Leila Farahbod 1 , Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University
L.farahbod@gmail.com
:
The present research provides a detailed description of Persepolis, one of the greatest and most impressive monuments of ancient history of Iran, which is in fact a symbol of Iranian national art and architecture and then discusses the Achaemenides, the dynasty that constructed its monument. One of the craftworks of the Achaemenides, one of the strongest dynasties in
Iranian history, is a container known as Rhyton. Rhyton was in fact a grail that Achaemenian kings used to drink. Indeed, rhyton is a container into which liquids are poured. The structure of rhyton is combined with body of animals such as lion. Lion represents the symbolic concept of vigor, bravery, protection and safeguarding. Hence, the Achaemenian kings applied it to many containers, engravings and stone column caps. Rhytons and statues crafted using polyester and inspired by Achaemenian art are transformed into their original petrified form through patination method, as discussed in detail in this paper.
Keywords : Persepolis, Achaemenides, Lion Rhyton, Symbolic Lion, Patina, Lithic Patination.
1 Address: Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Eastern Mediterranean University, Famagusta,
North Cyprus
Cell Phone: +98-912-612-6656, Iran Mobile Network

Persepolis is counted as one of the most architecturally significant heritage sites in the history of Persia, and its grandeur is renowned all around the globe (Aminzadeh 2006). It was the ceremonial capital, a national shrine and a very special site for spring festivals particularly during the reign of Achaemenid Empire (Ghirshman 1976) (Godard 1962) (Olmsted 1948).
Celebrating special events such as Nowrooz was one of the reasons behind the construction of
Persepolis. Achaemenian monarchs were enthusiastic about showing their majesty by possessing such a gigantesque and prominent monument (Herzfeld 1941) (Koch 1996).
From a literal point of view, Persepolis means the city of Persians in ancient Greek language.
As well, it was considered as the largest monument in the whole world between 550 and 330
B.C. (Woods 2008, 8 - 26). Construction of Persepolis dates back to the time of Cyrus the Great
(about 600 B.C.) (Dandamaev 1989, 373), and development of its monuments continued during the reign of Darius (Guaitoli. M.T. 2002, 164). Persepolitan architecture is a particular style which is classified by architects as an Achaemenid architectural design.
The application of unique designs and materials for interior and exterior decorations, e.g. wooden columns and stone engravings, was to impress the viewers, especially those visiting from other empires (E. E. Herzfeld 1932). Palaces, stairways, columns, underlying footing, and entrance gates are formed majestically in an area of 125 thousand square meters. Even though
Persepolis was not the capital, it was the place of the main imperial treasury during the King
Darius reign (Schmidt 1939). Stone reliefs in Persepolis are very well-known in the images published around the globe. These carved reliefs present a variety of scenes ranging from throne sitting ceremonies to predator hunting scene. These scenes are pictured on very large walls around the base platform of the site (Mousavi 2012, 5, 18, 89). Iranians use small sample carvings made of different materials as decorative elements for different parts of interior and

exterior building sections. Figures 1 and 2 show an overview of Persepolis and a close view of
Persepolis columns, respectively.
Figure 1: Panoramic View of Persepolis (stockholm 2013)
Figure 2: The remaining column caps of Persepolis (Krapf 2009)
Iranian art has far been a piece of work applied to monuments which have been constructed as national symbols. Not only used for decoration purposes, it is also deemed to be an indication of discipline as well as a proof of scientific and technical capabilities of our ancestors.
Persepolis was a place to welcome envoys from various nations, who were sent in order to make decisions and come up with unity of procedure with regards to public issues and interests.
The Persepolis was in fact a “National Dialectic Assembly”, an “Association of Elites”, a

