CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter will show the review of related literature of the present study.
The review comprises: (1) sociolinguistics (2) speech community (3) bilingualism
(4) language choice (5) code and code switching.
A. Sociolinguistics
People interact with others in society use language as their means
of communication. Without a language, people will find some troubles
when they do their activities and toward the others. There are no people or
society without a language. The role of a language among the people in
this life is very crucial. The study of linguistics reveals that language and
society cannot be separated to be investigated. It develops into
sociolinguistics or the sociology of language.
Socio means society and linguistics means a scientific study of
language, or a science dealing with the language. Sociolinguistics is the
branch of macro linguistics, as one of the branches of linguistics.
Sociolinguistics is called an inter discipliner because it concern not only
language itself but also another science outside of language.
There are some definitions given by some sociolinguist. Hudson
(in Wardaugh 1998:13) says that sociolinguistics is the study of language
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in relation to society. While Wardaugh (1998:12) stated that:
sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationship between
language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the
structure of language and how languages function in communication. In
addition, Trudgil (1974) explained that sociolinguistics is a part of
linguistics which is concerned with language as a social and cultural
phenomenon.
Another definition is given by Criper and Widowson (1975) who
relate language phenomenon and culture by saying “Sociolinguistics is the
study of language in operations; its purpose is to show the convention of
language use relate to others aspects of culture”.
Referring to the various definitions above, at least there are three
important things in Sociolinguistics; they are language, culture and
society.
Examining the way people use language in different social contexts
provides a wealth information about the way language works, as well as
about the social relationships in a community, and the way people signal
aspects of their social identity through the language.
Sociolinguistics actually does not discuss a structure of a language,
but it focuses on how a language is used, so it could play its function well.
From this statement, we can get a description that people also face
language conflicts before sociolinguistics appears. So it is clear now that
the role of sociolinguistics is to manage a language as its functions in
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society, or in other words sociolinguistics deals with a language as means
of communication. In line with that explanation, there must be a close
relation between language and people who use the language.
Some sociolinguists, for example Halliday gave another name of
Sociolinguistics as institutional linguistics. He said that sociolinguistics
deals with the relation between a language and the people who use it. The
term ‘the people who use it’ in this statement refers to a group of people
(speech community) who use language as a means of communication.
Meanwhile, the language users are characterized by the following aspect:
behavior, custom, norm, value, culture, social status, etc.
B. Speech Community
People are social being who belong to a certain community. It is
very existence of language critically depends on availability of social
group who claim a variety as their own maintains its distinctiveness from
the varieties spoken by its neighbors. According to Romaine, speech
community is a group of people who do not necessary share the same
language, but share a set of norms a rules for the use of language. The
statement above is in line with Labov definition of speech community
(1972: 120):
The speech community is not defined by any marked agreement
in the use of language elements, so much as by participation in a
set of shared norms; these norms may be observed in overt types
of evaluative behavior, and by the uniformity of abstract patterns
of variation which are invariant in respect to particular levels of
usage.
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Speech community deals with linguistics similarities and
differences among these speech varieties. Wardaugh (1998:116) argues
that a speech community is no more than some kind of social group whose
speech characteristics are of interest and can be describe in coherent
manner. Meanwhile, Bloomfield as reported in Gumperz (1972:100) says
that linguistics distribution within a social or geographical space is usually
described in term of speech communities.
On the other hand, Gumperz (p.114) stated that a speech
community is any human aggregate characterized by regular frequent
interaction by means of a shared body of verbal sign and set off similar
aggregates by significant differences in language usage. He also adds that
a speech community has a set of rules or system, including their verbal
behavior or language. Because of the system, he further explains that the
language of speech community can be analyzed both within the context of
language itself and also within the boarder contexts of social behavior.
One example of this is the phenomenon of code switching.
From the description above, it could be concluded that speech
community is a group of people who use more than one language or
dialect in their conversation in order to have a convertible setting.
According to the characteristics of speech community, it could be inferred
that people who use code switching in their conversation are membership
of speech community.
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C. Bilingualism
Most people as speakers usually occupy more than one code and
require a selected code whenever they choose to speak with other people.
The phenomenon of people having more than one code (language) is
called bilingualism or multilingualism (Wardaugh, 1986:101).
To clarify the term bilingual or multilingualism, Spolsky (1998:
45) defines a bilingual as “a person who has some functional ability in the
second language.” This may vary from a limited ability in one or more
domains, to very strong command of both languages. According to
Bloomfield (in Rahardi, 2001: 13), bilingualism is a situation where a
speaker can use two languages as well.
