxiety and resentment around the pressure to maintain the lawn" while others have feelings
"dominated by prise and satisfaction." One person commented, "I think we have a responsibility as part of this neighborhood...
to maintain our property to ... a higher standard as opposed to a lower standard" (Harris et al. 2013, p. 353).
Results of surveys with gardeners by Clayton (2007) suggest that "gardening serves a variety of functions for the gardener, from
improving property value and promoting social connections to enhancing perceived control and reducing stress. In addition to
these practical aspects, many seem to appreciate it simply as an opportunity to observe, experience and appreciate nature" (p.
223). Further, this study found "no significant correlation between an appreication of the nature-related benefits ... and
concern for the ecological implications of gardening practices" (p. 223).
In a survey, "84% (of respondents) say their yard is a place of beauty, 81% say a place to socialize with friends, 74% a place to
observe nature, and 71% a place for recreation" (Blaine at al 2012, p. 261).
Blaine et al. (2012) also found that "although ease and cost are important factors in homeowners' decision to keep their lawns,
neither of these considerations gets as much agreement as the desire that the lawn 'fits in' with the general look of the
neighborhood" (p. 262).
"…socioeconomic status ... is an important predictor of lawn-care expenditure…" such that "higher lawn-care expenditures and
lawn greenness would be associated with higher" income and education level (Zhou et al. 2009, pp. 756-757).
"Rules set by … neighborhood communities, and gated communities … call for the mandatory use of a lawn care company and
landscaping firm, and explicitly lay out the chemical packages requried for lawn care" (Robbins et al. 2001, p. 377).
"... many local governments ... regulate lawn management. So called "weed laws" restrict the height of vegetation in lawns and
implement fines on homeowners who do not follow them … the presence of such policies reinforces the lawn aesthetic and
feelings of social responsibility associated with management of idealized lawns" (Byrne 2005).
Through advertising, lawn chemical companies "created new demand for its products and set the aesthetic 'bar' for the
landscape of urban America" (Robbins et al. 2001, p. 376).
"…decisions about lawn care extend well beyond the desire to fulfill one's personal aesthetic preferences to serve as symbolic
expression of the self and to actively maintain or construct identity and status within a community" (Carrico et al. 2012, p.
431).
Carrico et al. (2012) found "no effect of environmental concerns on fertilizer use; those who were concerned about the
environment and concerned about their own exposure to chemicals were no less likely to use fertilizers than those who
indicated that they do not hold these attitudes" (pp. 446-447).
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
Part Five: Considering the Broader Societal Context: Ethics and Decisions in a Complex World
As our scientific knowledge about urban ecosystems has increased, many people have raised
questions and concerns about how common human lawn and garden management activities
can negatively impact the environments we inhabit, other species, and human health. Risks
have been identified for common management activities such as fertilizer and pesticide
applications. In addition, concerns about excessive use of water and fossil fuels, biodiversity
loss and conservation, and the overall sustainability and well-being of urban ecosystems and
human societies are often given as reasons to reconsider how we think about lawns and
gardens. In response, some individuals, communities, and organizations have used their
concerns as motivation to take action in diverse ways. Although such concerns and related
scientific information can influence people’s decisions and management activities, they don’t
always do so. Other aspects of their worldviews, strong social paradigms, and other limitations
(e.g., finances, time, competing interests) often prevent many people from changing their
landscaping behaviors in ways that reduce risks. In addition, some people have defended
traditional lawns and gardens against rallying cries for change; they suggest, for instance, that
well-maintained lawns have beneficial aspects (as listed in Table 2) and that the risks of
landscaping activities are minimal and exaggerated by “tree-hugging environmentalists.” (It
must be noted however, that the benefits may be relative; certainly lawns have many more
benefits than concrete surfaces.
Table 2. Suggested benefits of lawns. (Adapted from Beard and Green 1994)
But are the benefits of lawns
Easy-to-install, durable, low-cost land cover
greater than other green land
Prevent soil erosion
covers? Do the benefits of lawns
Pervious surface for water infiltration and flood control
outweigh their costs? Research
Trap and help decompose pollutants
and evidence are needed to help
Absorb carbon dioxide and sequester carbon in the soil
answer these questions,
Provide cool surfaces to moderate urban temperatures
interpretation of which will be, of
Reduce fire risk, especially around buildings
course, be colored by one’s
Create open space for higher visibility and safety
Provide places for recreation and leisure
worldview.)