“Council”, a “Parliament” or in a broader sense, the “United Nations” (Moradi-Ghias-Abadi,
2000).
The engraved reliefs of the 23 panels of representatives of nations on the eastern front of the
Apadana Palace can be considered as a proof for this assertion, since the appearance of these reliefs suggest them to be ordinary people from the sapient stratum, not the aristocrat representatives []. This public attendance has been acknowledged by Xerxes 1 (519-465 BC) in his inscriptions, such that the entrance gate of Persepolis is referred to as the “Gateway to
All Nations”. This suggests that people from different nations used to enter the Persepolis in the course of Achaemenides dynasty.
Neither a regal building, a military fortress, an inventory of jewelries, a large sanctuary, a place for Norooz festivities, a domicile, nor a harem could not have attracted the different ethnicities from a variety of nations. Instead, it is a representative of our ancestors seeking a certain objective by opting for national dialectic as a means of relying on their most glamorous monument. That objective was to make all nations think of Persepolis as their home while admiring it for its important role in representing national Iranian identity (Moradi-Ghias-Abadi,
2000) . Indeed, it was one of the most important reasons behind the construction of Persepolis.
Alexander the Great initially plundered the Persepolis with thorough scrutiny before setting it on fire. He believed that as long as such a fabulous building remained resolute, the Iranian spirit would live on, making it difficult for him to be dominated.
As Greek historian Quintus Curtius Rufus (41-54 AD
2
) mentions in his book: The Alexander the Great’s troops plundered Persepolis, tore the exquisite clothes into pieces, demolished heavyweight sculptures, column caps and stone reliefs to take possession of the dilapidated
2 Quintus Curtius Rufus was a Roman historian, written probably during the reign of the Emperor
Claudius (41–54 AD) or Vespasian (Fagan, 2004).

parts, and destroyed glorious thrones to heist their pieces of ivory and expensive jewelry. They destroyed whatever they were unable to take away with themselves.
They threw their torches over the 873 columns of Persepolis to set on fire to a building that had taken 190 years to construct through collaboration and synergy of Iranian people (Moradi-
Ghias-Abadi, 2000).
This glorious complex was built and completed in the course of Achaemenides rein. The significance of Achaemenides Empire in the Iranian history originates from its political and industrial development during the ancient Persia (Dandamaev 1989, 2, 9, 20 - 27) (Tuplin 2007,
40, 59). Achaemenides ruled the Iranian Plateau between 550 and 330 BC (Waters 2014, 5).
The founder of the empire was Cyrus the Great (Cook 1983, 44).
The impact of Achaemenides on Iranian culture has lasted for a very long time (Groisser 1970,
17). Not only the majesty and glory of this dynasty has evidently been magnified in Persian historical studies, it has been highlighted in studies conducted by non-Iranian scholars and visitors as well. In particular, ancient Greek history has been greatly influenced by
Achaemenides. Indeed, the wars between these two great empires of that time in the Eastern and Western parts of the ancient world caused severe changes to be made in the history
(Vogelsang 1992, 54). Achaemenides used to deal with the issues involving labors and soldiers professionally by taking an approach similar to that adopted in today’s world (Farrokh 2007).
An Achaemenian soldier’s style symbolizes a guard on duty at the entrance of a building (Cook
1983, 102). This pattern is today used in Iranian building architecture, making the viewer imagine it as a symbolic means of protecting the building. Similarly, Achaemenids used lion sculptures in both sides of entrance gates so as to transfer the same sense to the viewer.
In addition to lions, bulls, eagles, dogs or rams are also recurrently found in the sculptures and reliefs of Persepolis, each of which demonstrates their peculiar symbolic concepts. Moreover,

representatives of different nations are carved on these reliefs. The nationality of these representatives can be identified through their clothing, headgear and even the style of their beard. The lotus flower, morning glory, rosette, branches of pomegranate tree and the cypress tree are among the plants found in the engravings of Persepolis, as shown in figures 3 and 4
(Hicks, 1975). Furthermore, figure 6 presents the engraving of representatives from different countries along with a lion biting a bull which is a symbol of change of seasons as well as the cypress tree which is an indicative of eternity and the lotus flower that represents genesis.
Persepolis is replete with several engravings each accounting a story full of symbolic concepts and legendary stories.
Figure 3: Engravings on the walls of
Persepolis with ram as the accompanying animal (Hicks, 1975)
Figure 4: Engravings on the walls of
Persepolis with cypress tree (Hicks, 1975)