Related to speech community, Hamers and Blanc (1987: 45) define
bilingualism as “the state of a linguistic community in which two
languages are in contact with the result that two codes can be used in the
same interaction and that a number of individuals are bilingual”. In
addition, Gumperz (1971: 222) also mentions that bilingual people usually
use their own idioms for in-group communication and the common
language for their interaction and communication with outsiders. In this
case, the bilinguals have a repertoire of domain-related rules of language
choice (Spolsky, 1998 : 46) meaning that bilinguals are able to choose
which language that he is going to use.
Bilingualism could be described in terms of language use.
Weinreich and Mackey as reported in Hamers and Blanc (1987:11) define
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bilingualism as the alternate use of two or more languages by the same
individual. Furthermore, they state that balanced bilinguality should not be
confused with very high degree of competence in the two languages; it is
rather a question of stated of equilibrium reached by the levels of
competence attained in the two languages as it is compared to monolingual
competence.
Bilingualism is normal in many parts of the world and that people
in those parts would view other situation as strange and limiting. A
bilingual situation could produce other effects on one or more the language
choice. Fishman (1972:87) and other sociolinguist strongly believe that the
process of using two languages is very greatly from one region to another
and from person to person, according to the topic, listener and context.
In other words, since the members of a bilingual community vary
in the capacity of mastering the languages used in the community, they
have to be able to set a condition where they can communicate effectively.
This condition leads them to do code switching.
D. Language choice
A code may also refer to a language or variety of language. It can
refer to any kind of system that two or more people employ for
communication (Wardaugh, 1998:86). Moreover, such register, style,
dialect, or variety can be said as a code. Every day we choose a particular
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code to speak with someone else. Many speakers sometimes even switch
language or switch code.
There are many factors that influence people to choose a certain
code. According to Herman (Sumarsono, 2002: 212) in a choice of
language a person has the potential psychological conflict, between:
1. Choose the language (language variety) it’s most convenient for
speakers, allowing the speakers to be himself, and
2. Select the language to identify or tie it to something specific
sociocultural groups in society.
The choice of language very much depends on the factor in the
background situation or by personal needs or by demands of immediate
situation.
Hymes in the article titled Models of Interaction of Language and
Social Life, shows the existence of eight components that influence the
choice of codes considered in the talk. The choice of codes are speech
component, which basically include 1) the place an scenes, 2)participants
recall, 3) destination address, 4) the principal of utterance, 5) tone of the
speech, 6) means that speech, 7)speech norms, 8)the type of greeting.
Hymes also stated that to facilitate the memorization of the speech
component, it provides a model mnemonic speaking rote, following a row
is intended (Kunjana Rahardi 2001: 29):
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1. The setting and scene (S) of speech are important. Setting refers to the
time and place. Scene refers to the abstract psychological setting or the
cultural definition or the occasion.
2. The participation (P). The term participant refers to various
combination of speaker-listener, addressor-addressee, or senderreceiver. They generally fill certain socially specified roles.
3. Ends (E). The term ends refers to conventionally recognized and
expected outcomes of an exchange as well as to the personal goals that
participants seek to accomplish on particular occasion.
4. Act sequence (A). The term act sequence refers to the actual form and
content of what is said such as the precise word used, how they are
used, and relationship of what is said to the actual topic.
5. Key (K). The term key refers to the tone, manner, or spirit in which a
particular message is conveyed: light-hearted, serious, precise,
pedantic, mocking, sarcastic, pompous, and so on.
6. Instrumentalities (I). The term instrumentalities refer to choice of
channel: oral, written, or telegraphic, and to the actual forms of speech
employed, such as the language, code, dialect, or register that is
chosen.
7. Norms of interaction and interpretations (N). The term norms of
interaction and interpretation refers to the specific behaviors and
priorities that attach to speaking and also how these may be viewed by
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someone who does not share them such as loudness, silence, gaze,
return, and so on.
8. Genre (G). The term genre refers to clearly demarcated types of
utterance, such things as poems, proverbs, riddles, sermons, prayers,
lectures, and editorials.
Meanwhile, according to Poedjosoedarmo in Rahardi (2001: 36)
was gotten at least thirteen available component in assertion, that is: 1)
personal the speaker or the first person, 2) the speaker’s view toward the
social position and his relations with the person who was asked to speak,
3) the presence of the third person, 4) the intention and desire to the
speaker, 5) the color of emotions of the speaker, 6) the tone of the
atmosphere spoke, 7) the topic of conversation, 8) the place spoke, 9) the
form of the discourse, 10) means said, 11)the scene said, 12) the
environment said, 13) the other standard linguistically.