Increase property values
Provide attractive urban green space
Overall, increase urban well-being via mental and social benefits
The differing opinions,
worldviews and paradigms about
what constitutes the “best” lawns
and gardens generate interesting social debates, even among otherwise friendly neighbors, as
portrayed in the “neighborly debate” above. Which side of the debate has the most convincing
arguments? Should reducing risk management by using the best available scientific evidence be
a central goal for our landscaping choices? Are some decisions just plain wrong and should be
banned? Is there room for compromise among the possibilities? The next few activities will help
you consider these issues.
Activity Five A: “Lawn and Disorder”
Read the following newspaper articles. While and after you read each one, jot down some
notes about your initial reactions to the information and quotes presented in each. These notes
will serve as a basis for a discussion/debate and/or writing assignment provided by your
instructor.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
1. Debating a pesticide ban in Colorado:
http://www.denverpost.com/ci_22557278/colorados-turf-wars-over-pesticide-usetrigger-fears
2. Fines to promote water conservation in California:
http://www.sfgate.com/science/article/State-water-board-expected-to-OK-500-a-dayfines-5623907.php
3. Installing garden alternatives to lawns:
http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/2002/2002-04-12-landscaping.htm
Activity Five B: Lawn and Garden Outreach and Advocacy
A lot of information exists online about lawn and garden management. As with any topic, some
of that information may be speculative (i.e., not supported by strong evidence), highly
opinionated or biased by strong emotions or other of the authors’ interests (especially
monetary gain). Is the goal of the presented information to convince the reader that a certain
perspective or conclusion is the “right” one? Or does it take a neutral stance allowing the
reader to reach her own conclusion? The challenge for any reader is to interpret and evaluate
the source and reliability of the information presented to determine whether it should be
accepted, rejected, or investigated further. In this activity, you will have an opportunity to
practice these skills while reviewing a variety of sources presenting information about lawn
(and some garden) management.
Review some of the websites listed below; be sure to click through the different pages on each
to gain sufficient information to evaluate it. Also, conduct your own internet search to find
more websites of local organizations providing information about lawn and garden issues. (Are
there any in your community or local area that you can find, such as master gardeners, local
landscaping companies, or environmental clubs?) Take notes about each to help answer the
following questions, and be prepared to discuss your findings with your classmates.
Questions
1. What general position or conclusion is being presented?
2. Is valid and reliable evidence presented to support the position or conclusion? What is
the nature of that evidence—is it from scientific studies or other sources?
3. Who are the authors? Can you identify any biases that they might have?
4. Overall, do the “talking points” and conclusion seem valid and reliable or not? If so,
what criteria did you use to make that determination? If not, why not?
5. Across all the websites, which one(s) present the most compelling, interesting and/or
convincing information and arguments? Do any of them affect your thinking in any way?
Websites
 Beyond Pesticides: http://www.beyondpesticides.org/lawn/index.php
 Loveyourlandscape.com: https://www.loveyourlandscape.com/Default.aspx (lawn care
link)
 Safe Lawns: http://www.safelawns.org/blog/
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
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Turfgrass Producers International: http://www.turfgrasssod.org/pages/consumerresources/maintaining-turfgrass (turfgrass benefits link)
National Wildlife Foundation: http://www.nwf.org/How-to-Help/Garden-forWildlife/Gardening-Tips.aspx
The US Environmental Protection Agency: http://www2.epa.gov/safepestcontrol/lawnand-garden
National Pesticide Information Center: http://npic.orst.edu/
Scotts MiracleGro: http://www.scotts.com/smg/gosite//home
Lose the Lawn: http://www.losethelawn.com/about.php
Heartland Institute: http://news.heartland.org/newspaper-article/2007/12/01/whatreal-scientific-consensus-pesticides
Lawn Care Academy: http://www.lawn-care-academy.com/
Grasstools.com info on pesticides: http://www.grasstools.com/articles/lawn-pesticidebest-practices.php
Debug the Myths (about pesticides): http://www.debugthemyths.com
Activity Five C: Scaling Up—Does It Really Matter What Happens in One Small Yard?
As revealed by sociocultural studies (Table 1), people enjoy their lawns and gardens—which is
also supported by their widespread presence where people live. There is no doubt that lawns
and gardens have many positive dimensions and are not going to “go away.” Yet, a key question
underlying this case study is whether lawns and gardens should be managed to reduce any risks
associated with them. This brings forth the ethical dimensions of lawn and garden care and the
social implications of individual decisions.