Figure 5: Engraving of representatives from different countries along with a lion biting a bull which is a symbol of change of seasons (britannica, 2015)
Golden rhytons remaining from Achaemenides dynasty symbolize monarchs’ drinking as well as joyful and glorious gatherings (Lipiński 1995, 119). Rhytons were drinking containers typically with a shape of an animal in the bottom that used to be mostly utilized in the ancient ceremonies (Oxford 2010). Rhyton originated in Persia and became popular in the ancient
Greece after Achaemenides conquered the Greek troops in the battle. Their soldiers took silver and golden rhytons as trophies and, as a result, such a container became common for drinking
(Mohseni 1996).
The art of rhyton crafting dates back to 6000 B.C. and it was well-developed during the
Achaemenides reign (Ebbinghaus 1998). The cultural influence of bilateral confrontations

between the two neighboring empires, Achaeminds and Greeks, was comprised of a broad range of issues. The art of rhyton crafting is a concrete example of such cultural interaction
(Curtis 2005, 4, 154, 170). Rhyton had a certain especial position in the art of Achaemenian kingdom as it symbolized a sort of extremism and Corinthianism (Stern 1982). In general,
Achaemenian had a kind of luxurious and glorious taste in their architecture and handicraft industry.
Rythons are sometimes along with animals such as lions, rams, bulls, horses, but the present manuscript emphasizes the use of lion sculpture in rython crafting, which is somehow more common in this industry.
Since sculpture of lion on an artistic object indicates potency and instills a spirit of authority and command over a large group or territory, kings have been interested in placing lion sculpture next to these containers , as shown in figure 6 (Ebbinghaus 1998). Not only can lion sculptures be seen in the rythons, they can be observed in engravings and column caps of
Persepolis, as well.
Figure 6: Achaeminid golden rhyton, city of Hamedan (Curtis 2005, 121)
Figure 7: Lion as the column cap remaining from Persepolis (wikimedia,
2014)

Lion is an animal commonly used in a large number of images or flags. From astronomy to a hunting scene, the concept of lion has not been changed in diverse cultures around the globe over the course of history. Presence of such an animal in an image mainly displays strength
(Willis 1994). When merged with other natural elements, it may, however, imply different meanings. Lion mostly wins battles and, thus, most monarchs have been interested in using its spirit in their royal flags and handicrafts. A lion in a conquering situation symbolizes a military power (Hartner 1964). Furthermore, it is also a symbol of the Resurrection and regal power or the goddess (Werness 2006, 255, 256, 259).
The term “Patina” has a controversial application that is used to refer to either industrial artistic coating or alteration of the appearance of an object (Piccardo 2013) (Goidanich 2011). Use of such a technique has been prevailed for a long time in different parts of the world from Europe to Far East Asia insomuch as there are some several cases remaining from ancient history
(Margolis 1989). There are aesthetic ancient artifacts in which high technology of patina has been used in order to protect marble against harsh weather conditions (Ulens 1994). From an archeological point of view, this technique helps transform objects composed of low cost materials like stones, so that they may resemble prehistoric prestigious objects (Goodwin 1960)
(Lazzarini 1989).
Even among modern glazing techniques, artist employs patina to astonishingly change the object’s impression on the viewer in a way that they may desire (Brandi 1950). This kind of
"faux 3
finishing" or "faux painting" on the stone is studied in the present article. The objective of the whole artistic process is to create an ordinary object that seems like a natural valuable
3 Faux is here defined as imitating and finishing as beginning the process and completing it. For instance, polyester or wood is patinated in a way that it resembles marble stone.