Finally it could be said that one chooses a language related to some
factors, such as background, situation, and demanded need in the
immediate situation.
E. Code and Code Switching
Code is a term which refers to a variety. Poedjosoedarmo in
Rahardi (2001:21-22) states that code can be defined as a speech system
and the application of the language element which has specific
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characteristic in line with the speaker’s background, the relationship
between the speaker and interlocutor and the situation. He also adds that
code can be said not only as a language, but also as the varieties of a
language including dialect, undha usuk, and style.
Meanwhile Ronald Wardaugh (1986:101) also maintains that a
code can be defined as “a system used for communication between two or
more parties used on any occasions.” When two or more people
communicate with each other in speech, we can call the system of
communication that they employ a code. Therefore, people are usually
required to select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and
they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes,
sometimes in very short utterances and it means to create a code.
1. Code switching
Living with more than two languages is a normal in many parts of
the world. It is in line with Wardaugh’s opinion (1998:100) that the
ability to shift from one language to another is accepted as quite
normal. He further adds that:
Most speakers command several varieties of any language
they speak, and bilingualism, even multilingualism, is the
norm for many people throughout the world rather than
unbilingualism. People are usually required to select a
particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they
may also decide to switch from one code to another or mix
codes. Even within sometimes very short utterance and
thereby create a new code in a process known as code
switching.
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Similarly, Holmes (1992:44) says that features of bilingual speech
such interference, code mixing, and code switching are normal
phenomenon because bilingual often find it is easier to discuss a
particular topic in one language rather than another. Hoffman
(1991:109) adds that code switching is potentially the most creative
aspect of bilingual speech. This situation may be the basic reasons why
people do code switching in their conversation.
To get clear understanding of code switching, researcher starts this
review of related literature by explaining some definition of code
switching from some sociolinguistics. According to Hoffman
(1991:110) the most general description of code switching is that it
involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistics varieties
within the same utterance or during the same conversation. In similarly
way, Romaine (2000:55) says that code switching is utterances draw to
differing extents on items which come from than one languages and
which are combined in different ways. On other hand, Gall as reported
in Wardaugh (1998:100) code switching is a conversational strategy
used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or
change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.
Meanwhile, Hamers and Blanc (1989:148) give further explanation
about code switching as follows:
Code switching differs from other phenomenon like
borrowing and code mixing because the later involve
deformation or replacement of part of grammar or lexicon
of the language concerned, whereas code switching leaves
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both in fact: furthermore, unlike the other phenomena,
which refer to specialized function, code switching in our
sense is used for a wider range of functions and situation
and obeys socially determined norms prevalent in certain
multilingual communities.
Actually it is not always easy to notice the differences between
borrowing, code switching, and code mixing. Hammers and Blanc
(1989:266) state that borrowing is talking over linguistics form
(usually lexicon items) by one language from another. These words are
called loan words. Loan word can be assigned to the “langue” as
described by Mackey as reported in Hoffman (1991:104-105) on other
hand, who gives definitions of code mixing based on three sources.
First, he concludes from Poplack (1980), McLaughlin (1984), and
Apple and Muysken (1987), that is:
Switches occurring at lexical levels within a sentence
(intra-sentential) are referred to as “code mixes” and “code
mixing”. On the other hand, change over phrases or
sentences are called “code switches” and “code switching”.
Second, Schyter (1980) proposes that code mixing happens when
one uses words or sentences in a wrong language, in a clearly
monolingual situation. Then, the last definition is cited from Redlinger
and Park (1980) who define code switching as the combination of
elements from two languages in a single utterance.
McLaughin, as quoted by Hoffman (1991:110), emphasizes the
difference between code switching in the sense that code mixing takes
place within sentence and usually involves single lexical items while
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code switching is a language change occurring a cross phrase or
sentence boundaries. In contrast to the definition of code mixing
Hammers and Blanc (1989:266) say that code switching is a bilingual
communication strategy consisting of the alternate use of two
languages in the same utterances, even within the same sentences.
2. Types of Code Switching
Wardaugh (1998:103) classify code switching into two types. The
first is situational code switching and the second is metaphorical code
switching. Situational code switching occurs when the languages used
change according to the situations in which the conversant find them:
they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one.