Some people may be skeptical about the negative and larger impacts of lawn and garden
management. They may ask: Does it really matter what someone does in their small lawn and
garden? The answer to this question may depend on the scale of interest: Does it matter for
who? Me? My family? My community? My watershed? My country? My planet? As the
sociocultural and environmental context changes, so too might the interpretation about
whether, and how much, it matters. What could be viewed as positive at the individual yard
scale (e.g., a weed free lawn thanks to herbicides) may not be positive at a larger scale (e.g.,
herbicides in local water ways having negative effects on wildlife). It is important to recognize
that individual decisions and actions can combine with the actions of others to create negative
outcomes at larger scales, and to analyze these larger, “scaled-up” impacts.
Two additional sets of information can help generate more informed responses to the question
of whether lawn and garden management matters at bigger scales. The first is data that place
pesticide use and the amount of lawn and garden area in a larger context (Figures 4 and 5). The
second is a set of news stories that reveal “real world” concerns and impacts of lawn and
garden management. After reviewing these, respond to the numbered prompts below; be
prepared to defend your interpretations and conclusions in discussions with your classmates.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
Prompts
1. Summarize, in several sentences, the information presented in Figure 4. (Hint: focus on
comparisons between the sectors in A and patterns over time in B.)
2. Summarize, in a couple of sentences, the information presented in Figure 5.
3. Lawns cover approximately 31.6 million acres of the continental United States (Milesi et al.
2005). Using the data in Figure Five A, what percent of the (A) total land area and (B) urban land
area of the continental United States is this? If this percentage of lawn cover remains the same
through the year 2050, what percentage of the total US land might be lawns?
4. Choose several of these articles to read. Summarize, in a few sentences, some of the main issues
raised by them:
o Smog and lawn mowers in Los Angeles:
http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/05/national/05MOWE.html
o Water use, droughts, and lawns
 In the Southwest: http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/12/us/to-save-water-parchedsouthwest-cities-ask-homeowners-to-lose-their-lawns.html?pagewanted%253Dall&_r=1&
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Paying people to tear up their lawn in Las Vegas:
http://www.reviewjournal.com/news/water-environment/turf-rebate-program-seessuccess
o
Pesticides and:
 cancer risk in dogs: http://news.discovery.com/animals/pets/dogs-absorb-lawnchemicals-130508.htm
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the decline of honeybees: http://www.wired.com/2012/04/neonicotinoids-gardens/
the decline of birds (neonicotinoids reported on in this story are also used in
lawns and gardens): http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/07/140709birds-insects-pesticides-insecticides-neonicotinoids-silent-spring/
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a ban on them in Canada due to human health risks:
http://www.thestar.com/news/ontario/2009/04/21/ontario_to_enact_toughest_pestici
de_ban_in_canada.html
o
Water pollution due to lawn fertilizer in many locations including:
 The Chesapeake Bay (2 links): http://www.washingtonpost.com/pb/national/lawnsare-adding-to-chesapeake-bay-pollution-studysays/2011/03/28/AFDCOdqB_story.html
http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/large-dead-zone-signalscontinued-problems-for-the-chesapeake-bay/2014/08/31/1e0c2024-2fc2-11e4-9b98848790384093_story.html?wpmk=MK0000205
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And Maryland’s legal response:
http://www.chesapeakebay.net/blog/post/maryland_passes_law_to_reduce_p
ollution_from_lawn_fertilizer
Toledo and Lake Erie: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/05/us/lifting-ban-toledosays-its-water-is-safe-to-drink-again.html?_r=0
Minnesota: http://www.extension.umn.edu/Garden/yard-garden/lawns/preventingpollution-problems/
5. Given your responses to questions one to four, what conclusions do you make about whether
lawn and garden management “matters” (i.e., creates significant risks at larger scales)? In other
words, do you think that there are important ethical and social issues that must be considered
when one person makes individual decisions about the management of the lawns and gardens
he or she is responsible for? Or should people not worry about this and instead worry about
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
other activities that may have more important environmental and health consequences (such as
driving inefficient cars)?
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
Figure 5B republished with permission of the Society of American Foresters, from Projected Urban Growth (2000–2050) and Its
Estimated Impact on the US Forest Resource, Novak, D.J., J.T. Walton. Journal of Forestry, Volume 103, Number 8, December
2005; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
Part Six: Conclusions: Seeing Lawn and Garden Socio-ecological Systems
Lawns and gardens are almost wholly human-created ecosystems. Because their characteristics
are influenced (determined) by many sociocultural variables, we might call them cultural
constructs. Typically, management practices in them are often determined by strong
sociocultural pressures (i.e., neighbor peer-pressure, advertising, local laws) and personal
preferences that arise from complex social system characteristics. Many people probably don’t
even realize how strong social paradigms influence their own view and decisions, nor that their
lawn and garden management activities may have important human and environmental health
implications.