historical artifact. In other words, a newly stone-made object will be changed to simulate antiquity. Such an object has become very popular in the luxury /decorative object shops in
Middle Eastern Bazar and among Iranian antique sellers, in particular. All the features such as the method of painting and finishing on the object are chosen by the artist based on market demand or specific artistic and aesthetical objectives (Theatre 2012) (Vazquez-Calvo 2007)
Stone Patination Method Applied to Simulated Objects of Persepolis
Several kinds of crafted rhytons in form of different animals (e.g. lions and goats) are presented in figure 8. They had just been removed from their molds and were ready to be patinated
4
. The crafting of these rhytons has been inspired by the column caps of Persepolis. The major material constituting these rhytons is polyester resin.
The sample selected for patination is a lion statue Rython pertaining to the Achaemenides period. Figure 9 also presents the unmolded sample of a rhyton, along with its wings and base that are patinated and attached to the rhyton following the patination process.
4 The author hereby would like to acknowledge the great contributions of Mr. Esfandiar Imanzadeh who was so generous to reveal the tips and tricks of his patination techniques. Mr. Imanzadeh’s works are not only the best of their kind in the Iran domestic market, but his works have been subject to widespread distribution outside Iran making him famous as an international artist. He is considered as one of the most successful exporters of artifacts to the international market. Also, special thank goes to Ms. Maliheh Eftekhari who assisted the author with presentation of patination method as shown in the pictures.

Figure 8: Different unmolded rhytons with heads of lions and goats(© Leila Farahbod)
Figure 9: Unmolded lion rhyton(©
Leila Farahbod)
In the first stage of patination, the internal and external parts of the unmolded statue are covered with black color. In order to come up with a monotonous color, this procedure should not be carried out with a brush but a compressed air color spraying pistol needs to be used which requires skilled application and experience. As the statue itself is white and that we are about to make it an antiquated stone, it needs to be colored black. The black color causes shadows which are supposed to be fallen on the black color to make the object resemble a stone. The black background is needed as the objective of this process is to come up with a patinated statue. The coloration is insufficient for once as it needs to be performed at least twice in order to achieve the desirable coloration. Concentration of the black dye should neither be so diluted that it spills over the pistol nor too thick that it cannot be sprayed out of the pistol. Paint thinner can be used in order to control the dilution of the dye. This dilution control is carried out based mainly on a personal experience. Figures 10 and 11 show black-painting process.

Figure 10: Coloration of rhyton in black color using compressed air pistol(© Leila
Farahbod)
Figure 11: Coloration of rhyton in black color using compressed air pistol(© Leila
Farahbod)
When the black color is dried out, a grey dye (instant dye) is diluted with petrol and some droplets of black and brown dyes are added to the mixture in order to make a mellower color.
Addition of the latter dyes helps create an antiquated and ancient coloration, as presented in figure 12.
In order to avoid leaving any fingerprints on the rhyton in this stage of the process, the internal part of the rhyton is first colored followed by the coloration of the external section, as shown in figures 12 and 13. The coloration at this stage only takes place once with an extremely diluted dye using a broader brush compared to the one used for black color. The more diluted the dye, the better patination the artist comes up with. It should be ensured that the color is dried out before taking on the next step. Focusing on all the details will result in a perfect patination.

Figure 12: Coloring inside of the rhyton Figure 13: coloring outside of the ryton in in grey(© Leila Farahbod) grey(© Leila Farahbod)
A mixture of sodium carbonate (white colored), calcium carbonate (yellow colored) and ocher
(either red or brown colored) powders is prepared in a separate container, as shown in figure
14. The proportion of sodium carbonate to calcium carbonate in the mixture is equal to 1/5, that is, for 1 small cup of sodium carbonate, 5 small cups of calcium carbonate are added to the mixture. The amount of ocher used in coloration depends on how much the artist seeks to use either of red or brown colors. These powders are applied using a broad brush. Due to the adhesion characteristic of the grey dye brushed on the rython and the relatively high adhesion among the calcium carbonate powder grains as well as among the sodium carbonate powder grains, these powders penetrate the pores and cracks existing on the rhyton, resulting in a patinated and archaic appearance, the most important stage of the patination process. The

process of applying the powders also begins with brushing of the internal part since it take longer for the inner side to dry out as air flow occurs less in the inner side of the rython than in the outer side. Figures 15 and 16 present powdering process on the outside of the rython.