No topic change is involved. When a change of topic requires change
in the language used we have metaphorical code switching. The
interesting point here is that some topics may be discussed in either
code, but the choice of code adds a distinct flavor to what is said about
the topic. The choice encodes certain social values.
Meanwhile, Hoffman (1991:112-113) states that there are four
types of code switching. Those are:
a. Intra-sentential switches, it contains switches within a
sentence. For example;
Jempol tangannya dengan cepat memencet tombol
zoom pada kameranya berkali-kali.
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In this case, speaker switches from Indonesian to English
within a sentence.
b. Inter-sentential switches, the switch occurs between
sentences. For example;
Oscar tersenyum lebar. “Great love story”, ucapnya
sambil tetap tersenyum bangga.
Speaker switches from Indonesia to English between
sentences.
c. Establishing continuity switches, this kind of code
switching occurs to continue the utterance of the previous
speaker, as when one Indonesian speaker speaks in English
and then the other speaker tries to respond in English also.
As the example:
Speaker 1: Sayang, besok kita nonton yuk..Luv U…
Speaker 2: Oke. Love you juga. Sampai besok..
d. Emblematic switching. In this kind of code switching, tags,
exclamation and certain set phrases in one language are
inserted into an utterance otherwise in another. Example:
Oke, gue emang datang ke Soda, so what??
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3. Social Factors of Language Switching
So far, there have been several linguists who has some outlined
reasons for code switching. Suwito in Susanto (2007:7) classifies the
factors into six points:
a. The speakers
Having position as speakers may motivate the members of social
interaction to convey his crucial personal purposes.
b. The interlocutors
The presence of interlocutors may motivate speaker as the
members of social interaction to change from their use of one
language to the languages use by the interlocutor.
c. The presence of the participants
Sometimes two speakers who participate in speech interaction have
to change their language, for reason of the presence of participants
who come from different languages group.
d. The topic discussion
Topic discussion comprised formal and informal topics. It may be
operated by changing from one language into another or from one
style of language into another.
e. Humorous usage
Language-switching may also applicable when people have
initiative to convey humorous expression. It can be shown from the
lane switching operated by clowns, jokers, etc.
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f. Prestigious usage
Naturally, some members of social community want to be regarded
as intellectual people, high class group. They tend to show their
identification by operating language-switching which is done by
changing from common language to scientific language though is
just term.
On other hand, Hoffman (1991:115-116) adds the number of reasons for
bilingual or multilingual person to switch or mix their languages. Those are:
a. Talking about a particular topic
People sometimes prefer to talk about a particular topic in one
language rather than in another. Sometimes, a speaker feels free
and more comfortable to express his/her emotional feelings in a
language that is not his/her everyday language.
b. Quoting somebody else
A speaker switches code to quote a famous expression, proverb, or
saying of some well-known figures. The switch involves just the
words that the speaker is claiming the quoted person said. The
switch like a set of quotation marks. In Indonesian, those well
known figures are mostly from some English-speaking countries.
Then, because many of the Indonesian people nowadays are good
in English, those famous expressions or sayings can be quoted
intact in their original language.
c. Being emphatic about something
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As usual, when someone who is talking using a language that is not
his native language suddenly wants to be emphatic about
something, he either intentionally or unintentionally, will switch
from his second language to his first language. Or, on the other
hand, he switches from his second language to his first language
because he feels more convenient to be emphatic in his second
language rather that in his first language.
d. Inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors (interjection)
Interjection is words or expressions, which are inserted into a
sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention.
Interjection is a short exclamation like: Darn!, Hey!, Well!, Look!,
etc. They have no grammatical value, but speaker uses them quite
often, usually more in speaking than in writing. Language
switching and language mixing among bilingual or multilingual
people can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence connector.
It may happen unintentionally.
e. Repetition used for clarification
When a bilingual or multilingual person wants to clarify his speech
so that it will be understood better by listener, he can sometimes
use both of the languages (codes) that he masters to say the same
message. Frequently, a message in one code is repeated in the other
code literally. A repetition is not only served to clarify what is said,
but also to amplify or emphasize a message.
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f. Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor
When bilingual or multilingual person talks to another
bilingual/multilingual, there will be lots of code switching and
code mixing occurs. It means to make the content of his speech
runs smoothly and can be understood by the listener. A message in
one code is repeated in the other code in somewhat modified form.
g. Expressing group identity
Code switching and code mixing can also be used to express group
identity. The way of communication of academic people in their
disciplinary groupings, are obviously different from the other
groups. In other words, the way of communication of one
community is different from the people who are out of the
community.