Many scientists and others concerned about reducing the risks of human activities are
suggesting that a paradigm shift is needed in lawn and garden norms; these suggestions arise
from a growing body of scientific evidence that highlights the negative aspects of urban
landscape management practices (of which only a small part could be included in this case
study). Such analyses lead to important ethical questions such as: even if people are not
personally concerned about the risks to themselves or think the risks are minimal, do they have
a social responsibility to act in ways that reduce perceived risks to others?
Before concluding this case study with a final reflection writing in which you can draw your own
conclusions, it should be helpful to review where we’ve been to refresh your memory of key
issues and develop a more comprehensive framework of lawns and gardens as complex sociocultural ecosystems. With that synthetic perspective, you will be better prepared to think about
the many factors that might cause you to revise your own “lawn and garden worldview” and
suggest what an appropriate “lawn and garden paradigm” should be for society (or at least
many people) to adopt.
Activity Six A: A Holistic View of Lawns and Gardens as Socio-ecological Systems
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
As part of Activity Three A, you drew a diagram of lawns and gardens as ecosystems with many
interacting ecological variables, including inputs and outputs. Since then, we’ve explored the
many sociocultural aspects of these ecosystems and recognized that they are better thought of
as socio-ecological systems. Thus, the simpler ecosystem diagram is incomplete.
Review your ecosystem diagram now and think about how you can improve it by adding
sociocultural variables. Either modify the original or create a new diagram to integrate a wide
range of sociocultural components. To be thorough, review the information from throughout
the text of this case study, from the readings, and from ideas generated through discussions
and reflections.
As with the original ecosystem diagram, use arrows to show ecological and sociocultural
variables are related. Think about what the sociocultural inputs and outputs are (hint: ideas and
information are sociocultural variables that can move between people).
Once you have completed your new socio-ecosystem diagram, share it with your classmates
and compare it to theirs. What similarities and differences do you notice? Did anyone come up
with creative ways to depict the complex socio-ecological relationships?
Activity Six B: Developing Final Conclusions
Now that we’ve reached the end of this lawn and garden case study, your final task is to
communicate your final reflections and conclusions to others. This case study contains a lot of
diverse information. What do you think are the most important points? What ideas or issues
made/make you stop and think the most? What points do you think everyone should know?
Where, ultimately, do you stand on what constitutes acceptable risk for lawn and garden
management?
To summarize your final “lawn and garden worldview,” write a 1000–1200 word “op-ed” essay
for a magazine or newspaper. In this form of essay, you are free to state your personal
reflections and evaluations of information; however, the best essays provide logical arguments
that are supported with explicit supporting evidence. Thus, your essay should describe
information you learned from throughout this case study, especially scientific evidence. The
central challenge is to use the evidence to develop your conclusions. In addition, as part of your
conclusions, provide a general recommendation to your readers about what you think they
should do when it comes to lawn and garden care. Inasmuch as you want to convince your
readers that your conclusions and recommendations are “correct” (and thus should be
integrated into their worldview), your overall goal is to write an engaging and convincing
argument that the reader will accept.
Epilogue: Much More to Explore about Lawn and Garden Socio-ecological Systems
Epilogue, Part One: What Have You learned about Lawns and Gardens?
Review your first reflections about lawns and gardens (from Activities One and Two). Then
consider what you have learned from this case study and think about responses to the
following questions.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
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What are the important “big picture talking points” that you learned?
What did you learn that made you stop and think; or made you happy, angry, or sad; or
otherwise changed your understanding of urban green spaces?
How have your perceptions of lawns and gardens or, more generally, humanenvironment relationships changed based on what you learned in this case study?
If you have an opportunity to manage a lawn or gardens in the future, would your
decisions and management activities will be influenced by anything you learned from
this case study?
Write a one-page informal (perhaps like in a journal) reflective essay in which you highlight your
most meaningful or favorite answers to the questions above. Alternatively (or in addition),
write a bullet-point list of the main “take-home messages” that you can develop from this case
study that you will probably remember five years from now.
Epilogue, Part Two: Questions and Resources for Continued Reflection, Discussion, and Learning
Hopefully this case has made you think critically about lawns and gardens, question some
paradigmatic assumptions about them, and by the end, left you wanting to know more. The
resources listed in Appendix A provide additional information. Reading them will surely add
additional, but enlightening complexity to your mental diagram of lawn and garden socioecosystems.
Finally, here are additional questions that can extend your analysis and push your reflections
further:
 What do you want to know more about to guide your lawn and garden management
decisions?