Figure 14: mixture of sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, and ocher powders(© Leila
Farahbod)
Figure 15: Applying the powders mixture to the rhyton to create an archaic appearance
(©Leila Farahbod)
Figure 16: Applying the powders mixture to the rhyton to create an archaic appearance(© Leila Farahbod)
The next stage may be initiated right away where the excess powder grains on the rhyton are removed by either a piece of cloth or a compressed air pistol. The internal part of the rhyton requires more precision since any inaccuracy would result in spattered and tainted appearance of the final product. A piece of cloth is used at this stage to polish the rhyton as the more it is polished, the more antiquated the appearance would be.

The wing and base of the statue are separately patinated in a similar way and then attached to the rhyton body using a polyester resin, as presented in figures 17 and 18. The reason behind the use of polyester is the fact that the statue itself is made mainly of polyester mixed with a hardener acid. The noteworthy point is that in case the amount of hardener exceeds the normal value, the adhesion would take place sooner than expected. But if this amount is increased by mistake, not only does it lose its cohesive characteristic, but also steam is created due to the occurrence of an immediate chemical reaction. Care should be taken to avoid leaving any fingerprints on the object at this stage. Figure 19 presents a completed and patinated rhyton.
Figure 17: Adding attachments; wings(© Leila Farahbod)
Figure 18: Adding attachments; base(©
Leila Farahbod)

Figure 19: Final Product; Patianted Rhyton(© Leila Farahbod)
Part of the area of unmolded objects is marked with a thin line that is created due to the seam created by the connection of the two parts of the mold, even though the artist tries his best to shift these lines to those sections that are less visible. Following the black coloration of the object in the first stage, the mold line is gently scraped by means of a small angle grinder, as shown in figure 20.

Figure 20: Scraping the mold line (© Leila Farahbod)
When the materials are poured into the mold, some pores are created inside the mold. The main reason behind the creation of such cavities may be either inappropriate material mixing process, poor chemical reactions between the materials or quick pouring of materials. These pores appear as empty holes on the object. The same materials as those used to make the statue itself are applied to fill the cavities (figure 21). Some of the statues studied in this research are made of black polyester, paint thinner, hardener acid and black carbon (paste paint or dye powder).
Then a tiny brush is used to apply the mixture to the cavities created on the object by the molding process. This stage is called “cavity-filling” which is different for each statue according to the materials of which the statue is made.

Figure 21: Filling the cavities using materials similar to those of the statue itself(© Leila
Farahbod)
Another supplementary stage includes the attachment of statue to its base. First, a drill bit is used to pierce the base (figure 22). Then, a rod used to connect the punctured base to the statue is dipped into the base and is attached to it using a glue made of a mixture of polyester and acid
(figure 23). Next, the statue is pierced by means of the drill bit and the rod is connected on the one end to the statue using the same glue and to the base on the other end, as presented in figures 24 and 25.

