Chapter 13
Critical Cultural Theory
Chapter Summary
This chapter introduces key concepts from critical cultural theory by (1) examining the
philosophy of Karl Marx, (2) discussing ways in which ideological apparatuses can impact our
understanding of ourselves and others, (3) exploring critical race theory, and (4) critiquing
gender theory. These different traditions within critical cultural theory have in common that they
question assumptions and beliefs that are taken for granted. Ideas that can pass as common sense
suppositions can be called hegemonic.
The Marxist Critique
Karl Marx provided insightful critiques of capitalism as it was emerging in Europe. The Matrix
movie series is a good metaphor for Marxist social thought as it illustrates a system of control.
Marx understood society to be a conflict between the ruling class, the bourgeoisie, and the
working class, the proletariat. The exploitation of the proletariat by the bourgeoisie is possible
because the latter controls the means of production while the proletariat has nothing to sell but its
labor. Marxists denounce the dehumanization of the working class that has no control over what
is produced and in which conditions. Through this process, Marxists argue that workers are
alienated from their labor. The ruling class is also alienated as it does no labor and seeks out
identities in the form of consumption of commodities. This is called commodity fetishism.
Karl Marx’s theory is an early form of structuralism, which postulates that while social
phenomena vary, the underlying structures are similar. The aim of revealing the structures
underlying social, political, and economic systems is called “critique.” Marx began by
distinguishing the base or substructure and the superstructure of a society. The superstructure
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher
© Taylor & Francis 2015
is made up of mechanisms to influence individuals’ behaviors violently or ideologically. The
Marxist theorist Althusser refers to violent methods of social control as repressive state
apparatuses, and ideological methods as ideological state apparatuses. Repressive state
apparatuses are overt strategies of repression that are not effective in the long-term. Ideological
state apparatuses are covert ways of controlling individuals through ideology by manipulating
what they regard as real. Getting people to accept one reality as the truth is a process Marxists
call interpellation. Therborn (1980) argued that ideology functions on three levels by defining
(1) what exists, (2) what is good, and (3) what is possible.
Critical Theory
In the twentieth century, the members of the Frankfurt School developed Marx’s thoughts in
important ways, leading to the emergence of critical theory. Some of the main characteristics of
critical theory are that (1) it is multidisciplinary, (2) it is used to produce changes and
improvements in the condition of human kind, and (3) it is ongoing and reflexive. All critical
approaches focus on practical implications rather than abstract theorizing. In communication
studies, the emphasis put on praxis unfolds along three lines: (1) consciousness raising, (2)
contemporary orientation, and (3) centering the margins.
One of the most important extensions of critical theory is postmodernism, which, for instance,
includes critical race theory, critical feminist theory, and critical queer theory. Critical race
theory emphasizes race over class conflict. Postcolonialism looks at communications practices
from the perspective of colonized and previously colonized people. Critical race theory pays
attention to racism, which can be understood as prejudice plus power. Discrimination is another
important concept though contemporary critical theorists prefer the word privilege to cast light
on covert discrimination.
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher
© Taylor & Francis 2015
Poststructuralist scholar Foucault had a strong influence on the study of knowledge, or
epistemology. Foucault examined the formation of knowledge and power through discursive
practices. Foucault’s approach applies to gender theory broadly. Contemporary approaches to
gender theory are deconstructionist. That is, they set out to break down discourses through
which knowledge leading to the oppression of people is constructed. Feminists want to expose
ideologies that do not take women seriously—such as misogyny—and that promote men while
undermining women—such as patriarchy. Three waves of feminism can be identified in the US.
The first wave (1848–1928) fought for women’s enfranchisement, the second wave (1961–
1986) focused on the removal of legal obstacles to gender equality, the third wave (since the
1990s) broadened the goals of the movements to include gay, transgender, and women-of-color
rights. Feminism has long distinguished between sex and gender, sex referring to biological
attributes gender referring to socially constructed attributes and practices associated with a
particular sex. Butler’s theory is particularly important in communication studies since it
emphasizes the importance of reverse discourse, or counter-narratives, to challenge hegemonic
norms. Like other critical approaches, critical gender theory regards identity as being
performative (what we do) rather than essential (who we are).
Understanding Communication Theory, by Stephen Croucher
© Taylor & Francis 2015