 If you ever have the opportunity to design a flower and shrub garden, what criteria will
you consider when you are choosing your plants?
 Based on what you learned in this case study, what do you think is the most important
management decision that lawn and garden managers should make, and why?
 Revisit the neighborly debate in Part Three. If you were Neighbor 2, what are the two
most compelling arguments you would provide to Neighbor 1 to justify your
management choices?
 Are “weed laws” that regulate how people manage their lawns appropriate? Or do they
infringe on people’s private property rights too much?
 Do we need lawns in certain places? Would it be acceptable to let all vegetation grow
wild?
 Ultimately, do you think it’s possible to change a large number of people’s minds about
lawn and garden management to reduce environmental and health risks? Or are the
current paradigms too entrenched?
What educational programs could be developed for young children to help them
develop a more sustainable and healthy “lawn and garden worldview?
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
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Insecticide Imidacloprid Causes Outbreaks of Spider Mites on Elm Trees in Urban Landscapes.“
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Zhou, W., A. Troy, J. M. Grove, J. C. Jenkins. 2009. “Can Money Buy Green? Demographic and
Socioeconomic Predictors of Lawn-care Expenditures and Lawn Greenness in Urban Areas.“
Society and Natural Resources, 22: 744–60. DOI: 10.1080/08941920802074330.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
About the Author
Loren B. Byrne is an associate professor of biology and environmental science at Roger Williams
University in Bristol, RI. In addition to traditional science courses in ecology and environmental science,
he teaches courses that reflect his interests in interdisciplinary systems thinking and humanenvironment relationships, including Conservation Biology, Urban Ecosystems, Scientific Illustration, and
Sustainability Studies. These interests were cultivated while he was an undergraduate student at Hiram
College in Hiram, OH, where he pursued an individualized course of study through a self-designed major
in Ecological Artistry, which synthesized environmental studies, ecology, and the visual arts. As part of
his studies, Byrne completed an internship at the Bronx Zoo in New York City in the horticulture
department; while there, he conducted a research project about the “ecology of zoo exhibits,” which
examined the design and biological aspects of animal use of their outdoor enclosures.
Professor Byrne subsequently earned his PhD in Ecology from The Pennsylvania State University in State
College, PA. His dissertation project examined the effects of urban landscape management on soils and
their ecology. Specifically, he examined how the creation of lawns and garden mulch affect soil physical
and chemical properties, earthworms, ground-dwelling arthropods, and carbon and nitrogen cycling. In
addition to studies about the ecology of lawns and gardens, Byrne has read extensively about the
broader cultural and sustainability issues of urban landscape design and management. Through his
studies, he developed a synthetic understanding of the issues that enabled the preparation of this case
study.
Byrne began his position at Roger Williams University in 2007. RWU is a small primarily undergraduate
institution that supports its professors in pursuing the scholarship of teaching, which is one of the
reasons he was excited to obtain a position there. Byrne is passionate about cultivating excellent
teaching and uses methods of scientific teaching (collecting data through formal studies about what
methods help students learn) to improve his pedagogical skills. He has helped lead research projects
about science laboratory instruction, “flipped classrooms,” and living learning communities. In addition,
he is constantly developing creative and hands-on classroom learning activities to help his students
improve their knowledge and systems-thinking skills so that they can better understand—and take
positive action about—how humans can live more sustainably in their communities and together create
a more prosperous future for us all. This interest has led to a book project he is editing, entitled
“Learner-centered Teaching for Environmental and Sustainability Studies” to be published in late 2015.
Appendix A. References for Additional Information
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for Environmental Harmony, 2nd ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press .
Byrne, L. B. 2005. “Of Looks, Laws, and Lawns: How Human Aesthetic Preferences Influence
Landscape Management, Public Policies and Urban Ecosystems.” In Emerging Issues Along
Urban-Rural Interfaces: Linking Science and Society, edited by D. Laband, 42–46. Auburn, GA:
Auburn University. http://docs.rwu.edu/fcas_fp/75.
Byrne, L. B., and P. Grewal. 2008. “Introduction to Ecological Landscaping: A Holistic Description
and Framework to Guide the Study and Management of Urban Landscape Parcels.” Cities and
the Environment, 1(2), http://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/cate/vol1/iss2/3/.
STUDENT CASE STUDY—BYRNE
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2012. The domestic garden—its contribution to urban green infrastructure. Urban Forestry &
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23: 973–7. http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/49345.
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and Ecological Design.” Landscape and Urban Planning, 92: 282–92. DOI:
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