Figure 22: Piercing the base
(© Leila Farahbod)
Figure 23: Rod is connected on one end to the statue using aquarium sealant
(© Leila Farahbod)
Figure 24: Drilling the statue
(© Leila Farahbod)
Figure 25: Attachment of base and statue via the rod(© Leila Farahbod)

An aquarium sealant is then used to stick the identity label of the statue to its base, as shown in figure 26. Made of metal, the label usually includes the name of statue, date of its historical era, and, sometimes, the name of the manufacturing company.
Figure 26: Sticking the label to the base(© Leila Farahbod)
The final stage includes corduroying the underneath the base. To this end, the underneath the base is initially brushed with black oil paint. Then, the black velvet powder is sieved to come up with the fine grains before it is uniformly sprayed onto the underneath the base. A corduroyed surface is created after 2-3 hours. Next, a gasoline-drenched cloth is used in order to polish the corduroyed bottom of the sculpture (figure 27). The cloth should not contact the statue itself during this stage.

Figure 27: Creating the corduroyed surface of underneath the base(© Leila Farahbod)
Some of the products manufactured in this workroom are presented in figures 28 and 29. Figure
28 presents a statue which has been designed inspired by the column caps of Persepolis. The height of the original columns in the structure reaches up to 20m.
Sphinx is an ancient Egyptian stone statue of a creature with a human head and the body of a lion lying down (Oxford, 2014), with the head inspired by other creatures such as animals including lions, eagles and bulls. These sphinx are found on the engravings and top of the column caps of Persepolis. The footstall of columns is decorated with engravings of morning glory and palm leaves. Figure 29 shows the patinated statue of the Ahaemenian king, Darius I.

Figure 28: Column caps inspired by Figure 29: Darius I, the Achaemenian
Persepolis(© Leila Farahbod) King(© Leila Farahbod)
Figure 30 presents a sphinx consisting of human head, bull body and eagle wings. This patinated statue draws inspiration from the original ones found at the entrances of Persepolis.
Such statues were symbolically used as guardians on either side of the entrances. This would make people entering the palace feel the building is safeguarded symbolically.
In a region called “Khorvin” in the province of Alborz, Iran (google, 2015) some containers have been discovered, dated back to 2800-3200 years ago and belonging to the Achaemenian era. Khorvin is located 80 km northwest of Tehran, the capital city of Iran. The patinated containers in figure 31 are identified as having the same name as those of Khorvin region.
Majority of these containers have an elongated spout and some lack the handle (Farahbod,
2003).

Figure 30: sphinx consisting of human head, bull body and eagle wings, inspired by Persepolis engravings(© Leila Farahbod)
Figure 31: Patination of containers in
Achaemenian style(© Leila Farahbod)

Persepolis literally means the city of Persians in ancient Greek language and was the largest monument in the whole world between 500 and 330 B.C. Construction of Persepolis dates back to the reign of Cyrus the Great (about 600 B.C) who was the founder of Achaemenid Empire.
The significance of Achaemenid Empire in Iranian history originates from its political and industrial development during the ancient Persia. Parts of column caps, engravings, jewelries, several objects and containers such as Rhytons have remained since the reign of Achaemenides.
Rhytons were drinking containers typically with the shape of an animal in the bottom that used to serve mostly for drinking in the ancient ceremonies. The rhytons remaining from those times are, in fact, type of sphinx, in the form of lions that symbolized glory, grandeur and power. In this research, rhytons, sculptures, and containers crafted in Persepolis style were simulated to petrify appearance of Persepolis using patination method. Patination calls for numerous details and delicate hand-working so that it may convey the feeling of originality to the viewer. Since
Persepolis is the national symbol of Iran, it seems reasonable to keep patinated sculptures, rhytons or containers in our homes to serve as reminiscent of this glamorous monument. Such objects are exported to foreign countries and is considered one of the best gifts to offer as a symbol of Iranian art and architecture. In the first stage of the present research, the whole process of patination along with full details was discussed. In the next stage, the intricacies of the patination art were described. Both of the stages aforementioned were supported by stepby-step images taken from products of a workhouse. Indeed, patination is a magical art by which to convert anything made of any materials to any desirable thing with any desirable appearance. In the present work, a polyester-made sculpture was converted to a stone-likeappearance using patination crafting art. It was also possible to convert a plaster sculpture or wall into a marble stone using such a magical art.

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